「非人會說話嗎？」：台灣的生態政治與動保行動 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 National Chengchi University College of Social Sciences International Master Program in Asia-Pacific Studies. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. ‧ er. io. sit. y. Nat. 「非人會說話嗎？」：台灣的生態政治與動保行動. n. a lSpeak?”: Eco-politics “Can the Nonhuman i v and the Animal Ch. n engchi U. Protection Movement in Taiwan. Student: Gina G. Song-Lopez Advisor: Professor Tang, Ching-Ping 中華民國 106 年 2 月.

(2) Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support of so many people. I would like to begin by expressing my biggest gratitude to my thesis advisor, Professor Tang Ching-Ping. Muchisimas gracias for supporting my ideas, encouraging me to think harder, and for your patience and guidance throughout this journey. To my thesis committee members: Professor Shaw Jien-Ming, gracias for your helpful comments and encouraging words to pursue this thesis to completion. Professor Fu Kai-Jo, gracias for your interest in this project and for your input to improve it. I hope that this research can make a contribution to leaving a better world for the little human on the way. Gracias to Dr. Chiou Fang-Yi at Academia Sinica for his support and interest in my academic endeavors.. 政治大. THANK YOU to the activists from Vegan 30 Days and Effective Altruism who welcomed me into their events and provided me with key material to make this thesis possible. Jiayou!. 立. ‧ 國. 學. To the animal advocacy NGOs: EAST, TAEA, TSPCA, and PETA for kindly answering all my enquiries. Keep on the good work!. ‧. A mi padres y hermano, gracias por bancarme. Agon, Ama, Shūshu, xièxiè nínmen de zhīchí.. io. n. al. er. Finally, I need to express a huge thank you to my academic fam:. sit. y. Nat. I would also like to acknowledge my abuelita for being a role model to me. I aspire to be as courageous and kind as you when I grow up.. i n U. v. Arigato to my sempai Martin El Gris for being an intellectual inspiration. To Bryn for being my thesis panic buddy. To the IMAS sitcom stars Lucy, James, Jeremy, Mark, and all the other characters. 5/7 would watch this show on Netflix. To the people at the IMAS office for supporting me and feeding me candy.. Ch. engchi. To Lars and Do for being amazing housemates. To Sharif and Jorge for the shenanigans. To Jon for teaching me how to hug trees. “So long, and thanks for all the fish!”1 Keep on Rockin’. 1. See: Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams, good read.. ii.

(3) Abstract The title of this thesis is a reference to Spivak’s famous essay: Can the Subaltern Speak?2 By introducing the concept of the nonhuman in the context of this question, this action seeks to highlight the characteristic silence surrounding the inclusion of nature and animals in mainstream socio-political discussions. In the East Asian context this rings true due to the relatively limited scholarship on animal advocacy dynamics in the region. Taiwan is one such example where in spite of its increasing visibility and effectiveness, the animal protection movement has received little attention in relation to its growing. 政治大. influence in the eco-political landscape of the country. This thesis examines the emergence of animal protection rationales in Taiwan as an example of a ‘New Social. 立. Movement’ (NSM), and explores the mobilization dynamics employed by animal. ‧ 國. 學. advocacy groups engaged in the transformation of socio-natural relationships. For this purpose, this thesis applies Jürgen Habermas’ ‘system-lifeworld’ framework as advanced. ‧. in his work on NSMs based on The Theory of Communicative Action. The findings indicate that animal protection consciousness in Taiwan arose from a new area of. sit. y. Nat. conflicts in the socio-natural space due to economic industrialization. At the same time, the convergence of Buddhist Modernism and Animal Ethics has resulted in the emergence. io. er. of distinctive identities based on animal protection, and more recently the spread of. al. n. iv n C U discourses to address humancommunicative action play a centralhrole in advancing en g c h i new veganism in the country. Counter institutions established from these processes of. nonhuman interests. Therefore, the Animal Protection Movement in Taiwan is an increasingly prominent element in the eco-political landscape of the country. Future. inquiry should pay closer attention to such developments in the East Asian context. Here, insights from the case of Taiwan’s animal advocacy provide a relevant starting point.. Key Terms: Animal Protection, Animal Rights, Animal Welfare, Eco-politics, Speciesism, Veganism, System-Lifeworld.. 2. Spivak, G.C. (1996 [1985]). Subaltern Studies. Deconstructing Historiography. In D. Landry and G. MacLean (Eds.), The Spivak Reader. London: Routledge.. iii.

(4) Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... ii Abstract .................................................................................................................... iii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................... vi List of Figures .......................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ........................................................................................................... vi 1. Introduction........................................................................................................1 1.1 Political Animals ..............................................................................................1 1.2 The Rise of Animal Protection Rationales in Taiwan ......................................2 1.3 Research Purpose and Scope ............................................................................3 1.3.1 Terminology. ..................................................................................................5 1.4 Research Questions ..........................................................................................7 1.5 Analytical Framework ......................................................................................7 1.5.1 New Social Movements ....................................................................................8 1.6 Chapter Organization......................................................................................12. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 2. 政治大. ‧. Literature Review and Integration ................................................................14 2.1 Humans, animals, and spaces .........................................................................14. sit. y. Nat. 2.1.2 Democracy, civil society & new actors. ...................................................................... 15 2.1.3 Institutionalizing nature. .............................................................................................. 17 2.1.3 Animal ethics & law. ................................................................................................... 18 2.1.4 Animal governance. ..................................................................................................... 19. al Methodology .....................................................................................................23 iv n 3.1 A Habermasian Immaterial Approach .........................23 CEco-Centric Cultural U n. 3. er. io. 2.2 The Eco-Political Landscape: So where are the animals? .............................21. hengchi. 3.2 Primary Sources .............................................................................................................. 24 3.2.1 Participant-observation. ............................................................................................... 24 3.2.2 Interviews. .................................................................................................................... 25 3.2.3 Social Media Analysis. ................................................................................................ 26. 3.3 Secondary Sources..........................................................................................28 4. Findings.............................................................................................................29 4.1 About Animals: Representing the non-human ...............................................29 4.2 Welfare, Kindness, and Rights .......................................................................30 4.3 “Going Vegan” ...............................................................................................33 4.4 A New Social Movement ...............................................................................37 4.4.1 New conflicts. .............................................................................................................. 39 4.4.2 Emancipation and resistance. ....................................................................................... 41 4.4.3 Between the system and the life-world. ....................................................................... 45 iv.

(5) 5. The Case of Taiwan’s Animal Protection Movement ..................................49 5.1 Advocating for Animals: “Some we love, some we hate, some we eat” .......49 5.2 On Cats and Dogs ...........................................................................................52 5.2.1 Love/kindness versus welfare/rights. ........................................................................... 52 5.2.2 The costs of being cute. ............................................................................................... 54 5.2.3 Counter-institutions...................................................................................................... 56 5.2.4. From communicative action to policy imperatives. .................................................... 58. 5.3 Animal Welfare Indicators .............................................................................60 6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................64 6.1 Contributions, Reflections, and Future Research ..........................................66 6.2 Limitations ......................................................................................................70. 政治大 Appendix ................................................................................................................. vi 立 A Field Notes ....................................................................................................... vi References ...............................................................................................................72. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. A.1 Movie Screening: “Cowspiracy”. .................................................................. vi A.2 Demonstration/Awareness Raising Campaign (Weekly activity). ............... vii A.3 Vegan ‘Youth’ Convention (Featuring: Dr. Will Tuttle - Vegan speaker). viii A.4 Animal Rights Week - National Taiwan University. ................................. ix A.5 Shida Animal Rights Club Talk. ................................................................... ix A.6 Animal Ethics Discussion. ...............................................................................x A.7 Fourth “Taiwan Vegan Frenzy” (Fair). ......................................................... xi B Interviews........................................................................................................ xii B.1 Environment and Animal Society of Taiwan (EAST).................................. xii a l Association (TAEA). .......................................... B.2 Taiwan Animal Equality xvi iv n C B.3 Taiwan Society for the Prevention CrueltyU to Animals (TSPCA) .......... xix h e n of i h c g C Social Media ................................................................................................ xxiv C.1 Facebook Group. ........................................................................................ xxiv C.2 Facebook Pages. ...........................................................................................xxv C.3 LINE Groups............................................................................................. xxvii D Miscellaneous ............................................................................................ xxviii D.1 NGO - Government Consultation Meeting. ............................................ xxviii D.2 Speech Transcript. .......................................................................................xxx. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. v.

(6) List of Abbreviations APA: Animal Protection Association APM: Animal Protection Movement COA: Council of Agriculture EAST: Environment and Animal Society of Taiwan LCA: Life Conservationist Association NSM: New Social Movement PETA: People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. 政治大. TAEA: Taiwan Animal Equality Association TNR: Trap Neuter Return. 立. ‧ 國. List of Figures. 學. TSPCA: Taiwan Society for the Prevention. ‧. Figure 1 Normative differences underlying socio-natural relationships ..................................... 6 Figure 2 Sytem-lifeworld dynamic ............................................................................................... 11 Figure 3 Immaterial eco-centric cultural approach and hermeneutic circle ................................. 24. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. List of Tables. i n U. v. Table 1 Ideal-Type comparison between ‘Traditional’ and ‘New Social Movements’.................. 9 Table 2 Theme-issue focus under NSM theory approaches ......................................................... 10 Table 3 List of events attended. .................................................................................................... 25 Table 4 List of Interviews. ............................................................................................................ 26 Table 5 List of Social Media Groups. ........................................................................................... 27 Table 6 Comparison between Western and East Asian Animal Advocacy .................................. 33 Table 7 The Animal Protection Movement in Taiwan as a New Social Movement .................... 38 Table 8 Power, Money, and Spheres of Rationality ..................................................................... 48 Table 9 Animal Advocacy Issues in the Animal Protection Movement ....................................... 51. Ch. engchi. vi.

(7) 1 Introduction 1.1 Political Animals The relationship between human and non-human animals has been a key element in the makeup of socio-natural relationships across history. Over millennia and across various civilizations, animals have played different roles in human society: from worship icons and companions to sustenance sources. In the modern world, animals remain central to various aspects of human life as household pets, economic assets in food and entertainment, and research subjects. 政治大 relationships, among which the most significant is pet keeping, are also informed by deeper 立 in science (Serpell, 1989: 18-19; York and Mancus, 2013). At the same time, current socio-natural. ‧ 國. 學. cultural, social, and economic factors that are arguably characteristic of industrially developed societies (Serpell, 1989: 19). An increasingly discussed aspect in the relationships between humans. ‧. sit. Nat. from debates at the philosophical and legal fronts.. y. and non-human animals refers to questions on the welfare and rights of animals, primarily arising. io. al. er. While early examples of social discussion and advocacy for the better treatment of animals can be traced back to the establishment of Humane Societies in Britain and the United States, and. n. iv n C the passage of the first laws addressing h animal protection inU e n g c h i the 1800s, it was not until the 1970s. when these ideas became more widely organized and integrated into social and political discourses (Guither, 1998: 4). During this period, modern animal rights theory emerged from the meeting of the “Oxford Vegetarians”, a group of philosophy students at Oxford University and their publication of the book Animals, Men and Morals in 1972 (Singer, 1982). This title along with the subsequent works of Singer’s (1975) Animal Liberation, and Tom Regan’s (1983) The Case for Animal Rights came to be the intellectual foundation of current ethical and moral considerations. This led to the creation of the philosophical underpinnings that have fueled the rise of modern.

(8) animal advocacy movements in many countries. In a nutshell, current animal advocacy movements aim to transform socio-natural relationships by advancing a discourse that focuses on the ethical and/or moral standing of animals with the aim to improve their lives and reduce their suffering. Animal advocates engage in a wide variety of actions, their groups’ present different degrees of organization and mobilization, and have become increasingly effective in improving the status of animals. Consequently, they have successfully promoted their legal protections in many countries (Guither, 1998). In the context of Taiwan, while the idea of compassion for animals is not entirely. 治政大 relevance of these discourses issues is a relatively recent development. Nevertheless, the growing 立 novel due to the prevalence of Buddhist beliefs, awareness for animal welfare and animal rights. is noticeable in their expansion within socio-political spaces in the country as further discussed in. 1.2 The Rise of Animal Protection Rationales in Taiwan. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. the following section.. sit. y. Nat. The Taiwanese eco-politics landscape experienced a new addition on August 8, 2016. On. io. er. this date, hundreds of animal rights and welfare advocates gathered to found a political party dedicated to advancing animal interests in the country. The Taiwanese Animal Protection Party is. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. not only the first of its kind in Taiwan and Asia, but also signals the drive toward converting the. engchi. increasing concern over the need to improve the lives of animals into more effective political and social outcomes in the country (Chen, 2016; Willhoft, 2016). This development also illustrates the important transformation in socio-natural relations since the late 1980s when Taiwan, in the midst of its economic miracle and the emergence of a newly affluent and educated middle class, ‘discovered’ nature (Weller, 2006). It was during this period that ecological rationales entered the public consciousness with the emergence of the first wave of Taiwanese environmentalists. They ultimately resulted in the upgrade of the Environmental Protection Administration in 1987, and. 2.

(9) the enactment of legislation such as the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Act. Since then, ecological rationales have greatly expanded in Taiwanese socio-political discourses, most significantly through the various incarnations of environmentalism in the country (Hsiao, 1999). Along these developments, growing awareness of issues related to the treatment of animals steadily increased giving rise to a variety of animal advocacy efforts. In particular, the formation of the Life Conservationist Association (LCA), Taiwan’s first animal advocacy organization, and which was central to the spread of modern animal rights and animal welfare rationales in Taiwan.. 治政大 have gradually been enacted, Nevertheless, although animal protections laws and mechanisms 立 Subsequently leading to the passing of the Animal Protection Act in 1998 (Lin, 2015).. various problems affecting animals in Taiwan remain. From pet abandonment and stray animal. ‧ 國. 學. populations, to animal abuse in entertainment and factories, advocacy groups are increasingly. ‧. vocal in their efforts to represent the interests of animals in the country. At the same time, bringing attention to issues of lax enforcement, inadequate animal welfare standards, and insufficient public. y. Nat. er. io. sit. awareness of animal wellbeing. Consequently, these developments highlight the work of a growing sector of civil society actors engaged in transforming socio-natural relationships in Taiwan through. n. al. Ch. i n U. the spread of concepts such as animal welfare and animal rights.. 1.3 Research Purpose and Scope. engchi. v. In relation to the researchers’ personal engagement with animal activism and interest in eco-politics, this thesis project came about through the observation that in spite of a considerably extensive amount of research in ecological affairs, less attention has been placed on the aspect of animal protection from a socio-political perspective in Taiwan. This led to the formulation of a very general yet puzzling initial thought: “Are ‘animals’ political?”. This first question eventually shaped into a more specific problem: “How are socio-natural relationships political?”. From this. 3.

(10) point, further inquiry was directed back to the case of the animal protection movement comprised by animal advocacy actors, their distinctive eco-centric discourses, and non-traditional dynamics of engagement within socio-political spaces. Most notably, the increasingly vocal and visible role played by animal protection groups, in particular internationally active organizations such as PETA, Mercy for Animals, and the Humane Society in advancing the concepts of animal rights and animal welfare around the globe. As a result of the juxtaposition between the international developments surrounding animal advocacy and the case of Taiwan, a gap in the study of the country’s ecologically oriented social movements was revealed. This observation in addition to. 治政 the fact that the country is currently facing important animal大 policy imperatives in addition to the 立 spread of veganism in the country opened an opportunity to further research these developments.. ‧ 國. 學. Consequently, the main objective of this thesis is twofold. First, to bring attention to the Animal. ‧. Protection Movement (APM) in Taiwan as a representative example of a New Social Movement (NSM). Second, to examine the implication of growing issue networks surrounding animal. y. Nat. er. io. sit. advocacy for the eco-political and democratic landscape of Taiwan. In particular, the latter aspect aims to highlight how individual activists and advocacy organizations mobilize to transform socio-. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. natural relationships through the spread of animal rights and animal welfare discourses within socio-political spaces.. engchi. While this thesis seeks to present a comprehensive account of the developments surrounding the APM in Taiwan, its many advocacy areas, the different mobilization approaches, and levels of organization, the later part of this research places particular attention to the ongoing debates surrounding stray animal management efforts and shelter reform. These issues are currently a primary concern among most animal advocacy groups due to Taiwan’s move to become a “no-kill” nation (White, 2016). Furthermore, they embody the overlapping and sometimes. 4.

(11) conflicting discourses currently advanced by different animal protection groups and which have important implication for policy outcomes in regard to animals in the country. 1.3.1 Terminology. It is important to note that there exist some significant differences between the concepts of animal welfare and animal rights. The former refers to the ‘humane’ treatment of animals and concern for their general health and wellbeing, the latter entails the recognition of animals as moral entities deserving of equal standing to humans. In practice, these views translate into different. 治政大does not necessarily question the Nussbaum, 2004: 4). On the one hand, animal welfare advocacy 立. normative arguments and goals that are sometimes at odds (Guither, 1998; Sunstein and. morality of human-animal relationships beyond the prevention of cruel practices in the treatment. ‧ 國. 學. of animals. Therefore, the use of animals as food or clothing is acceptable as long as certain. ‧. standards are met. On the other hand, the argument for animal rights is based on the moral standing of animals as equal sentient beings where animal suffering should be understood on the same level. y. Nat. er. io. sit. as human suffering. As Regan (1986) states, Animal rights activism focuses on: (a) the total abolition of the use of animals in science; (b) the total dissolution of commercial animal. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. agriculture; (c) the total elimination of commercial and sport hunting and trapping. Based on this. engchi. perspective, the objectification and commodification of animals constitute an expression of “Speciesism”. On the lines of sexism or racism, this refers to the idea that different species deserve different value, rights, or consideration based on their membership to an animal group. In practice, this translates into our perception of animal lives and their suffering as morally less relevant to that of our own people, and the differential treatment we give animals based on their usefulness to us as companions or as economic animals (Singer, 2002; DeGrazia, 2006:49).. 5.

(12) 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 1. 政治大. sit. y. Nat. Normative differences underlying socio-natural relationships based on speciesism (Source: Author).. al. er. io. Consequently, the key difference between animal rights and animal welfare can be. v. n. understood through the fact that “Animal rights advocates are campaigning for no cages, while. Ch. engchi. i n U. animal welfarists are campaigning for bigger cages” (The Ethics Centre, 2016). From here, despite the internal differences between animal rights and animal welfare groups, the terms ‘Animal Rights Movement’ and ‘Animal Protection Movement’ are often interchangeably used as an umbrella concept to refer to these various groups (Waldau, 2010: 4). Nevertheless, in the Taiwanese context, because of the relatively new development of animal advocacy rationales and the socio-cultural context in which these groups have emerged, this Thesis will refer to these groups under the term of ‘Animal Protection Movement’ (APM).. 6.

(13) 1.4 Research Questions This thesis aimed to make sense of the emergence of the APM in Taiwan by addressing three main questions: 1. Is the Animal Protection Movement representative as a ‘New Social Movement’ in the context of Taiwan? a. What are the characteristics, similarities, and differences of this movement with its more developed counterparts in the US or Europe?. 政治大 How does social mobilization on animal protection issues take place in Taiwan? 立. 2. What is are the key issues currently being addressed by this movement? a.. b. How does animal advocacy translate into socio-political or institutional outcomes. ‧ 國. 學. in Taiwan?. ‧. 3. How is the advancement of animal protection interests in Taiwan significant to the. y. Nat. democratic development process of the country?. er. io. sit. a. Is the case of Taiwan’s Animal Protection Movement relevant to democratic ecopolitics elsewhere?. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. With these questions in mind, the following section will introduce the theoretical and. engchi. conceptual framework supporting the research undertaken throughout this project.. 1.5 Analytical Framework This thesis examined the emergence of the APM in Taiwan as an example of a New Social Movement (NSM). The following sections lay out the characteristics of NSM in relation to “traditional” social movements, and outline the analytical framework based on Habermas’ “lifeworld-system” concept that informed the conduct of this research project.. 7.

(14) 1.5.1 New Social Movements Since the mid-1960s, the family of social movements has experienced an important expansion with the appearance of an increasingly diverse set of issues leading to social mobilization. Suitably, the rise of LGBT rights, women’s rights, minority rights, ecology and animal rights, peace movements, student movements, religious movements, and others have represented an important break from social movements concerned with struggles around class, ideology, and economic structures. These ‘new’ social movements are distinctive from ‘traditional’ social movements in various accounts. In a nutshell, Table 1 shows a comparison of. 治政大‘Tradition Social Movements’. As eight key points between New Social Movements (NSMs) and 立 a result of this departure from ‘traditional’ movements, theories to analyze these ‘new’ social. ‧ 國. 學. movements were developed. Among such, New Social Movement (NSM) Theory emerged in. ‧. Europe in order to address the shortcomings of approaches mostly focused on ideologies, primarily Marxism to explain social mobilization beyond the basis of struggles for redistribution (Canel,. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 1997: 23; Buechler, 1995: 441; Pichardo, 1997: 412). Nevertheless, in spite of its widespread use, there is no agreement on the core tenets of what NSM Theory is. Mirroring the nature of the social. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. movements it studies, Buechler (1995: 442) notes that NSM Theory is an umbrella term for. engchi. approaches applying the general themes of: Symbolic action, empowerment, post-materialism, identity, constructivism, and latency (Table 2). At the same time, while different scholars apply these concepts to various different degrees, “all versions of NSM theory operate with some model of societal totality that provides the context for the emergence of collective action” (Buechler, 1995: 442). In summary “the NSM perspective emphasizes the cultural nature of the new movements and views them as struggles for control over the production of meaning and the constitution of new collective identities” (Canel, 1997: 22).. 8.

(15) Table 1 Ideal-Type comparison between ‘Traditional’ and ‘New Social Movements’. Traditional Social Movements. Characteristics Membership. Ideology. ‧. ‧ 國. 政治大. 學. Mobilization. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Life. Tends to be based on class Transcend class structures. structures. Better understood through social markers such as age groups, gender, sexual orientation, or profession. Mostly characterized in Defined by the plurality of terms of overarching ideas and values. ideological divides. (ex. Entail the ‘democratization’ of Right-Left, Conservative- everyday life. Liberal). Focused on economic Connected to cultural or issues, systems of symbolic issues. Often pertain production, or national the expression of identity or interests. belonging to a particular group. Group Mobilization on the The line between individual lines of class and and collective action is usually economic/political blurred. Individual actions are structures. a vehicle for expression and confirmation of identity. Differentiated ‘The personal is political’. public/private spheres of May involve intimate aspects involvement of human life, from sexual behavior and fashion, to diet and career choices. Disruption and resistance Nonviolence and civil based on struggle disobedience.. 立. Grievances. New Social Movements. Strategies* Participation Channels. Organization. Ch. engchi. Based on established channels for public participation. Hierarchical, cadre-led, institutionalized (ex. Mass party structures, etc.).. i n U. v. Prefer alternative forms of participation and decision making to address collective interests. Segmented, diffused, and decentralized.. Source: Author. (Based on Johnston, Laraña, and Gusfield, 1994: 6-8).. 9.

(16) Table 2 Theme-issue focus under NSM theory approaches NSM Theory Themes Particular interest in the symbolic action in civil society or the cultural sphere as major spaces for collective action. Attention to the processes of “empowerment” based on autonomy or self-determination as opposed to strategies to obtain influence and power over society and the state.. Symbolic Action. Empowerment. Post-materialist values are understood as key Post-materialism aspects for social mobilization, instead of conflict over resources. Focuses on the problematization of the process Identity of collective identity construction, and identification of group interests. Constructivism Grievances and ideology are socially constructed. Social mobilization can arise from a variety of Latency hidden, latent, and/or temporary networks, without the need of centralized organizational requisites. Source: Author (Based on Buechler, 1995: 442).. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. Considering the diversity of the approaches to NSM theory, this thesis applies NSM theory. i n U. v. as advanced by Jugern Habermas in his key publication The Theory of Communicative Action. Ch. engchi. (TCA) (1981), and later outlined in his article ‘New Social Movements’ in the journal Telos (1987). From here, this thesis focuses on the dynamics of NSM mobilization within the “seam between the system and the life-world” as a response to the colonizing effects of the media of money and power on daily life (Habermas, 1981; 1987). More specifically, the processes of juridification and commodification by which government and economic apparatuses regulate and reify everyday life, and where individual actors are reduced to the roles of employed/consumer and client/citizen. A process against which NSMs seek to emancipate from or resists by creating “sub-culturally protected communications groups which further the search for personal and. 10.

(17) collective identity” (Habermas, 1981: 36). From here, it is important to recognize that the actual ‘newness’ of these movements has been contested in line with Picardo’s (1997) and Edwards’ (2004) assessments of NSMs.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. n. iv n C Figure 2 Sytem-lifeworld dynamic. Adapted from Wikimedia h e n g c h i U Commons, 2007. Retrieved February 15, 2017, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Habermas-systemlifeworld.jpg. Copyright 2007 by Freetrader. Adapted with permission. Based on Habermas (1987) and Edwards (2004).. However, Edwards (2004) also recognizes that Habermas’ approach to the study of social movements is useful due to the fact that beyond the debate over new versus traditional movements, his framework highlights the conflict-shift in modern socio-political mobilization.. Thus, offering. insight into “The changing relationship between the state and the economy in the process of capitalist modernization” and the effects that this has at the level of social integration within the lifeworld (Edwards, 2004: 128). Consequently, the remaining of this thesis will apply an 11.

(18) Habermasian framework to examine the growing social mobilization around animal protection issues in Taiwan as a response to the transformation of socio-natural relationships under the advent of industrial development, and highlight the emergence of new identities and grievances based on these developments.. 1.6 Chapter Organization The remaining organization of this thesis will proceed as follow. Chapter two consists of the literature review, it consists of two section. The first section considers the current scholarship. 政治大 four main areas of academic interest in regard to this research project in the context of Taiwan: (1) 立 on human-animal relations from a multidisciplinary and international perspective, and discusses. Democratization and the rise of civil society as environmental movements became increasingly. ‧ 國. 學. active, and animal protection rationales developed. (2) The institutionalization of nature through. ‧. environmental governance mechanisms, permeated with discourses of environmental justice and. sit. y. Nat. democracy. (3) The history of Animal Ethics and Animal Law in Taiwan. And, (4) an overview of. io. er. existing research on animal governance, particularly focused on stray animal populations management, a key issue under the APM. The second part of this section explores the relevance. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. of filling existing gaps in the scholarship by including animal voices.. engchi. Chapter three pertains to the methodology that informed the conduct of this Thesis. This section will introduce the methodological considerations in adapting a Habermasian approach to the study of the APM in Taiwan. It will then account for data collection in the course of this research based on methods of Participant-Observation, Interviews, and Social Media Analysis. Chapter four will present the findings. It will provide an overview of the development of Taiwan’s APM, its origins, discourses, and current developments. Here, the emergence of new lines of conflict and approaches to animal protection will be outlined, making the case for the. 12.

(19) emerge of animal welfare and animal rights interests as a representative a New Social Movement in the country. Chapter five will outline the major areas of animal advocacy mobilization, and zoom into the problem of stray animals in Taiwan. It will focus on the factors underlying the problem of stray populations across the island, the role of NGOs in animal governance, and the further contribution of the APM in transforming socio-natural relationships in Taiwan through the effective advance of animal protection discourses in overall governance process.. 治政大avenue for further research on this highlight the contribution of this thesis and the opening of an 立 The final chapter will provide a brief summary of the key points touched upon the thesis,. area, and conclude with research limitation considerations.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 13. i n U. v.

(20) 2 Literature Review and Integration 2.1 Humans, animals, and spaces Mirroring the expansion of animal protection efforts around the globe, the study of animal advocacy interests within social and political science research has been largely focused on aspects such as animal activism from the perspective of social movements, the profiles of animal advocacy supporters, the role of norms and emotions in animal protection discourses, and strategies for mobilization (Herzog, 1993; Jerolmack, 2003; Munro, 2005). However, beyond these areas, the. 政治大 surprisingly ignored under scholarly 立 discussions of environmental or ecological democratic. further dynamics informing human-nonhuman animal relations has been for the most part. ‧ 國. 學. deliberation beyond issues based on conservation rationales. In part, this reflects on a common critique towards animal advocacy actors. As noted by Humhrey and Stears, (2006) animal. ‧. advocates are involved in a particularly contentious line of politics, not only because they advance. sit. y. Nat. a starkly different view on an ‘ideal’ democratic order that includes the representation of non-. io. er. human interests, but also because of the employment of non-traditional tactics such as cost-levying. al. iv n C At the same time, research on the politics h eofnhuman-animal g c h i U relationships is also subject to the n. and shock based campaigns. Hence, placing the movement in the fringes of the political terrain.. “problematic nature of nature” in social science due to the marked dichotomy between the natural and the social that has dominated the development of the two major strands of scientific inquiry (Asdal, 2003). Nonetheless, in recent decades the study of socio-natural relationships and the normative elements underlying animal protection discourses have come to constitute a very specific area of research in philosophical, political, legal, economic, geographic, and socioanthropological inquiry (Emel and Wolch, 1998). This has resulted in the establishment of fields such as Animal Studies, Anthrozoology, and Critical Animal Studies (Taylor and Twine, 2014).. 14.

(21) However, these new areas of research have been predominantly undertaken in the North America and Europe, with lesser input from the Asia-Pacific region (Salter, 2015). Furthermore, interest on animal protection movements under this field has also been considerably limited (Munro, 2012). On the other hand, in the context of East Asia, inquiry on these various fronts is extremely limited. Here, Li (2006) has provided a comprehensive account the recent expansion of animal rights and animal welfare rationales in China’s socio-political space. Along these lines, Dobson’s (2007) research on Hong Kong based NGO Animals Asia Foundation efforts to end the poaching of Moon. 治政大socio-political spaces. From the geographies and include animals in further discussions of 立. bears to supply the bear bile market in the region has laid out the need to expand political. perspective of Taiwan, there is considerable unexplored potential to engage in these dialogues.. ‧ 國. 學. However, the little amount research relevant to the politics of socio-natural and human-nonhuman. ‧. relationships has mostly derived from scholarship covering the development of the eco-political and environmental legal landscape in Taiwan since political liberalization. Consequently, the key. y. Nat. er. io. sit. aim in this section is to outline the aforementioned landscape, identify the key openings in the scholarships that have facilitated the buildup of this thesis research project, and to highlight the. n. al. Ch. gap that this project has sought to address.. engchi. i n U. v. 2.1.2 Democracy, civil society & new actors.. The transformation of Taiwan’s socio-political landscape from authoritarianism to democracy has been subject to an important amount of academic inquiry in relation to the so called ‘Third Wave’ of democratization (Hsiao and Koo, 1997; Rigger, 1999; Whitehead, 2007; Fell, 2012). Civil society actors have been of particular interest in the study of Taiwan’s democratic development process (Hsiao, 1992; Wong, 2003; Philion, 2010). In this context, the connection between the emergence of Taiwanese social movements and a ‘demanding civil society’ has been. 15.

(22) extensively covered by the work of Hsiao (1990, 1992) and Ho (2010). Among his research pieces, Hsiao (1990) has provided an account of the history of social mobilization in the country based on three analytical concepts that reflect the main forces that characterized Taiwanese power-relations between 1947 to 1990: political forces, economic forces, and social forces. In addition, he also provides a wide issue area covering list of 17 Taiwanese social movements that emerged during this period, demonstrating the rise of participatory culture in Taiwan’s political affairs (Hsiao, 1990). Hsiao (2010) later revisited and expanded the list of social movements in Taiwan to a total. 治政大one derived from the ‘Resource characteristics and impact in the Taiwanese polity. The first 立 of 20, and organized them into two typologies in order to facilitate a comparison of their. Mobilization’ model, and the later build from public perceptions and attitudes toward social. ‧ 國. 學. movements. Further looking into the history of social mobilization in Taiwan, Ho’s (2010). ‧. application of the concept of ‘Political Opportunity Structure’ to the case of Taiwan’s social movements illustrates the trajectory of civil society in the country. In a nutshell, he divides the. y. Nat. institutionalization, incorporation, and resurgence (Ho 2011).. n. al. Ch. er. io. sit. history of social movements in Taiwan into five main stages: fermentation, popular upsurge,. i n U. v. From here, a portion of the aforementioned work has also paid closer attention to the. engchi. appearance of civil society actors engaged with the ‘green’ or ecological issue area in Taiwan. This refers to the ‘Three Streams of Environmental Movements’ identified by Hsiao (1999), and which consist of: the anti-pollution protest movement, the nature conservation movement, and anti-nuclear movement. These three movements have been subject to a considerable amount of academic inquiry, in particular the anti-nuclear groups in recent years (Hsu 2005). While this demonstrates the existence of a considerably developed ‘green’ or ecological camp for sociopolitical mobilization in Taiwan, there is still a considerable academic gap in the research of an. 16.

(23) increasingly visible group of civil society actors engaged with a different, yet sometimes overlapping area of socio-natural relationships. That is, Taiwan’s Animal Protection movement which is comprised by a variety of activist engaged in advancing animal rights and welfare in the country. Partly due its comparatively recent formation, this ‘new social movement’ has received considerably limited amount of academic attention, mostly in the Chinese language. Most relevantly, Wu (2010) provides an initial historical account of the transformation of socio-natural relationships in Taiwan since the 1950s through the changing treatment of pets like cats and dogs.. 治政 government address, stray cats have only recently become大 a subject of interest. Applying the 立. The author notes that while the issue of stray dogs has received important public attention and. concepts of NSM theory she explains the rise of a ‘Stray Cat Protection Movement. In relation to. ‧ 國. 學. this, the first comprehensive account of the origins of the APM as a whole refers to the. ‧. establishment of the Life Conservationist Association (LCA) and its advocacy work between 1992 and 1999 (Wang, 2012). The role of this organization advancing introducing modern animal ethics. y. Nat. er. io. sit. concepts to the Taiwanese context has also been further explored by Ho in her account of the organization’s ideological and activist origins (2016). From here, the further importance of the rise. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. of these interest groups in the political process is discussed below. 2.1.3 Institutionalizing nature.. engchi. Social mobilization based on emerging ecological consciousness lead to the rise of a Taiwanese Eco-political camp. A considerable amount of research has been conducted on how these ‘green’ issue areas translate into political and institutional change. Tang & Tang’s (1997) analysis of the dynamics of environmental mobilizations under the process of authoritarian retreat established the main linkage between environmental affairs and Taiwanese democratic development. Their piece shed light not only on the relationship between environmental interests. 17.

(24) and democratic affairs, it also illustrated how democratization might translate into cleavages and the need for better institutions to address these. Taking from there, Tang & Tang’s (1999) work then zoomed into the politicization of the environment under democratic liberalization to see how new areas of interest representation perform within the context of political competition, further empathizing on the need to develop proper channels for public participation.. Addressing this,. the authors later engaged in a more explicit analysis of this issue by looking at the democratization of environmental governance mechanisms in the country, namely, the Environmental Impact. 治政大 by expanding participation 2010) further makes the case of improving environmental citizenship 立. Assessment (EIA) and pollution control fees (Tang & Tang, 2000). Subsequent work by Fan (2008,. into the policy process and designing better institutions. At the same time, Huang (2009, 2010). ‧ 國. 學. illustrates on the politics underlying the different environmental justice perspectives in Taiwan,. ‧. and shows that environmental narratives have become widely used in national political affairs where there are various competing conceptions of justice. This latter point is particularly relevant. y. Nat. io. sit. to the further discussion of the extension of rights and legal protection to nonhuman animals which. n. al. er. are increasingly relevant in Taiwan’s policy debates, and where ‘issue networks’ comprised by. Ch. i n U. v. animal protection advocates and other stakeholders have come to have important influence in. engchi. institutional outcomes (Lin, 2015). Finally, the ethical and legal considerations informing these mechanisms are presented. 2.1.3 Animal ethics & law. A main body of literature on animal rights and welfare rationales in Taiwan has been produced from the perspective of Law and Ethics, predominantly in the Chinese language. Among these pieces, an initial discussion of extension of rights to animals from a constitutional protection context is advanced by Xu (2008). Following the logic of legal protection, Cai (2009) has looked. 18.

(25) at the case of amendment of Animal Protection Law and the criminalization of animal mistreatment in Taiwan. Her research notes that enforcement of these laws remains ineffective, and that “criminalizing the misconduct of abusing animal in the Animal Protection Law is feasible but not fundamental”. Along these lines, the theory informing Animal Protection Law originating in the West and its practice in the Taiwanese legal context has also been examined (Wu, 2010). Xu (2010) further discusses this aspect through the application of Animal Ethics Theory in other countries like Germany and Japan in comparison to Taiwan. Expanding on this, Yang (2011). 治政大addressed Animal Law differently, the Ching Dynasty and how the various historical periods have 立 provides a historical account of the origins, development, and evolution of Law in Taiwan since. explaining the cultural underpinnings of the application of Animal Protection Law under the R.O.C. ‧ 國. 學. regime. Continuing the discussion of legal culture and traditional practices in the country, legal. ‧. protection to farm animals has been researched from a comparative perspective to Europe and the Unites States by Lin (2013). Finally, Lin (2015) presents an important analysis how the Life. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Conservationist Association (LCA) synthesized Western concepts of Animal Rights such as advanced by the Oxford Group and Buddhist values of mercy and compassion in order to advance. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. a Taiwanese Animal Rights discourse. This last piece is particularly relevant to make sense of the. engchi. philosophical underpinnings that inform Taiwan’s APM and their current mobilization dynamics. 2.1.4 Animal governance. Mechanisms pertaining the wider governance apparatus in respect to animal subjects in Taiwan has received little attention in relation to the more developed environmental governance and policy area. Nevertheless, one area of overlap here refers to biodiversity and wildlife conservation governance. Most relevantly, Tang and Tang (2004) have discussed local governance and politics surrounding the conservation of land and the protection of the Fairy Pitta bird in. 19.

(26) Yunlin, Taiwan. In addition, the governance of biodiversity conservation in Taiwan and China has been discussed drawing on the institutional frameworks for conservation and stakeholder involvement under the challenges of urban expansion and industrial development in both countries (McBeath and Leng, 2006). From here, the main area of animal governance related research in Taiwan has been focused on the public administration level. Reflecting on policy imperatives the persistence of problems surrounding stray animal populations and pet abandonment practices in Taiwan has drawn a discreet amount of research. Starting with dog populations in the country,. 治政大dramatically decreased in the last their findings, it is indicated that the population of stray dogs 立. Tung et al. (2010) provide a survey of domestic and stray dog numbers from 1999 to 2009. Among. decade partially as a result of increased captures and food waste management. On a similar note,. ‧ 國. 學. a study on cat ownership and associated factors by Chang et al. (2013) which analyzed data. ‧. collected from 2001 to 2009, suggests an association between a change in lifestyles in recent years and an increase in cat keeping. From here, research on the public’s knowledge about the Animal. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Protection Act and public shelters has concluded that while the Taiwanese population is generally aware of the existence of legislation and shelters, there is a lack of adequate knowledge on pet. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. ownership requirements, and low usage of shelter services (Weng et al. 2006a). A closer attention. engchi. has also been paid to animal shelter management and population trends. Peng et al. (2012) analysis of stray animal inflows and outflows in 40 public shelters between 2000 and 2005 suggest a positive relationship between the country’s rise in GDP and pet acquisitions, subsequent animal abandonment, and their fate on the streets or shelters. They note some slow progress toward higher adoptions and lower euthanasia cases, and argue for stronger public education efforts. Consequently, studies focusing on pet ownership and abandonment practices by Weng et al. (2006b) and Hsu et al. (2003) have drawn attention to factors such as family pet ownership. 20.

(27) histories, pet behavior problems, misguided ownership expectations, and failure to neuter animals among other issues contributing to animal abandonment and stray populations. On the other end of stray animal management, further enquiry into the conditions surrounding shelter adoptions has considered the demographics and motives behind the rise of online animal adoptions, highlighting the benefits of such platforms and the need to improve their visibility (Lam & Wu, 2011). Lastly, although the aforementioned studies provide a considerable coverage of the various aspects surrounding stray animal population management, they are mostly focused on public effort. 治政大 as to where do other animals the focus on companion animals is problematic as it raises questions 立. outcomes and do not consider the role of civil society actors in addressing this issue. Furthermore,. fall in the policy process, and what are the factors determining which animals enter the political. ‧ 國. 學. discourse in Taiwan.. ‧. 2.2 The Eco-Political Landscape: So where are the animals?. sit. y. Nat. As Taiwan’s established democratic system becomes increasingly plural, questions. io. er. surrounding ‘conflictive pluralism’ require further attention. This phenomenon is characteristic in. al. democracies where the cleavages and sub-ideologies within groups often produce different. n. iv n C position strands and intersections on ahvariety of issues U e n g c h i (Dahl, 1978: 192-193). While ‘ecopolitical’ or ‘green’ actors tend to be on the ‘same side’ of the political spectrum, there are. considerable differences within these groups which is usually defined by their position in relation to nonhuman animals (Mason, 1999: 24). From the eco-politics perspective, this issue not only translates into debates such as ‘growth versus conservation’ between environmentalists and industry groups, it also leads to ‘animal welfare versus animal rights’ positions between environmentalists and animal rights advocates. Such differences are important when making sense of the dynamics underlying democratic governance processes. As Held (1996: 203) notes, in a. 21.

(28) plural democracy: “Political outcomes are the result of government and, ultimately, the executive trying to mediate and adjudicate between competing demands of groups”. It follows that environmentalists led the opening of an eco-political space in Taiwan’s democratic landscape by mobilizing society and “politicizing nature” (Mattlin, 2011: 129). At the same time, democratic development, cultural and economic globalization, and increased socio-natural consciousness has facilitated the spread of animal welfare and animal rights discourses within Taiwanese society. Here, advocacy groups have played a central role advancing the interest of non-human animals,. 治政大 society actors engaged in the the need to pay further attention to these groups as civil 立. thus claiming a place in the eco-political space of Taiwan. As a result, these developments indicate. transformation of socio-natural relationships, in particular that between humans and non-human. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. animals.. Ch. engchi. 22. i n U. v.

(29) 3 Methodology 3.1 A Habermasian Immaterial Eco-Centric Cultural Approach Having laid out the analytical framework and literature supporting the inquiry into the APM in Taiwan, it is now pertinent to look at the methodology that informed the research conducted for this thesis. The first task on this front was to construct an empirical model based on the cultural and social context of Taiwan from a Habermasian perspective sensitive to ecological discourses. For this purpose, an “immaterial eco-centric cultural approach” as suggested by. 政治大 of this thesis. This approach was deemed appropriate in the context of an engaged research 立. Skollerhorn (1998) was developed to suit the timeframe and resources available for the completion. ‧ 國. 學. dynamic as it “focus[es] on the participant’s definition of the social situation where a political problem is discussed” (Skollerhorn, 1998: 561). In order to make sense of the relationship between. ‧. the empirical and theoretical components of this thesis in line with eco-centric rationales, the. sit. y. Nat. further interpretation and analysis of the data drew from environmental hermeneutics. More. io. er. specifically, the circular relationship between the empirical material [the parts] and theoretical. al. assumptions [the whole] as an ‘hermeneutic circle’ (Schleiermacher, 1999, cited in Mantzavinos,. n. iv n C 2016; Drenthen, 2017). At the same time, in mind Van Buren’s (1995: 261) paired h e keeping ngchi U distinction between shallow/deep ecology and deep/surface hermeneutics this research project bridges such divides as it focuses on both with the changing socio-natural paradigms and its translation into political outcomes by animal advocacy actors, and their role in advancing discourses of animal rights and animal welfare into policy mechanisms. Finally, in line with the outlined methodological considerations, the research conducted for this thesis drew from primary and secondary qualitative sources. Primary sources were obtained through three methods of data. 23.

(30) collection: Participant-Observation, Interviews, and Social Media Analysis. Complementary secondary data from various sources further supported the completion of the analysis in this thesis.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. Figure 3 Immaterial eco-centric cultural approach and hermeneutic circle (Source: Author. Based on Skollerhorn, 1998; van Buren, 1995).. 3.2 Primary Sources 3.2.1 Participant-observation.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In order to obtain access to the animal protection activist community in Taiwan, the researcher identified currently active activist groups primarily though social media. Initial contact was established through a member of the Group “Vegan 30 Days” (Appendix: C1). The researcher was subsequently invited to participate in the activities organized by this group, and referred to upcoming events related to the promotion of animal rights and related lifestyles. A total of seven events were attended in the course of one month, between November 19th and December 19th, 2016. 24.

(31) Table 3 List of events attended. No.. Event Type. Date. 1. Movie Screening “Cowspiracy”. 2016/11/20. 2 3. Public Demonstration/Awareness Raising Campaign Vegan ‘Youth’ Convention. 2016/11/26 2016/12/03 2016/11/28. 4. University Animal Rights Week. 2016/12/01. 5. Animal Rights Presentation. 2016/12/01. 6. Animal Ethics Discussion Meeting. 2016/12/08. 7. 4th. 2016/12/17. 政治大 Taipei Vegan Frenzy 立. ‧ 國. 學. (Source: Author, Appendix A). Attendance to these various events provided valuable opportunities to meet activists,. ‧. discuss animal rights and animal welfare issues in Taiwan, and mobilization dynamics of the actors. sit. y. Nat. currently advancing the concepts of animal rights, animal welfare, and ‘veganism’ in the country.. io. 3.2.2 Interviews.. al. n. the public sphere.. er. As a result, it facilitated an in-depth observation of civil society interaction within various areas of. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. There is currently a wide range of organizations engaged in addressing various animal advocacy areas in Taiwan.. The objectives, issue focus, and mobilization activities of these. organizations cover aspects such as animal rescue, raising awareness, social education, lobbying, and government consultation. Organizations focusing on the latter three issues were identified for the purpose of this thesis. A total of six organizations were contacted with an interview request, four positive responses were obtained. The interviews were conducted in a semi-structured format and covered questions on four main aspects: Perceived Social Movement membership, Animal. 25.

(32) advocacy work, the politics of animal advocacy, and relationship with the government and other animal advocacy groups. Table 4 List of Interviews. No. 1 2 3 4. Organization. Position. Date. Environment and Animal Society of Taiwan (EAST) Taiwan Animal Equality Association (TAEA) Taiwan Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (TSPCA) People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) – Asia Pacific. Director. 2016/12/22. Director Member Director. 2016/12/26. Liaison 政治 Corporate Vice-President 大. 2017/01/19 2017/01/09. 立 (Source: Author, Appendix B).. ‧ 國. 學. 3.2.3 Social Media Analysis.. Social media has become a focus point when studying how the age of the internet has. ‧. transformed the “public sphere” by providing new mediums for civil society and social movements. y. Nat. sit. to arise, organize, and mobilize (Shirky 2011; Castells, 2015). The advent of online network. n. al. er. io. platforms has also been linked to the emergence of NSMs by providing them with a suitable. i n U. v. medium to engage in “communicative rationality” by allowing groups to communicate, share. Ch. engchi. information, and engage in public discourses in an open and non-hierarchical platform (Salter, 2003: 129-130). In particular, Facebook has become a primary tool for social networking, public discussion, and other forms of collective action by global organizations such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) (Obar, Zube, and Lampe, 2012). Consequently, a number of Taiwan based animal advocacy groups and pages were identified, joined and followed on this platform. In addition, the researcher was also introduced to LINE groups, a popular social media and messaging app in Taiwan serving the same purpose of connecting fellow activists and sympathizers of animal advocacy. 26.

(33) Table 5 List of Social Media Groups. Social media Platform Type. Facebook. Membership. Date. 1,911. 2017/02/16. Group Vegan30 Days. 1. 2.. Vegan Volunteer. 12,832. 2017/02/16. 3.. Animal Rights Society 動權社 Page Go Vegan. 1,754. 2017/02/16. 政治 28,828 大 Animal Front 869 立動物陣線. Ch. engchi. ‧. 10.. al. 2017/02/16 Date. y. Membership. Group Vegan Taipei. Mercy is the Biggest Force 慈悲是最大的力量 Vegan 30 Days Experience 純素 30 天體驗. 2017/02/16. 9,842. n. 9.. io. 8.. Nat. Platform Type. 1,866. sit. 7.. People, Animals, Times 人, 動物, 時代誌 The Voice of Animals 動保正義全民發聲 Line. 2017/02/16. 學. 6.. ‧ 國. 5.. 2017/02/16. 54. 2017/02/16. er. 4.. i n U 255 217. v. 2017/02/16 2017/02/16. (Source: Author, Appendix C). These groups were selected on the basis of high level of user activity and activism oriented content.. Posting on these platforms focused on promoting ideas of animal rights or animal. welfare, animal advocacy related news, campaigns or events information, and “cruelty free” lifestyle advice.. 27.

(34) 3.3 Secondary Sources Secondary data was collected from newspaper articles, in particular those published by English media outlets in the region: Taipei Times, The News Lens, China Post, South China Morning Post, etc. Additional consulted sources consisted of academic theses, conference papers, and material provided by animal advocacy groups on their websites. The latter aspect placed a greater focus on the work of groups such as the Taiwan Society to Prevent Cruelty to Animals (TSPCA) –Taiwan,. 政治大 (TAEA), and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). 立. Environment and Animal Society of Taiwan (EAST), Taiwan Animal Equality Association. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 28. i n U. v.

(35) 4 Findings 4.1 About Animals: Representing the non-human “To give a voice to the voiceless” has been an imperative for civil society actors engaged in bringing attention to the issues affecting the vulnerable and disfranchised across history. In modern times, the scope of this phrase has come to not only apply to advocacy on behalf of those members of society that remain marginalized. A growing number of groups around the world are now seeking to raise the plea of animals, and mobilize for their welfare and/or rights. Taiwan’s. 政治大 As Weller (2006) notes, since the 1980s, a fundamental transformation has occurred in regards to 立 own experience with animal advocacy has undergone important developments in the past decades.. ‧ 國. 學. human-nature relationship. The advent of economic development as a result of Taiwan’s industrial miracle not only led to the rise of a newly affluent middle class, but it also brought about increased. ‧. awareness of its ensuing ecological problems, leading to the emergence of a variety of. sit. y. Nat. environmental movements. Among them, the Conservation movement was strongly linked to the. io. er. lifestyle changes resulting from economic prosperity and changing labor practices. In particular,. al. greater mobility and leisure time produced a renewed interest in the wilderness and “escaping the. n. iv n C city”. Thus fostering the mobilization of on advancing the protection of natural h actors e n gfocused chi U. areas and its animal residents (Weller, 2006: 90; Ho, 2016). On the other hand, changing living conditions and urban spaces also had an important effect on the concepts surrounding companion animals. In particular, animals formerly kept for mostly functional reasons such as guard dogs or cats for pest control, now acquired a new status as family pets. Demonstrating the pattern toward expanding pet consumption culture in affluent economies (Dotson and Hyatt, 2008: 458; Serpell, 2015: 19; Bradley and King, 2012; Peng et al., 2012: 355; Chang et al., 2013). As a result of these developments and alongside changing socio-natural relationships, animal protection ideals in. 29.

(36) Taiwan have experienced an important expansion and transformation within public discourses, an area where civil society actors, particularly NGOs, have played a crucial role.. 4.2 Welfare, Kindness, and Rights An earlier example of socio-political organization around ideas of animal protection in Taiwan can be traced back to the 1960s with the foundation of the “Livestock Protection Association of the Republic of China” (Zhōnghuá mínguó bǎohù shēngchù xiéhuì - 中華民國保護牲畜協會) in order to address the welfare and management of farm animals. Mirroring the. 政治大 Protection Association of the Republic 立 of China” (APA) (Zhōnghuá mínguó bǎohù dòngwù xiéhuì. expansion of conservation consciousness in the island, the association was later renamed “Animal. ‧ 國. 學. - 中華民國保護動物協會) in 1992, and expanded the scope of its work to stray animal welfare issues in Taiwan in 1988 (APA, 2007; Chung, 2014). Since then, animal protection rationales in. ‧. Taiwan have come to incorporate concepts arising from the animal ethics and legal philosophical. Nat. sit. y. arguments that have been advanced in the West since the 1970s. Although values such as mercy. n. al. er. io. and kindness to animals are not entirely new to societies that share Confucian and Buddhist. i n U. v. traditions, it was not until the introduction of modern animal ethics that the idea of animal rights. Ch. engchi. entered the discourse of animal advocacy groups (Ho, 2015: 61). As a result, the translation of Animal Rights literature such as Animal Liberation (Singer, 1975) and The Case for Animal Rights (Regan, 1983) to Chinese by organizations such as the Life Conservationist Association (LCA) has been pivotal to the spread of current animal advocacy rationales and the drive toward expanding efforts to address animal abuse in other areas such as sport, food industry, and entertainment (Ho, 2016: 65-66). Furthermore, the LCA’s incorporation of the concepts of animal rights and animal welfare into its discourse is of particular relevance to understand the cultural dimensions in the development of Taiwan’s APM. This is because while the LCA is not a religious. 30.

(37) organization per-se, its supporters are mainly constituted by religious practitioners of a predominantly Buddhist background and academic experts (Ho, 2016: 70). Its founder Cho Wei’s is a Buddhist nun who first began her animal activism efforts with a campaign to stop the practice of hook fishing as a past time activity in 1992. She argued that killing fish for fun was disrespectful to the lives of fishes. Her approach combining Buddhist teachings of compassion and kindness with western ethics and a skillful use of legal mechanisms lead to the LCAs success in providing a voice to animals in Taiwan. A highlight of which was the organizations effective campaigning. 治政大is also significant for two reasons: convergence of Buddhist beliefs and animal ethics in Taiwan 立. for an Animal Protection Law, which ultimately passed in 1998 (Wang, 2012). From here, the. First, because it has provided a distinctive normative context in which animal advocacy has. ‧ 國. 學. emerged. This is illustrated by the topics discussed during the 2014 International Conference on. ‧. “Animal Liberation, Animal Rights, and Equal Ecological Rights: Dialogues between Eastern and Western Philosophies and Religions”, organized through the collaboration between academia, the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. LCA, and religious groups. Similarly, the founding of the Taiwan Animal Protection Party demonstrated a wide membership base among which Buddhist organizations provided important. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. support (Chen, 2016; Willhoft, 2016). Consequently, according to a PETA Asia-Pacific Corporate. engchi. Liaison: “It’s actually easier to promote Animal Rights in Asia, because of the religious (Buddhism) influence” (Appendix: B4). Second, a central aspect of Taiwan’s current animal protection debates is based on the difference between the concepts of kindness to animals and the welfare of animals. While certain religious and cultural norms might facilitate the spread of animal advocacy rationales, in other instances they can also hinder efforts to address less desirable aspects of human-natural relations. The conflict that arises from such conceptual disagreements in the treatment of animals is perhaps best demonstrated by the controversy surrounding practices such. 31.

(38) as “mercy releases” (fàngshēng - 放生). The ritual freeing of animals back into the wild has been a considerably widespread activity in Taiwan and across Asia in line with the predominantly Buddhist tenets of doing “good deeds” and cultivating compassion (Liu-Severinhaus and Chi, 1999: 301; Agoramoorthy and Hsu, 2007). However, in recent years these activities have come under increased criticism due to its various negative effects. In particular, the impact of releasing non-native species into a new ecosystem, the mishandling of animals, and the vicious circle that arises from capturing animals for the purpose of re-release (Ettoday, 2013; Ho, 2015). On this. 政治大 In a nutshell, this approach to Buddhism is characterized by 立. front, major changes have developed through the efforts of animal advocacy groups and the advent of Buddhism Modernism.. ‧ 國. 學. demythologization, that is, the modernization of cosmology and the move away from the emphasis on belief and dogma usually associated to religious practice. Furthermore, it is also distinctive due. ‧. to an element of activism that stresses social service, democracy, and equality.. (Bechert, 1994,. sit. y. Nat. cited in McMahan, 2009: 7-8). According to Cheng (2013: 10) it is in this context the LCA has. io. er. played a key role as a modern environmentalist response to the issues arising from traditional practices such as “mercy releases” (fàngshēng - 放生) and in shaping modern animal welfare. al. n. iv n C advocacy in Taiwan. The transformation of norms concerning the treatment of animals in this he ngchi U sense is better described by the words of Chu Tseng-hung Director of the Environment and Animal Society of Taiwan (EAST), and former Secretary General of the LCA: “The ideas of animal welfare or even animal rights I think it definitely comes from the west. We did have animal protection groups before, but when they talk about animal protection I think their idea is to be kind to animals or to love animals, but kindness or love for animals doesn’t really mean the welfare or animal rights.” (Appendix: B1). Beyond simple conceptual differences, the introduction of animal ethics has had deeper implications for animal advocacy rationales advanced by civil society actors.. 32.

(39) Table 6 Comparison between Western and East Asian Animal Advocacy. Values Eco-Cultural Context. History. Western Animal Advocacy (US, Europe, Australia) Welfare vs. Rights. East Asian Animal Advocacy (Taiwan) Kindness vs. Welfare vs. Rights. Christianism (Natural Right/ Anthropocentrism/Nature Stewardship). Animal Ethics Humane societies 1800s (welfare).. Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism. Buddhist Modernism/Animal Ethics APA (1960): Livestock, conservation, stray animals, animal welfare. LCA (19902): “Anti-hook fishing” campaign, animal rights. Companion animals dog and cat protection, conservation. Emerging sector focus on economic animals (farm). Emerging, local. Some major national level NGOs.. Modern Animal Rights Movement since 1970s.. 政治大 Economic animals (farm, fur, 立 entertainment), testing,. ‧ 國. Relatively mainstream and developed. Major international NGOs.. Nat. sit. y. ‧. Social Movement Status. 學. Current Issue conservation (hunting). Focus. io. er. Source: Author. (Based on Weller, 2006; Ho, 2016. APA, 2007; Appendix: B1). al. iv n C in socio-natural values, but also demonstrates changing dynamics of social mobilization in h e nthe gchi U n. The rise of new lifestyles surrounding these principles not only indicates the important shift. Taiwan.. 4.3 “Going Vegan” Keeping the above mentioned aspects in mind, there is more recent element arising from the processes of cultural globalization currently shaping the further development of Taiwan’s APM that requires further attention. This refers to the growing trend of people who are identifying as ‘vegan’. According to the Vegan Society (2017), veganism is defined as: "A philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing 33.