中華民國與美國歷史教科書中的國家起源敘事神話 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 中華民國與美國歷史教科書中的國家起源敘事神話 The Mythology of National Origin Narratives in R.O.C. and U.S.A. History Textbooks. er. io. sit. y. Nat. n. Student: Phillip L. Henderson a iv. l C n U h eChuing Advisor: Dr. Prudence Chou i ngch. 2019 年 5 月 May 2019. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(2) 中華民國與美國歷史教科書中的國家起源敘事神話 The Mythology of National Origin Narratives in R.O.C. and U.S.A. History Textbooks 研究生：李翰昇 Student: Phillip L. Henderson 指導教授：周祝瑛 Advisor: Dr. Chuing Prudence Chou 國立政治大學. 政治大. 亞太研究英語碩士學位學程. 立. 碩士論文. Nat. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 A Thesis. sit. er. io. Submitted to International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies. al. n. iv n C U h eChengchi National n g c h i University. In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master in Asia-Pacific Studies. 2019 年 5 月 May 2019. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(3) Acknowledgements In writing this thesis, and in my experience at National Chengchi University, I have benefited from opportunities, council, and mentorship from my advisor, Dr. Chuing Prudence Chou. With her support, I have grown significantly in the last two years, both personally and professionally. This thesis would not have been possible without her support and guidance. I have also benefited from the articulate and constructive advice of my committee members, Dr. Wei Mei-chuan and Dr. Chen Hsiao-lan. Additionally, analysis. 政治大 the patient and insightful interpretation of Tzu Hsuan-huang, who sacrificed many hours 立. of the national origin narrative in the ROC textbook would not have been possible without. ‧ 國. 學. of her time over several weeks. I am also grateful to the ROC, whose ambitious efforts to encourage international educational exchanges resulted in my decision to study in this. ‧. lovely country. Finally, I am especially grateful for the continuing support and comradery. sit. y. Nat. I receive from my brother, Dr. Mark Henderson, who continues to inspire and motivate me.. io. al. er. Many thanks to all of these individuals, as well as the wonderful faculty and staff of the. n. IMAS department at NCCU. It has been a pleasure and a privilege.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. i. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(4) Abstract History curriculum dealing with national origin narratives has always been a core subject in public education around the world. Although progress has been made toward more open, peaceful, and inclusive national ideals, there persists a sacred character to national origin narratives, especially those propagated in public schools. These narratives contribute to the propagation and perpetuation of national values and ideas through their telling in history classrooms, suggesting that careful attention should be paid to the values they promote.. 治政大the United States (USA) through a textbooks from both the Republic of China (ROC) and 立. This study analyzes values implicit in the national origin narratives in high school history. comparative narrative analysis using Joseph Campbell’s monomyth as theoretical. ‧ 國. 學. framework. In this method, the major actors and events of the national origin narratives in. ‧. the two textbooks are compared to each other through the monomyth. These findings support the notion that the narrative stages and character archetypes in the national origin. y. Nat. er. io. sit. narratives of the ROC and USA resemble those in religions and myths, and that these narratives present a particular set of values to their readers. This study has important. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. implications for history educators, textbook producers, and researchers in the field of. engchi. history and language arts education who play critical roles in the construction of national values and ideas.. Keywords: National Origin Narrative, Monomyth, Narrative History, History Education. ii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(5) 關於國家起源敘事的歷史教材一直是全世界公共教育的核心課題。雖然已經在往更開放，和平和包容的方面取得了進展，但特別是在公立學校裡, 仍然被堅持宣傳著存在國家起源敘事的神聖特徵。這些故事通過在歷史課堂上講述，有助於國家價值觀和思想的傳播和延續，且被表明應該認真關注它們所倡導的價值觀。本研究通過比較敘事分析，利用約瑟夫·坎貝爾(Joseph Campbell)的 Monomyth 作為理論框架，分析了來自中華民國（ROC）和美國（USA）的高中歷史教科書中的國家起源敘事隱含的價值觀。在這種方法中，兩本教科書中的國家起源敘事的主要參與者和事件透過 Monomyth. 治政相互比較。這些發現支持了這樣的觀點，即中華民國和美國的國家大立. 起源敘事中的敘事階段和人物原型與宗教和神話中相似，並且這些敘述為讀者呈現. ‧ 國. 學. 了一套特定的價值觀。這項研究對歷史教育者、教科書製作者以及歷史和語言藝術. ‧. 教育領域的研究人員具有重要意義，他們在建設國家價值觀和思想方面發揮著關鍵. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 作用。. n. al. i n C h 敘事史, 歷史教育關鍵字: 民族起源敘事, Monomyth, engchi U. v. iii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(6) Table of Contents Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. i Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1. 治政大 1.1 Rationale of Study..................................................................................................... 2 立 ‧ 國. 學. 1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Research Design and Analysis .................................................................................. 8. ‧. 1.4 Key Terms ................................................................................................................. 8. y. Nat. io. sit. 2 Literature Review........................................................................................................... 10. n. al. er. 2.1 Myth, Narrative, and National History ................................................................... 10. Ch. i n U. v. 2.2 Backgrounds of History Education ......................................................................... 14. engchi. 2.2.1 ROC History Textbooks and Curriculum ........................................................ 14 2.2.2 USA History Textbooks and Curriculum ........................................................ 17 2.3 The Monomyth........................................................................................................ 19 2.3.1 Narrative Stages ............................................................................................... 19 2.3.2 Character Archetypes ....................................................................................... 27 2.3.3 Criticism of the Monomyth .............................................................................. 30. iv. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(7) 3 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 32 3.1 Sources .................................................................................................................... 32 3.2 Framework .............................................................................................................. 33 3.3 Comparative Narrative Analysis ............................................................................. 35 4 Findings and Discussion ................................................................................................ 38 4.1 Tragedy and Betrayal: The Purgatory of Sun Yat-sen ............................................ 38. 政治大 4.1.2 Character Archetypes ....................................................................................... 44 立 4.1.1 Narrative Stages ............................................................................................... 38. ‧ 國. 學. 4.2 Triumph of the Son: Washington’s Apotheosis ...................................................... 48 4.2.1 Narrative Stages ............................................................................................... 49. ‧. 4.2.2 Character Archetypes ....................................................................................... 55. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 4.3 Comparison ............................................................................................................. 60. al. 4.3.1 Nationalism ...................................................................................................... 62. n. iv n C hengchi U 4.3.2 Virtues and Vices ............................................................................................. 66 4.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................... 70 5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 73 5.1 Limitations of Study ............................................................................................... 74 5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 75 References ......................................................................................................................... 78. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(8) List of Figures Figure 1: The Monomyth .................................................................................................. 35 Figure 2: ROC Narrative Structure ................................................................................... 44 Figure 3: USA Narrative Structure ................................................................................... 55. List of Tables. 政治大 Table 2: :Narrative Stages ................................................................................................. 37 立 Table 1: Character Archetypes.......................................................................................... 36. Table 3: Narrative Stage Comparison ............................................................................... 60. ‧ 國. 學. Table 4: Character Archetype Comparison ....................................................................... 61. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vi. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(9) 1 Introduction Nations play a unique role in global society. Even from their nascency in the eighteenth century they were able to inspire zealous loyalty and immense sacrifice. As the nations of the world began to establish systems to educate their populations, the historic birth of the nation was always a point of serious concern. Even today national history is a core subject in almost every public school system, where young people learn their country’s national origin narrative. That narrative, like the narrative of a religion’s origin, is imbued with. 政治大. mythological characteristics, (Kramer, 1997).. 立. Myths are tied to the structure of the human experience, (Campbell, 2004). Life,. ‧ 國. 學. death, loss, coming into maturity, failure, triumph, etc. These experiences come in different colors and shapes around the world, but they are common across human life. The nation,. ‧. the kingdom, the tribe; these are extensions of this human experience. They go through. y. Nat. sit. vicissitudes and life cycles that are comparable to those of an individual. The Chinese cycle. n. al. er. io. of dynastic death and rebirth, and the western celebration of revolution follow a not. i n U. v. dissimilar narrative arch when they are retold. Even the democratic cycles in elections. Ch. engchi. adhere to this narrative to some degree. In his celebrated work, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, (Campbell, 2004) Joseph Campbell identified what he called, the monomyth: a narrative framework in which any myth, religion, or folk tale could be inserted and analyzed. Within this framework are two core character archetypes (the hero and the tyrant monster), and several supporting character archetypes (the herald, the mentor, the ally, the shapeshifter, and the threshold guardians) as well as three narrative stages (separation, initiation, and return). Although national origin narratives have been compared to myths in the past, (Kramer, 1997; Anderson, 1991; Elson, 1964) no one has ever systematically used 1. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(10) the monomythic framework to analyze and compare them. This study seeks to compare the national origin narratives of the Republic of China (ROC) and the United States (USA) through Campbell’s (2004) monomyth framework. This chapter will introduce this study in four sections. First, it will identify the five main rationale behind this study. Section two introduces the two main research questions guiding the study, followed by a brief discussion of their significance and implications. Section three will briefly introduce the research design for this study, which will be. 政治大. explicated in greater detail in chapter three. Section four will define key terms that will. 立. 學. ‧ 國. appear throughout the study.. 1.1 Rationale of Study. This study will analyze the national origin narratives of the ROC and the USA using. ‧. Campbell’s (2004) monomyth. The rationale for this research can be summarized in six. er. io. sit. y. Nat. points:. First, public debate over national origin narratives in history textbooks often. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. misrepresents those narratives as perfectible and representative of a verifiable truth, which. engchi. they are not, (Raphael, 2004). Generally, contemporary historians try to be as impartial as they can, and effort is made to represent all the interests and actors as accurately as possible, but there is inevitably a purpose for studying history, a lesson to be learned imposed by the historian. They typically overrepresent dominant social groups and the culture and time which produced them, (White, 2008). While some verifiable facts are used others are inevitably omitted in the narrative-writing process, creating a bias view of national history. Bias in history is a chronic concern, especially in school textbooks, (Romanowski, 1996), and national origin narratives in history textbooks taught as historical fact have been 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(11) deliberately used to promote exclusive national identities and enforce national agendas. In many countries that persists today, (Manojlovic, 2018). Second, national origin narratives are significant in terms of nationalism, national values, and nationalism itself. Nationalism appeals to many so deeply that it even has the potential to inspire one to sacrifice his or her life, (Anderson, 1991). Representation of national origin narratives in schools, which is typically standardized in national textbooks, is therefore hotly contested, and it is often manicured and polished until it shines with. 政治大 narratives which are deliberate and thoughtful about what values they encourage. They 立 mythological grandeur. This level of significance merits a concerted effort to craft national. ‧ 國. 學. should make efforts to include and harmonize the various identities (ethnic, religious, gender, etc.) within nations. A static narrative, however, is unlikely to satisfy the diverse. ‧. and dynamic set of identities in modern nations, so in order to thrive in their communities,. sit. y. Nat. their nations, and their world, students need to recognize and question the values, identities,. io. n. al. er. and types of nationalism they are encouraged to adopt through these narratives.. i n U. v. Third, evidence that national origin narratives follow a structure and archetypical. Ch. engchi. pattern similar to those in myths and religions indicates that recent attempts to remove narrative and portray history as if it was purely empirical are misguided. Narratives are tools by which we can make sense of the past in our contemporary lives, and although they are often bias, acknowledging that they are malleable empowers the citizens of a nation to address that bias productively, and find their individual place in the national community. Many history textbook publishers in the USA have attempted to remove narratives in favor of a dry, accounting of events, figures, and dates. This attempt to remove any violation of taboos held by the many religious, ethnic, racial, cultural, and economic groups of a nation, 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(12) (Ravitch, 2003) are squandering students’ opportunity to address difficult social issues in the safe, structured environment of a classroom. Fourth, narratives in high school textbooks often pander to the values of louder voices and larger markets, (American textbook producers target audiences in Texas and California, for example) which has the effect of sidelining many of the smaller voices in the national narrative. High school history textbooks are an important part of social development and can be either a force for social harmony through inclusive national. 政治大 others, (Manojlovic, 2018). If the extent to which national origin narratives are bias is 立. narratives, or it can aggrandize one group at the expense of villainized or dehumanized. ‧ 國. 學. identified more precisely, an effort this study aims to contribute to, it will enable educators, textbook producers, and educational researchers to more effectively mitigate bias.. ‧. Fifth, Campbell’s (2004) monomyth narrative structure is ideal for this study. Nat. sit. y. because it is applicable human narratives across cultures and time periods. The structure. n. al. er. io. has been adapted to analyze everything from folk tales to religious dogma, and through it. i n U. v. values implicit in the narratives can be revealed and analyzed. Furthermore, the monomyth. Ch. engchi. is a narrative analysis structure, and the narrative of national origins is precisely what this study aims to analyze, not the fidelity of the historical facts in the textbooks. If the two national origin narratives reveal structural and archetypical patterns common to the monomyth, and therefore to myths and religious dogma, it will support the idea that they may hold a sacred place in society. Lastly, high school history textbooks were chosen as the subject of this comparative discourse analysis because they contain a sufficient amount of text-based content to analyze, while still being a part of the public education system. College-level history texts 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(13) are not available to the whole population, and therefore their narratives are not as influential on society. Texts from lower grade levels often contain significantly less text in favor of graphical and instructional content. High school textbooks are also instrumental in determining what topics are covered and how they are presented to students, (Behnke, 2018) making their narratives and content an appropriate subject for this study. Acknowledgement of the mythologization of national origin narratives empowers learners with underrepresented historical identities to “write in” the role of their identities. 政治大 This study seeks to provide evidence that, indeed, the national origin narratives of the ROC 立. in the existing national narrative using supplementary sources in addition to the textbook.. ‧ 國. 學. and USA do exhibit characteristics common among myths, legends, and religions. The implications of these findings are expected to inform educators, textbook producers, and. ‧. educational researchers concerned with national history education in the ROC, the USA,. sit. y. Nat. and around the world.. n. al. er. io. 1.2 Research Questions This study will address three main questions:. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 1. How do the national origin narratives in ROC and USA history textbooks compare to each other through Joseph Campbell’s (2004) monomyth framework? 2. What values are implicit in the two national origin narratives when analyzed through the monomyth? 3. What implications about nationalism in the ROC and USA can be drawn from this analysis of national origin narratives?. 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(14) The first question will be addressed through examination of the national origin narratives in the ROC and USA as they are presented in the two textbooks subjected to this study. The analysis of the ROC textbook will focus primarily on its portrayal of the Chinese Revolution of 1911, as well as the chapters around it secondarily. In the American textbook, the primary focus will be on the narrative of the Revolutionary War. Secondarily, the chapters just before and after those dealing with the war may be examined for their contribution to the primary narrative. It should be noted that although the ROC has a clear. 治政大consider the history of Taiwan to debated, even in history curriculum, (Chen, 2004). Some 立. national origin narrative, the national identity of the ROC and its citizens is fiercely. be inseparable from the ROC, while others argue that the history of Taiwan is that of a. ‧ 國. 學. unique nation, independent from a Chinese historical narrative. These narratives are at odds. ‧. in textbooks in the ROC, (Chang, 2011). The Chinese Revolution of 1911 was chosen for this study because the narrative associated with an independent and unique Taiwanese. y. Nat. er. io. sit. history is not fully developed. The freedom to entertain this idea has only been possible since the late-1980s, as the ROC began to democratize, and there is not currently a coherent. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. national origin narrative for Taiwan which doesn’t include the narrative of the ROC, (Chen, 2004).. engchi. The second and third research questions will have three important implications. First, subtle variances in the portrayal of each character archetype and narrative stage will reveal values presented by the narrative. If, for example, the archetypical hero of the narrative is seen praying or giving honor to God, this indicates that piety is presented as a desirable character trait. If, on the other hand, the hero is presented as being motivated by personal honor, this would indicate that individualism is highly valued by the narrative.. 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(15) Understanding how these values are promoted through national origin narratives should inform the strategies involved in creating and implementing national history curriculum. Second, characteristics of each country’s nationalism are promoted through the portrayal of the narrative stages and character archetypes in the two narratives. This is especially true of the two countries in question, as both have diverse ethnic, religious, and cultural identities within them. If the cast of characters within the narrative comes from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, communities who identify with those ethnicities today may. 政治大 there is practically no opportunity to include Muslim characters in the national origin 立. more easily see themselves as a valued member of the national community. For example,. ‧ 國. 學. narrative of the USA, but there are currently nearly 3.5 million US citizens who identify as Muslim, (Pew Research Center, 2017). In order to create a bridge between Muslim and. ‧. American nationalism, an inclusive strategy should be employed within or around the. sit. y. Nat. narrative.. n. al. er. io. Third, if the monomythic narrative stages and character archetypes are reflected. i n U. v. significantly in both national origin narratives, it is evidence that nationalism in the ROC. Ch. engchi. and USA take on a sacred significance. This has been argued from other perspectives by many, (Stevens, 1997), (Smith, 2000), and is contrary to the popular assertion that the ROC and USA are ‘secular’ nations, or that the secular is opposed to the sacred. Instead, it may be that nationalism fills a similar role in society as religion. Further research is needed on this subject, but significant congruency between the national origin narratives of the ROC and USA and the monomyth would provide evidence to support the idea that nations play a religious role in modern societies.. 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(16) 1.3 Research Design and Analysis This study will examine one major history textbook used for instruction in the ROC and the USA. The research will focus on the national origin narratives presented in the two textbooks from their respective countries. Specifically, the narrative of the revolutionary war of 1775-1783 will be the focus in in the American textbook, and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 will be the focus of the ROC textbook. These events have been chosen because they represent the national origin narrative of the USA and ROC respectively; they. 政治大 researcher will compare the historical characters and major events in each of the two 立. are the events which are used to tell the story of the birth of the two countries. The. narratives with each other using Campbell’s (2004) monomyth. The characters and events. ‧ 國. 學. in each will be recorded on a table in chapter four, where they will be arranged based on. ‧. their counterparts from the other narrative. Analysis of the characterization of each. sit. y. Nat. character archetype and narrative stage will yield insight into the values implicit in the two. al. n. 1.4 Key Terms. io. 2010).. er. narratives . This method for analyzing textbooks is established and has precedent, (Pingel,. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The following key terms will be used throughout this study as defined here. Each may have a slightly different definition outside the context of this thesis. •. National Origin Narrative (national narrative): This refers to the historical narrative taught as the birth event of a nation. For the USA, this refers to the Revolutionary War with Great Britain of 1775-1783, and for the ROC this refers to the Chinese Revolution of 1911 which resulted in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty.. 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(17) •. Monomyth: This is the name given to the narrative structure identified by Campbell in his book, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, (Campbell, 2004). According to Campbell, the same narrative stages and character archetypes are used in folk tales, religions, and myths across all human cultures.. •. Narrative Stage: This refers to one of the three important phases in the monomyth. The three stages are, separation, initiation, and return. Each one is divided into several narrative substages.. •. 政治大 of the larger narrative stages. There is a total of 17 narrative substages in the 立. Narrative Substage (substage): This refers to a narrative stage which occurs within one. monomythic framework, each of which are explained in detail in chapter two.. ‧ 國. 學. Character Archetype (archetype): This refers to one of the character types in the. ‧. monomyth. Each one plays a particular role within the narrative structure. There have. io. sit. y. Nat. been numerous interpretations of the precise number of character archetypes.. n. al. er. •. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(18) 2 Literature Review This chapter functions as a review of the literature relevant to this study. Section one explores the mythologization of national history. Section two, then, traces the backgrounds of history education in the ROC and USA. The final section of this chapter explicates Campbell’s (2004) theoretical framework, the monomyth, in three parts. Part one clarifies Campbell’s eight main character architypes, and part two covers the narrative stages, while part three highlights criticism that the monomyth has received.. 政治大 Among the numerous narratives in history-writing, national origin narratives tend to be 立 2.1 Myth, Narrative, and National History. ‧ 國. 學. especially mythologized, (Kramer, 1997). Carl Jung, one of the chief influencers of Campbell and his framework, identified among other contexts, how this phenomenon. ‧. played out in the infamous propaganda of the Nazis, saying, “The energy of archetypes can. sit. y. Nat. be focused (through rituals and other appeals to mass emotion) to move people to collective. io. er. action. The Nazis knew this, and used versions of Teutonic myths to help rally the country. al. to their cause,” (Jung & Franz, 1964). This section examines the role of history education,. n. iv n C especially textbooks and their narratives, h e n gincmythologizing h i U national history and national origin narratives.. In his renown work, Imagined Communities, Anderson (1991) deeply examines the phenomenon of nationalism. He attempts to answer important questions about the nation, like: How are so many able to live, kill, and even die for their nation? He argues convincingly that the nation is something that exists entirely in the imagination, and yet commands tremendous loyalty and reverence. He explains how nations were constructed by people with shared languages, histories, and identities, and opens new doors in the study 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(19) of nationalism and its place in modern society, (Anderson, 1991). Since his important book, many have continued seeking answers to these important questions about nations. One way that nations have, over the last two centuries, constructed themselves and encouraged the feelings discussed by Anderson and others is by coopting the study and writing of history, (Grever & Viles, 2017). The breadth of scholarship on the use of historical narratives in forming identities, constructing social groups, and promoting national agendas is staggering, (Manojlovic, 2018; Wertsch J. , 2017; Hammack, 2010; Hadley, 2010; Levstik,. 治政大public support for them has been empirical history at many different times in the past, and 立. 2009). There has been a strong emphasis on constructing official national narratives out of. growing in recent years. “National newspapers, television programs and internet. ‧ 國. 學. campaigns have accused school history of a fragmentary approach, teaching relativistic. ‧. narratives and marginalizing national history,” (Grever & Viles, 2017). Despite research which illuminates the questionable integrity of many national origin narratives many still. y. Nat. er. io. sit. insist on their sanctity, and that they be taught as historical fact. Problematically these demands from political authorities and from public discourse are often at odds with the. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. discipline of history, (Grever & Stuurman, 2007). Narrative is a useful tool for teaching. engchi. and writing history, but many of the narratives that are a part of national cannons around the world are flimsy, if not utterly fabricated. National origin narratives are especially susceptible to mythologization, (Raphael, 2004). As the controllers of these narratives, states are responsible for the consequences that come in their wake which have the potential to be immense, (Grever & Viles, 2017). Although the myths that are embedded into the cannon of national origins are typically based on some historical evidence, they are almost invariably embellished and. 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(20) revised. Anderson gives an example of how this happens in the United Kingdom, saying, “The barons who imposed Magna Carta on John Plantagenet did not speak ‘English,’ and had no conception of themselves as ‘Englishmen,’ but they were firmly defined as early patriots in the classrooms of the United Kingdom 700 years later,” (Anderson, 1991). These myths are also propagated to illicit support for the national state at home and abroad. Borislava Manojlovic addresses these and other issues in her recent book, Education for Sustainable Peace and Conflict Resilient Societies, saying, “Negative evaluation leads to. 治政大 2018). Mythology presents an perception of their groups and collectives,” (Manojlovic, 立. the feeling of being threatened, which challenges the need of people to maintain a positive. irresponsible solution to these anxieties and aspirations. Campbell explains that, “…in. ‧ 國. 學. myth the problems and solutions shown are directly valid for all mankind,” (Campbell,. ‧. 2004) but when married to history, they are at odds with one of the primary goals of the discipline of history: a sober-minded conversation with the past.. sit. y. Nat. io. er. The writing of history, however, is not so simple as an empirical list of facts,. al. figures, and events. It is, rather, a “narrative-making exercise,” (Munslow, 2019). It is. n. iv n C therefore useful to examine the process h e nbygwhich i Unarratives are structured, especially c h these since history claims to be a source of meaning, identity, and continuity for human civilization. Narratives of history are instrumental in creating the identity which enables national consciousness. Just as memory is an essential part of an individual’s knowledge of who he or she is, history is essential in bringing into being a national self-knowledge. “In particular, it is viewed as being a powerful instrument for shaping ideas and emotions that underlie the actions of a citizen of a nation-state, actions such as voting, going to war, or paying taxes,” (Wertsch J. V., 1997). Ironically, two historians can come to radically. 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(21) different conclusions even when given the same set of data. Cronon (1992) conducted a study called, A Place for Stories: Nature, History, and Narrative, comparing two histories of the American Dust Bowl (a period of extreme drought and poverty in the American Midwest) written by different historians. While one was a heroic narrative about the triumph of the American communities over an unfortunate natural disaster, the other narrative condemned the farmers’ lack of foresight and mistreatment of the environment as the main cause of the episode. The power of the historian to dictate the terms by which. 政治大 Nowhere has the cannon of national origin narratives been mythologized more 立. history is remembered through his or her narrative is thus of paramount significance.. ‧ 國. 學. systematically than in schools. According to Elson (1964), the national origin narratives of the USA have been mythologized since the nineteenth century, (Elson, 1964). In spite of. ‧. the apparent fantasy that is portrayed in textbooks, the history in classrooms does indeed. sit. y. Nat. contribute to peoples’ identity, collective and individual. In his revised edition of Imagined. io. er. Communities, Anderson (1991) writes of the growth of nationalism in former colonies, “…. al. iv n C the maps of the colony which they U differently from British Malaya hstudied e n g(always c h i colored n. their common experience, and amiably competitive comradeship of the classroom, gave. or the American Philippines) a territorially specific imagined reality which was every day confirmed by the accents and physiognomies of their classmates,” (Anderson, 1991). Thus, myth has shaped peoples’ perceptions of themselves and their nations all over the world. The assertion that national origin narratives are mythologized is well studied and established.. 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(22) 2.2 Backgrounds of History Education History education in the ROC and USA have gone through considerable changes over the course of the two countries’ histories. This study will examine the background of history education in these two nations beginning in the 1980s. Although they changed in different ways and for different reasons, this period represents a significant milestone for both nations’ educational systems which has led to the current paradigm therein. This section is divided into two parts, the first of which addresses the background of history education in. 政治大 history education. The second section addresses the background of history education in the 立 the ROC, beginning with the democratization and concluding with the current state of. USA during roughly the same period, beginning with the Nation at Risk report, (Gardner. ‧ 國. 學. & al., 1983) and concluding with the current state of history education.. ‧. 2.2.1 ROC History Textbooks and Curriculum. Nat. sit. y. History education in the ROC has gone through numerous changes since the government. n. al. er. io. fled to Taiwan in 1949. History education in the period between that year and the mid-. v. 1980s was characterized by a “narrative of restoration,” wherein, “Taiwan was imagined. Ch. engchi. i n U. as reborn to be the model child of Chinese descent that was obligated to emancipate all Chinese compatriots from Communism and to ultimately realize the goal of Chinese reunification,” (Huang & Chen, 2019). Democratization in the 1980s and 1990s opened the debate about national history to the public and, in turn, begun to democratize the ROC’s culture. This has brought out a large amount of controversy which has even manifested into public protests over education, and specifically about the narratives in official history textbooks and curriculum, (Wees, 2016; Chou & Ching, 2012).. 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(23) ROC textbooks still in use in the 1990s continued to promote the exceptionalism of Han Chinese culture in terms of the, “…unique length of Chinese history…, the capacity of the (Han) Chinese for assimilating other ethnic groups…, an emphasis on ‘propriety’, and a love of peace,” (Vickers, 2009). Problematically, national identity in the ROC is an immensely controversial topic, and none of the existent interpretations of it satisfy the island’s people as a whole. In 1993 the ROC Ministry of Education decided to overhaul history education, and add courses specifically devoted to Taiwanese history, separate from. 治政大 for (1) ‘glorifying’ Japanese course was approved in 1997, but was subsequently attacked 立. the required Chinese history courses. After a long review process, the Knowing Taiwan. colonization (specifically for its effects toward modernization), and (2) working for the de-. ‧ 國. 學. Sinicization of the ROC by de-emphasizing its connection with China, (Chang, 2011). This. ‧. controversy is characteristic of the ongoing debate over history curriculum in the ROC. er. io. sit. Nat. ROC’s identity as inextricably linked to Mainland China.. y. which pits those who call for more Taiwan-centered history against those who see the. al. iv n C the Ma administration. A few h small protests broke e n g c h i Uout when the content of the new n. The most recent revisions to history textbooks in the ROC took place in 2014 under. textbooks was revealed, with opponents critical of the apparent emphasis placed on the link between the ROC and the mainland through very specific word choices around particular events and figures. Koxinga (國姓爺), for example, a military and political leader who is famous for having driven the Dutch off the island in 1662, established his own short-lived dynasty between 1662 and 1683 on the island, called the Zheng (鄭) Dynasty in previous iterations. The new textbook, however, labeled this brief episode the Ming Zheng (明鄭), promoting a narrative wherein Koxinga was a Ming loyalist during the Manchu, or Qing, 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(24) conquest of China, intending to use the island as a staging ground to eventually retake the Chinese mainland for the Ming. The implication here is that the Ming controlled the island of Taiwan at any point, an assertion for which many argue there is no other evidence, (Tsoi, 2015). It is unclear which narrative is more accurate. Koxinga was, indeed, a military leader associated with the Ming Dynasty, and he and his progeny did control the island for a short time, but weather his motivations were out of loyalty to the Ming or out of a desire to establish his own kingdom is still a matter under debate.. 政治大 and the ‘White Terror,’ all of which have political implications related to the KMT party. 立. Other critiques of the text included issues with the portrayal of the ‘228’ incident. ‧ 國. 學. The Tsai administration, which is currently in power and a member of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), has commissioned the revision of textbooks, (Wees, 2016), but. ‧. these new iterations are not yet in use. Rhetoric in the media surrounding these. sit. y. Nat. controversies often villainizes the KMT party as colluding with Beijing, while other. io. er. sources condemn the DPP as incompetent, impractical, or secretly focused on achieving de. al. iv n C followed in the political debate,h the historical narrative e n g c h i U should be a topic for discussion n. jure independence. The irony in this controversy is that regardless of what policies are. within classrooms where students would benefit from the open debate. Instead, an official interpretation of history is preferred. It is debated openly in the public sphere, but that privilege is not widely afforded to students in the classroom. Despite several reforms to history education over the last three decades, pedagogy in ROC history classrooms still tends to be didactic, moralistic, and prescriptive, (Liu, Hung, & Vickers, 2005).. 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(25) 2.2.2 USA History Textbooks and Curriculum Since the early stages of American public schooling in the nineteenth century, national history has been a part of the curriculum. In order to understand the current state of history education, and indeed the whole American educational system, it is necessary to consider the impact of the movements and reforms that have their roots in the 1980s, after the Nation at Risk report, (Gardner & al., 1983). By constitutional mandate, education is under state jurisdiction, not federal, but ever since the Johnson administration of the 1960s, states have. 政治大 report, the Reagan administration had been pushing for the abolition of the federal 立. been required to adhere to a handful of federal regulations and mandates. Before the 1983. Department of Education, (Bell, 1993). Although the report silenced that initiative for a. ‧ 國. 學. time, it precipitated a series of reform movements and initiatives that have extended into. ‧. today.. sit. y. Nat. History education has been no less affected by movements since that report. Peter. er. io. Seixas writes, “By the end if the 1980s, many felt that [social studies education] was. al. iv n C h emakers coherence,” (Seixas, 2006). Policy i U specialists looking to history n g candhcurriculum n. ‘adrift’, buffeted between tradition and reform, and that the return to history might provide. found a field of study that had been in a state of near constant flux and uncertainty over the decades preceding the early 1990s, (Novick, 1988). History was pushing itself to include and consider the perspectives of actors who had previously been overlooked or undermined. In American national history, this especially referred to African-American and Native-American voices. The integration of these perspectives undermined the traditional national origin narrative in parts. This, as well as a drive to raise achievement and close the racial performance gap, brought about a movement in social studies. 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(26) education, as well as in general education, to enforce more intense standards of accountability on teachers and students, which culminated in the No Child Left Behind act of 2002. Linda Darling-Hammond, as well as many other scholars and educators, have reflected on the effects of the 2002 law, concluding that it has resulted in, “narrowed curriculum, focused on the low‐level skills generally reflected on high stakes tests; inappropriate assessment of English language learners and students with special needs; and strong incentives to exclude low‐scoring students from school, so as to achieve test score. 治政大historical narratives in textbooks stakes testing has had the effect of further standardizing 立. targets,” (Darling-Hammond, 2007). In terms of history curriculum specifically, high-. and curriculum which prepare students for the test, and in other ways, has marginalized. ‧ 國. 學. social studies education as emphasis on math and language trumps history and social. ‧. studies on standardized tests, (Fitchett & Heafner, 2012).. sit. y. Nat. In addition to their alignment with standardize tests, US history textbooks are also. io. al. er. one of the main subjects of the discourse on nationalism and nation building, which is,. n. “defined and controlled by the ambivalent nexus between ideology and political expectations (that history. iv n C textbooks to national h e ncontribute gchi U. identity and patriotism),. curricular assumptions (that quality history textbooks impact on pedagogical outcomes) and academic rigor and objectivity,” (Zajda, 2015). These forces explained by Zajda (2015) continue to color the debate over national history textbooks in the USA and elsewhere. One political advocacy group, the American Textbook Council, expressly advocates for more narrative based history textbooks, and makes recommendations to educators based on their own evaluations. Their characterization of most contemporary textbook publishing practices is that it is substandard and lacks rigor or narrative structure, (American Textbook. 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(27) Council, 2018). This debate shows no signs of relenting as policy makers and educators continue to address problems that are not even agreed on in all cases. Although the gamut is somewhat diverse in the USA, narratives do continue to be embedded in many national history textbooks, many of which are exclusionary, prescriptive, and didactic.. 2.3 The Monomyth Campbell (2004) identified a narrative structure that is reflected in myths, legends, and folk tales across history and civilizations. The narrative structure, called the monomyth,. 政治大 divided and analyzed. This 立section will explicate the monomyth in two sections. The first. contains distinct character archetypes and narrative stages into which those stories can be. ‧ 國. 學. section discusses the character archetypes, while section two discusses the three narrative stages and their respective substages.. ‧. 2.3.1 Narrative Stages. y. Nat. sit. Campbell (2004) identified three narrative stages into which myths are chronologically. n. al. er. io. divided. These three stages, called separation, initiation, and return, are the, “nuclear unit,”. i n U. v. (Campbell, 2004) of a myth. Each of these are divided into narrative substages which. Ch. engchi. characterize each of the main stages. The substages are not necessarily in chronological order, and equal weight is not given to each of them. Sometimes, “differing characters or episodes can become fused, or a single element can reduplicate itself and reappear under many changes,” (Campbell, 2004) meaning that the substages, like the character archetypes, will vary in their characterization and portrayal, revealing values implicit in the narrative. The hero must descend into death in order to achieve apotheosis, and must be reborn when he or she re-crosses the threshold during the return. The monomyth. 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(28) narrative structure, according to Campbell, uses the symbolism of death and rebirth as an allegory for a transformation of some kind. This section is divided into three parts, each corresponding to one of the three main narrative stages. Each narrative substage will then be briefly explicated. Adaptation of the monomyth framework for the critical comparison of the national origin narratives of the ROC and USA will be covered in chapter 3.2.. Separation. 政治大. Separation is the first narrative stage of the monomyth. This stage contains five substages,. 立. the call to adventure, the refusal of the call, supernatural aid, the crossing of the first. ‧ 國. 學. threshold, and the belly of the whale. This section will highlight the unique characteristics of each of these stages.. ‧. The Call to Adventure.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. The call to adventure occurs when the hero is in his initial state, in which there is a particular order to things. Among other things, this may be represented by a social structure. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. or hierarchy in which society has been embedded since time immemorial. The call itself is. engchi. represented by a force which encourages the hero to question this order, or which disrupts the order in some way. It can be a “blunder,” or it can be something deliberate from some existing subversive force. The character archetype of the herald typically appears here, although the herald is sometimes represented as an inanimate object instead of an actual character. Often the call is repeated several times or in several different ways before the hero answers. This leads into the second substage of the separation.. 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(29) Refusal of the Call In the second phase, the hero initially refuses the call. This refusal may be due to several things. One may be that the hero feels a sense of duty or loyalty to the current order in his or her world. Another may be that the hero is afraid or uncertain about what may happen if he or she answers the call. Whatever the reason, refusal of the call often builds pressure and suspense. This also contributes to the justification of the hero’s eventual response to the call.. 政治大 Once the hero has accepted the call to adventure, he or she encounters a mentor figure who 立 Supernatural Aid. ‧ 國. 學. bestows supernatural protections for the journey to come. These protections are often represented in traditional tales by trinkets, cloaks, weapons, shields, or potentially by a. ‧. word or blessing. Words are often very powerful as protection, and recitation of a particular. sit. y. Nat. phrase at the right moment will grant the hero temporary safety or power. The mentor, one. io. al. er. of the character archetypes, is not always a single individual, but often is represented by. v. n. more than one, who sometimes help the hero several times throughout the narrative. Crossing the first threshold. Ch. engchi. i n U. Once the hero has accepted the call and received divine aid, he or she is ready to advance into the unknown. The first threshold, once crossed, is in essence, a denial of the old order, and thus a descent into chaos and uncertainty. Waiting on the other side is monsters and violence, but also temptation. After crossing, the hero will be faced with a gauntlet of trials and challenges before he or she can reach the goal.. 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(30) Belly of the Whale This narrative stage - sometimes symbolically, sometimes literally - envelops the hero. In a sense, the hero dies, as passing the threshold is a form of “self-annihilation,” (Campbell, 2004). Before the hero can be reborn in his or her new form, this descent is symbolic of the hero shedding his or her old form. The hero remains in the “belly” until this transformation is complete, at which point he or she re-crosses the threshold and returns to life.. Initiation. 政治大 of trials, the meeting with立 the goddess, the temptress, atonement with the father, apotheosis, The second major stage of the monomyth is initiation. It contains six substages: the road. ‧ 國. 學. and the ultimate boon. Some of these stages are often very close to one another or even merged together into a single event within the narrative. This section will briefly explicate. ‧. the characteristics of these six substages.. sit. y. Nat. Road of Trials. n. al. er. io. In the first substage of the initiation, the hero is subjected to a host of difficult tests which. i n U. v. he or she must overcome. In some cases, these trials are accomplished easily, indicating. Ch. engchi. either that the hero is deeply and unquestionably worthy, but in most cases, these trials are immensely difficult. They take many forms, including battles, feats of strength, tests of cleverness, or tests of virtue. The hero may overcome these trials in many different ways, sometimes even through deceit. He or she makes use of the divine protection bestowed the mentors, but also, “discovers for the first time that there is a benign power everywhere supporting him in his superhuman passage,” (Campbell, 2004).. 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(31) Meeting with the Goddess This and the next two substages are at the zenith of the hero’s journey. The “goddess” which is met here is symbolic of the idealistic prize which the hero is pursuing. This feminine symbol is, according to Campbell, the ultimate prize to be obtained. If the hero is able to gain control of “her,” he has achieved mastery. His use of gender archetypes, here, has been criticized, (Nicholson, 2011), (Mudock, 1990), but as will be shown in the coming subsections, this problem is addressed to some degree.. 政治大 This phase illustrates the immense power of the feminine “prize” that is to be acquired by 立 Woman as Temptress. ‧ 國. 學. the hero. The power is so great that the hero is tempted to reside in it, without bringing it back to the world and its people. If this happens, the hero is lost or corrupted. In order to. ‧. complete his or her journey properly the hero must press on without becoming obsessed. sit. y. Nat. with the power of the prize.. n. al. er. io. Atonement with the father. i n U. v. In this substage of the initiation, the hero meets with the masculine power, represented by. Ch. engchi. Campbell as a fatherly figure. The father represents the current master of the feminine “prize” being sought and therefore must be overcome if the hero is to become its new master. Like the goddess, the father has two sides: one side is a noble leader, and the other is a monstrous tyrant. The vices and virtues apparent in the father, the goddess, and the trials give symbolic expression, “…to unconscious desires, fears, and tensions that underlie the conscious patterns of human behavior,” (Campbell, 2004). Through these symbols, important values and anxieties are contained in the narrative.. 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(32) Apotheosis The Apotheosis is the final climax of the narrative, where the hero becomes, in some sense, divine. Campbell addresses the apparent sexism in the previous symbolism. It is not a literal man and woman being represented by the father and the goddess, rather they are fatherly and motherly archetypes. The Apotheosis represents, to a degree that depends on the myth, itself, a recognition that all things are one, including the masculine and feminine. All is equal. This realization is something that is perpetually strived for, but never completely. 治政 The revelation in this substage will vary based on the大 myth, itself, and that variation will 立. attained in the waking life on the other side of the threshold, outside the belly of the whale.. reveal values and anxieties contained in the narrative. For example, the inclusion or. ‧ 國. 學. exclusion of certain groups will define who is considered, “other” by the narrative.. ‧. The ultimate boon. sit. y. Nat. The ultimate boon is that which the hero is meant to bring back to the people of his or her. io. er. world. It is often represented by an endless bounty, or a magic item which will grant. al. immortality. Campbell describes it as an, “elixir for the restoration of society,” (Campbell,. n. iv n C 2004). With this boon in his or her theihero U is meant to begin his or her journey hpossession, engch back home. This, however, is not always easy, and, as noted in the meeting with the goddess substage, sometimes the hero is tempted to withhold the boon for him or herself. The hero’s reaction to possession of this divine power is often variable and revealing of values and anxieties contained in the narrative.. Return The final of the three main narrative stages in the monomyth is the return. This stage is divided into six narrative substages: refusal of the return, the magic flight, rescue from 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(33) without, crossing the return threshold, master of two worlds, and freedom to live. Similarly to the initiation these stages are often very close to one another, and some are merged together into a single stage. The characterization of these stages will indicate values and anxieties inherent in the narrative. Refusal of the Return As mentioned in the initiation substages, the hero is often seduced by the power or divinity he or she witnessed and is either unwilling or unable to return initially. For heroes with the. 政治大 apotheosis and distribute the bounty of the boon received in the final stage of initiation 立. highest level of worthiness or willpower, their willingness to submit to the revelation in. ‧. ‧ 國. narrative.. 學. reveals the character of the hero, and indicates values and anxieties presented by the. The Magic Flight. Nat. sit. y. When the hero is eventually convinced or compelled to return home with the boon, a path. n. al. er. io. by which he or she must proceed becomes apparent. This path, however, is also filled with. i n U. v. temptations and danger. The boon, which is a perfect ideal in its original form, must, in. Ch. engchi. this process of returning home, be transposed into something practically applicable to the world. Ideal things, however, cannot strictly exist manifested in the world, and are thus corrupted through their application to it. Campbell explains this saying, “if the mono-myth is to fulfill its promise, not human failure or super-human success but human success is what we shall have to be shown. That is the problem of the crisis of the threshold of the return. We shall first consider it in the superhuman symbols and then seek the practical teaching for historic man,” (Campbell, 2004).. 25. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(34) Rescue from Without If the hero cannot return for some reason, either because he or she has been seduced by the divine power, or because the path of the return is too rigorous, he or she may require some help from an ally. The ally archetype, as mentioned in section 2.4.1, may assist the hero at many stages throughout the course of the narrative, but here the ally is often to play a pivotal role. Crossing the return threshold. 政治大 back over the threshold to return home. At this stage, the hero sees the distinction between 立 The hero eventually comes back to the place where he or she began the journey, and crosses. ‧ 國. 學. the divine and the practical worlds clearly, and effort is made to manifest the divine gift, the boon, into the practical world of daily life. As explained previously, however, this task. ‧. is technically impossible. “There must always remain, however, from the standpoint of. sit. y. Nat. normal waking consciousness, a certain baffling inconsistency between the wisdom. io. er. brought forth from the deep, and the prudence usually found to be effective in the light of. al. the world,” (Campbell, 2004). It becomes the task of mortal humans to perpetually try to. n. iv n C actualize the divine boon in the mortal despite their inadequacy. h e nworld gchi U Master of the Two Worlds. The compromise that mortal humans exhibit, however, is not necessarily shared by the hero who has returned from the journey. The hero becomes the guide, like a messianic figure, or a conduit of divine wisdom, having been the one who brought the boon to the people. He or she may even take on the role of the mentor to the hero of other myths, as the boon may become corrupted by the mortal world, and thus require restoration.. 26. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(35) Freedom to Live In the final stage of the return, the narrative characterizes the new order brought about as a result of the myth. The boon brought back to the mortal world by the hero is actualized as best as possible, but the new order may already reveal cracks and imperfections that result from the transposition of an ideal into practical application. For example, “one may invent a false, finally unjustified, image of oneself as an exceptional phenomenon in the world, not guilty as others are, but justified in one’s inevitable sinning because one represents the. 治政大of one’s self, or one’s group as and one in the cosmos, one might develop an image 立 good,” (Campbell, 2004). In other words, despite the divine revelation that all are equal. somehow exceptional, and more deserving of the divine gift than “others.” As in other. ‧ 國. 學. stages, the characterization of this stage reveals values inherent in the narrative.. ‧. 2.3.2 Character Archetypes. sit. y. Nat. Students of Campbell’s framework have identified a host of different character archetypes. er. io. essential to the monomyth. Campbell’s notes that his use of archetypes was inspired by his. al. n. iv n C U h does The Hero with a Thousand Faces, reveal an exhaustive list of e nCampbell g c h i specifically readings of Feud and especially Carl Jung, (Jung & Franz, 1964). Nowhere in his book,. character archetypes, though many have extrapolated one. Generally, the hero and some variation of the shadow are in any list, but more have been identified with different names and roles, though some have overlapping characteristics. Moreover, it is not uncommon for more than one character in the narrative to fill the role of one archetype. The archetypes identified are those most related to national origin narratives: the hero and the tyrant monster (a variation of the shadow), as well as several supporting archetypes, including the. 27. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(36) herald, the mentor, the ally, the shapeshifter, and the threshold guardians. This section will explicate each of these in five subsections.. The Hero The hero archetype is the center of the narrative. He or she is meant to achieve, for him or herself, submission to, and possession of a divine power in the course of his or her journey. Through the hero’s journey, the precise nature of that power is revealed. Campbell writes, “The hero is the man of self-achieved submission. But submission to what? That precisely. 政治大 and historic deed of the hero 立 to have solved,” (Campbell, 2004). In his or her journey, the is the riddle that today we have to ask ourselves and that it is everywhere the primary virtue. ‧ 國. 學. hero comes to represent more than just him or herself, and through his or her struggles we learn the nature of some divine revelation, “His solemn task and deed therefore… is to. ‧. return then to us, transfigured, and teach the lesson he has learned of life renewed,”. sit. y. Nat. (Campbell, 2004).. n. al. er. io. The Tyrant Monster. i n U. v. The tyrant monster is a variation of the shadow character archetype. The shadow is what. Ch. engchi. the hero might be if he or she is seduced by a darker path, and it represents the greatest anxieties and vices the hero must reject or overcome. However, the more specific tyrant monster, is characterized in more detail in Campbells book, and is a variation of the shadow that is especially relevant to national origin narratives. Campbell describes this archetype, saying, “Wherever he sets his hand there is a cry (if not from the housetops, then – more miserably – within every heart): a cry for the redeeming hero, the carrier of the shining blade, whose blow, whose touch, whose existence, will liberate the land,” (Campbell, 2004). This archetype functions as the principal antagonist in the narrative. 28. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(37) The Supporting Character Archetypes As mentioned above, there is not an explicit number of supporting characters. This list is not exhaustive, but the archetypes discussed below are common, and are likely to be found in national origin narratives. Supporting characters discussed here include, the herald, the mentor, the ally, the shapeshifter, and the threshold guardians. The herald is an especially unique character archetype in that it is not always an actual character. Sometimes the herald is nothing more than an inanimate object. Regardless of. 政治大 leading the hero into the立 initial stages of his or her journey. They tend to play a very small its characterization the herald always behaves in communion with the forces that are. ‧ 國. 學. role in terms of how much time is devoted to them, but their role in announcing the coming of the stages of adventure is pivotal.. ‧. The mentor archetype is typically represented as a wise, elderly sage. In folk tales he or. y. Nat. sit. she is often a bent, old man or woman living as a hermit in some secluded place. He or she. n. al. er. io. is often one who has already completed their own mythic journey long ago, and guides the. i n U. v. hero with helpful advice and wisdom. The hero gains inspiration from this character, and. Ch. engchi. often direct help along his or her own path, but the final stage of the quest for apotheosis must be completed by the hero, his or herself. Many times, the mentor dies or sacrifices his or herself before the hero reaches his or her final challenge. The ally is a character which comes from outside the central conflict to help the hero along the way. He or she often plays some pivotal role in the trials of the hero and may even be instrumental in the final challenge. According to Campbell, not much help is usually essential from the outside, but without this small addition the hero may be completely without hope. 29. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(38) The shapeshifter archetype is represented by a character who betrays one side or the other of the major conflict in the narrative. Sometimes this character literally is able to change his or her appearance, and occasionally the character flops between the two sides of the conflict multiple times. This character often overlaps with another archetype that is associated with Campbell’s monomyth, the trickster, who is representative of the forces of mischief and often functions as comic relief. Although many have separated these two archetypes, the distinction is not always clear, and like many of the other archetypes, they. 政治大 The threshold guardians are often numerous and variable across the narrative, but they 立 often merge or overlap.. ‧ 國. 學. always serve the function of blocking the hero’s path, either figuratively or literally. They are the masters of trials that the hero must overcome before he or she is able to reach. ‧. apotheosis, and sometimes act as obstacles to the hero’s escape after reaching apotheosis.. sit. y. Nat. Each guardian is a miniature shadow, representing a particular vice or anxiety that the hero. io. n. al. er. has about his or herself.. 2.3.3 Criticism of the Monomyth. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Criticism of Campbell’s (2004) monomyth has focused primarily on its unequal representations and roles given to males and females. The hero is typically male, and female figures in myth tend to be characterized as passive, receptive, or in need of saving. However, others have asserted that Campbell’s framework empowers narratives to, “rebuild these mythic images of Woman,” (Nicholson, 2011). The female archetype in the framework is not meant, necessarily, as a literal woman, but is meant to represent feminine traits. A female character may represent this archetype just as a male character may, or indeed, may act as a fully developed character with individual agency. In doing so, the 30. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(39) female character might inhabit a role whose archetypical characteristics are described as “masculine” or “feminine,” regardless of her literal gender. As a tool for interpretation, Campbell’s framework enables, rather than restricts the analysis of the roles of the characters portrayed. The narrative being analyzed, then, reveals what prejudices are contained within the narrative, itself. Campbell’s framework has also been overlooked as a tool for analyzing historical narrative, as it is typically a tool for literary analysis. History, unlike folk tales, literature,. 政治大 through the medium of narrative prose. Although empirical evidence is used in history, that 立 and mythology, is constrained by verifiable facts. However, history is typically written. ‧ 國. 學. evidence is arranged into a coherent narrative by the writers of history. This study analyzes the construction of that narrative, not its faithfulness to historical facts, thus a tool for. ‧. literary analysis is appropriate for this study.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 31. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(40) 3 Methodology This chapter will discuss the methodology which will be employed in this study. Section one will introduce the textbook sources from each country. Section two will lay out the adapted monomyth framework which will be utilized in the subsequent narrative analysis. Section three will explicate the specific techniques utilized in the narrative analysis of the two sources.. 3.1 Sources. 政治大 countries have an open and active civil discourse regarding national history curriculum in 立. The ROC and USA were chosen for this comparative study for three reasons: (1) both. ‧ 國. 學. schools, (2) they have vastly different cultural backgrounds, which increases the significance of notable correlations in their respective national origin narratives, and (3). ‧. they both have well-developed secondary education systems to examine.. Nat. sit. y. One textbook was selected from each of the two countries. The textbook titled,. n. al. er. io. Pǔtōng gāojí zhōngxué lìshǐ dì èr cè (普通高級中學歷史第二冊) [General High School. i n U. v. History Book 2], (Lín, 2007) was chosen for the analysis of the national origin narrative of. Ch. engchi. the ROC. This textbook is designed to satisfy the curriculum guidelines for high school students’ Chinese history requirement. It should be noted here that this textbook is not the most recent iteration. As discussed in the literature review, history textbooks in the ROC have been revised with almost every transfer of power since the 1990s. Because of the fierce debate between political parties and the painful collective memories associated with the one-party-rule period of ROC history between 1949 (the exodus of the KMT military to Taiwan) and democratization in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the national origin narrative of the ROC is a matter of considerable controversy. Presumably to avoid this 32. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(41) controversy, the current curriculum in ROC history textbooks does not contain a unified or coherent narrative of national origin. For these reasons, this study will examine a textbook from a previous set of guidelines which was in wide use before the reforms of 2014, and which represents a narrative that is popular among its supporters. This textbook was primarily chosen because of its robust narrative style. The Americans, (Holt, 2012) was selected to present the national origin narrative for the USA. This textbook is still widely in use and it contains a clear and complete national. 政治大 Harcourt’s Holt McDougal publishes The Americans in high-school U.S. history and 立. origin narrative. According to the American Textbook Council, “Houghton Mifflin. ‧ 國. 學. Patterns of Interaction in high-school world history. These two full-service programs are the most instructionally sound textbook choices available to teachers who must choose. ‧. from K-12 materials and are recommended,” (American Textbook Council, 2018). This. sit. n. al. er. io. 3.2 Framework. y. Nat. textbook was also primarily chosen for its robust narrative style.. i n U. v. This study utilizes Campbell’s (2004) monomyth to compare the national origin narratives. Ch. engchi. in ROC and USA history textbooks. An adaptation of his framework that suits the comparative goal of this study is represented in figure 1. The three narrative stages (separation, initiation, and return) are shown in their approximate position in the cycle, along with the most critical narrative substages. Although each of the 17 narrative substages is likely represented in the two national origin narratives, this study’s main goal is to compare the values implicit in the national origin narratives of the ROC and USA. The most critical substages, represented in figure 1, include: the call to adventure, the. 33. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(42) crossing of the threshold, the road of trials, apotheosis, the ultimate boon, the crossing of the return threshold, and master of two worlds. The adaptation of the monomyth framework for use in this study proceeds as represented in the figure below. After the call to adventure, the hero steps over the threshold to initiation, where he or she is confronted by a series of trials and threshold guardians. After overcoming these trials, the hero comes to a final confrontation with the tyrant monster, and achieves apotheosis through victory, and claims the ultimate boon. This boon,. 政治大 actualize it is made. The ideal, however, is not compatible with the chaos of reality, and 立. which is a divine insight or ideal, is then brought back to the people, where an attempt to. ‧ 國. 學. once it crosses the return threshold with the hero, a process of corruption begins. In the final stage of the return, an attempt is made to master the worlds of the ideal and the actual. ‧. and enact ultimate boon in a chaotic reality. This endless duty is then inherited by the. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. national community.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 34. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.

(43) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 1: The Monomyth. sit. y. Nat. er. io. 3.3 Comparative Narrative Analysis. n. al. iv n C h e nand Discourse hi U g c Sociolinguistic. This study approaches these two national origin narratives from a perspective identified in Analyzing. Narrative:. Perspectives,. (Fina. &. Georgakopoulou, 2012). Although Fina and Georgakopoulou (2012) identify many ways that narratives can be analyzed, this study will examine the structure and characterization of the two narratives to extrapolate social values in the context of the two nations which produced them. Using the Campbell’s (2004) monomyth as the underlying framework through which to analyze the narratives, this study will compare the structure in the two textbooks using the narrative stages of Campbell’s (2004) monomyth and the portrayal of key characters in each narrative to their counterparts in the other. Counterparts will be 35. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMAS.002.2019.A07.