氣候變遷之框架分析:中國、美國及南非的組織比較 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語博士學位學程 International Doctoral Program in Asia Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University (NCCU). 博士論文治政大. 立 Doctoral Dissertation ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 氣候變遷之框架分析:中國、美國及南非的組織比較. Nat. n. er. io. sit. y. Framing Climate Change on the Websites of Consequential Organisations: A Comparative Perspective amongst China, a l Africa, and the US South iv. Ch. n U engchi. 指導教授：徐美苓教授 Advisor: Professor Mei-Ling Hsu, PhD. 研究生：堯里昂 Student: Leon van Jaarsveldt. 中華民國 108 年 07 月 July, 2019 DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(3) 氣候變遷之框架分析:中國、美國及南非的組織比較 Framing Climate Change on the Websites of Consequential Organisations: A Comparative Perspective amongst China, South Africa, and the US 研究生/ Student：Leon van Jaarsveldt 堯里昂指導教授/ Advisor：Professor Mei-Ling Hsu, PhD. 徐美苓教授. 國立政治大學. 學. ‧ 國. 政治大亞太研究英語博士學位學程立博士論文. ‧. n. A Dissertation. Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. i n U. v. Submitted to International Doctoral Program in Asia Pacific Studies National Chengchi University (NCCU). 中華民國 108 年 07 月 July, 2019 DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(4) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(5) Running Head: FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Acknowledgements Authoring this dissertation has been an immensely rewarding academic journey. However, as with every journey, there were many guides without whom I would certainly have gotten lost. Here, I would like to express my sincere thanks to all those who have stood by me and offered their most excellent guidance. I am especially thankful to my committee members for their expert academic guidance. First, I offer my most sincere thanks to my advisor, Professor Mei-Ling Hsu (徐美苓), who instructed me from the start of my dissertation to the final product. Without her. 政治大. many patient hours reading, rereading and advising me, the dissertation would not be as. 立. complete or well developed. It has truly been my honour to have her as my advisor. Second, I. ‧ 國. 學. would like to thank Professor Cheng-Tian Kuo (郭承天). It was from his university courses. ‧. that I first became attracted to the current research topic. His enlightened teachings and course materials raised my awareness of not only the importance of climate change but also. y. Nat. er. io. sit. the ongoing political and social intricacies that inform the international debates. Next, I would like to thank committee co-chair and IDAS Director, Professor Ping-Yin Kuan (關秉. al. n. v i n C hadvice was instrumental 寅). His methodological and statistical e n g c h i U in developing the findings of the study. I would also like to thank Professor Shin-Cheng Yeh (葉欣誠) for his many astute inputs during both the proposal and oral defences. These inputs were thought-provoking and were influential in helping me clarify and shape the key discussion points. Finally, I would like to thank Professor Hui-Ping Huang (黃惠萍), who travelled far to share her expertise at my final defence. Her detailed comments further enabled me to clarify and elaborate on important discussion points. I am deeply indebted to all my committee members for their enlightened guidance.. i. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(6) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE No journey, however, would be complete without the support from friends and family. To my parents, Hendrik and Maria van Jaarsveldt, my sister, Lorraine, my brother, Dawie, to my grandmother, Sarah Binnedel, and my long-time friend, Dewald Barnard, I give my sincere thanks for their steadfast confidence, prayers and support. Most of all, I thank my wife, Ya-Fen Yang (楊雅棻). In her gentle and loving manner, she has stood steadfastly by me and supported me throughout this journey. I am deeply blessed to have their support.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. ii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(7) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Abstract This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by examining how the websites of consequential corporations, eNGOs and political parties across the socio-politically distinct nations of China, South Africa and the US frame their positions to climate change. The study uses a mixed-method approach that drew from van Gorp’s (2010) inductive-deductive approach to framing theory, the sociological theory of fields and supplementary archival analysis. The study asks three research questions. The first question asks what the reasoning devices and framing devices are like in the consequential actors’ framing of climate change. The findings show four dominant frames.. 治政 The public accountability and governance frame identified大 the problem of climate change as 立. being due to corporate-produced GHG emissions, pollutants or carbon footprints that caused. ‧ 國. 學. ecological or environmental damage. Perceiving the need for better legal compliance,. ‧. applicants of this frame offered policy solutions. Data, hedging devices, scientific evidence. sit. y. Nat. and metaphors often accompanied the statements. The economic development and. io. er. competitiveness frame defined the problem as due to the increasing costs from environmental. al. legislation. Evaluating the need for more sustainable profitability, solutions included cost-. n. v i n cutting, efficiency investments, andC exploring markets. The social progress frame h e n new gchi U. defined the problem as negative social impacts. Seeing the need to build social resilience in harmony with nature, applicants proposed solutions for social development and technological innovation. The environmental ethics and morality frame defined the problem as environmental damage and biodiversity losses from ignored environmental limits, mining, fracking and industrial activities. To institute an environmental ethic, applicants of the frame proposed conservation, environmental protection, rehabilitation and environmental education as solutions.. iii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(8) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE The second question asks how the framing of climate change by consequential actors reflect the socio-political context. In China, actors preferred an assertive application of public accountability and governance and social progress frames. This finding was reflected in the national legislative and governance documents which called for social modernisation under the law. In South Africa, actors overwhelmingly preferred the social progress frame with an emphasis on building social resilience. Archival data from both political and civic actors reflected these findings. In the US, the broader distribution of frames reflected a national political split. Actors applying the public accountability and governance frame as well as the. 治政大 and ethics frame and often all national cases, eNGOs preferred the environmental morality 立. economic development and competitiveness frames tended to hedge their statements often. In. used emotional appeals.. ‧ 國. 學. The third research question asks how consequential actors’ framing of climate change. ‧. is similar or different across and within nations. Four hypotheses were evaluated. First, the. sit. y. Nat. findings suggested that China and the US have a similar preference for public accountability. io. er. and governance frame. This finding could be due to their similar environmental histories.. al. Second, South African consequential actors overwhelming preferred the social progress. n. v i n frame. This finding was in line withC thehnational emphasisU e n g c h i on social development. Third, the study found that the US made the most applications of the economic development and competitiveness frame, with mostly corporate actors and the Republican party applying it. Finally, the US also made most applications of the environmental morality and ethics frame, while China made the least. These findings have implications for the successful adoption of climate change solutions. Keywords: climate change, consequential organisations, constructionist approach, framing analysis, sociological theory of fields. iv. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(9) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE List of Abbreviations ANC. African National Congress. CPC. Communist Party of China. CO2e. carbon dioxide equivalent. COP. Conference of the Parties. DA. Democratic Alliance. EPA. Environmental Protection Agency. eNGO. environmental non-governmental organisation. GHGs. greenhouse gas emissions. PRC. People’s Republic of China. 學. ‧ 國. IPCC. 治政大 International Panel for Climate Change 立 United Nations. UNFCCC. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. US. United States of America. ‧. UN. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(10) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... i Abstract ....................................................................................................................................iii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... v Table of Contents Tables and Figures .................................................................................. vi Tables and Figures ................................................................................................................viii 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Cases for the Study .................................................................................................... 2. 治政大 2. Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 26 立 1.2 Outline of the Study ................................................................................................. 24. 2.1 International Climate Change Debates .................................................................... 26. ‧ 國. 學. 2.2 Framing Theory ....................................................................................................... 32. ‧. 2.3 A Sociological Theory of Fields .............................................................................. 43. sit. y. Nat. 2.4 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................ 46. io. er. 3. Methods ............................................................................................................................... 64. al. 3.1 Sampling .................................................................................................................. 64. n. v i n C hof Analysis ................................................................ 3.2 Data Collection and the Unit 66 engchi U 3.3 Inductive Phase: Constructing the Frame Matrix .................................................... 67 3.4 Deductive Phase: Quantitative Content Analysis .................................................... 75 4. The Inductive Analysis of Framing Climate Change ..................................................... 79 4.1 Public Accountability and Governance Frame ........................................................ 80 4.2 Economic Development and Competitiveness Frame ............................................. 90 4.3 Social Progress Frame ............................................................................................. 96 4.4 Environmental Morality and Ethics Frame ............................................................ 104 4.5 Summary of Inductive Analysis ............................................................................ 111. vi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(11) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE 5. The Deductive Analysis of Framing Climate Change .................................................. 113 5.1 Frame Differences Across Nations ........................................................................ 113 5.2 Frame Differences Within Nations ........................................................................ 115 5.3 Summary of Deductive Analysis ........................................................................... 117 6. Discussion and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 119 6.1 Theoretical Implications ........................................................................................ 119 6.2 National Characteristics of Framing Differences .................................................. 122 6.3 Macro-level Implications ....................................................................................... 129. 治政大 6.5 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................ 133 立 6.4 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 131. References ............................................................................................................................. 135. ‧ 國. 學. Appendix A Frame Analysis Codebook ............................................................................. 168. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(12) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Tables and Figures Figure 1.1 Freedom House Aggregate Scores for China, South Africa and the US .................. 5 Figure 1.2 Carbon Emissions by GDP and Country ................................................................ 11 Table 1.1 Political and Socioeconomic Differences in China, South Africa, and the US ....... 24 Table 2.1 Important National and International Climate Change Agreements ....................... 27 Figure 2.1 Percentage Anthropogenic CO2 Emissions by Economic Sector ........................... 59 Table 3.1 Population and Valid Sample Characteristics .......................................................... 66 Table 3.2 Example of Framing Package ‘Public Accountability and Governance’ ................ 71 Table 3.3 Example of Framing Package ‘Economic Development and Competitiveness’ ..... 72. 治政大 Table 3.4 Example of Framing Package ‘Social Progress’...................................................... 73 立 Table 3.5 Example of Framing Package ‘Environmental Morality and Ethics’ ...................... 74. ‧ 國. 學. Table 3.6 Intercoder Reliability ............................................................................................... 78. ‧. Table 4.1 Framing Matrix of Consequential Actors on Climate Change ................................ 80. sit. y. Nat. Figure 4.1 Screenshot of SGCC's Homepage .......................................................................... 85. io. er. Figure 4.2 Screenshot of Antero Resources’ Homepage ......................................................... 88 Figure 4.3 Screenshot of Actuant Corporation’s Homepage ................................................... 94. al. n. v i n Figure 4.4 Screenshot of Sinopec’s C Homepage 101 h e n g..................................................................... chi U Figure 4.5 Screenshot of EDF Renewable’s Homepage ........................................................ 103 Figure 4.6 Screenshot of Birdlife South Africa's Homepage ................................................. 108 Figure 4.7 Screenshot of ConservAmerica’s Homepage ....................................................... 110 Table 4.2 Summary of key research questions and findings ................................................. 112 Table 5.1 Frame Differences Across Nations (%, N=555) .................................................... 113 Table 5.2 Frequency Distribution of Frames Within Nations (%, N=555) ........................... 115 Table 5.2 Summary of key research questions and findings ................................................. 118. viii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(13) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE 1. Introduction The 2016 ratification of the Paris Accord heralded a new chapter in international cooperation on climate change mitigation. However, it also exposed deep national rifts. While the COP (Conference of the Parties) debated the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) and the mitigation of anthropogenic climate change, political, corporate and environmental non-governmental organisations (eNGOs) made clear its disagreement. Media reports by various US news agencies on the 2016 presidential election, reveals that at least thirteen US Republican presidential nominees lamented on the financial ramifications of. 治政大 2015). This position was example Dunlap, McCright, & Yarosh, 2016; Kaplan & Uchimiya, 立 climate action, denied the science, or opposed the very existence of climate change (see for. affirmed by US President Donald J. Trump’s signing of an order to withdraw the US from the. ‧ 國. 學. Paris Accord as well as his efforts since to repeal EPA regulations that placed limits on fossil. ‧. fuel emissions ("Approval and promulgation of air quality...", 2018; Trump, 2019).. sit. y. Nat. Divergent views proliferated amongst political and other organisational actors abroad.. io. er. In China, political actors, including General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, Xi-. al. Jinping, avidly fended off accusations that climate change was a hoax (Shankleman, 2016;. n. v i n Xi, 2015). State-owned enterprises C such State Grid Corporation often published such hasethe ngchi U rebuttals and promoted the adoption of smart-grid technologies to clean up energy supplies (State Grid Corporation of China, n.d.). In the US, debates and action also went beyond politics. High technology corporations such Apple Inc., Tesla and Microsoft, joined in a coalition with California’s Governor, Democrat Jerry Brown, in signing a climate agreement with China (Leswing, 2017; Shepardson, 2017). Meanwhile, mining companies such as Alcoa Inc. admitted financial losses from pro-climate regulations. In South Africa, energy corporations such as EDF Renewables and Lesedi Nuclear Services focused on building social resilience in preparation of climate change.. 1. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(14) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Such divergences showed that international political agreements do not equate the views taken by organisational actors. Furthermore, organisational actors have increasingly been expected to implement pro-climate policies while receiving limited opportunity to take part in the formation process. As a result, corporations have turned to the growing number of public relations tools to express their respective positions (Anderson, 2009; Cacciatore, Scheufele, & Iyengar, 2016; Wickman, 2014). The importance of understanding organisations’ climate change positions has grown. However, current research provides limited insight into organisations’ views on climate change. The current study aims to add to. 治政大on climate change. political and economic systems communicate their positions 立. this body of knowledge by exploring how national organisational actors in different socio-. ‧ 國. 學. 1.1 Cases for the Study. A vital premise of the 1998 Kyoto Protocol was that of common but differentiated. ‧. responsibilities (CBDR) (Torvanger, 1998; United Nations, 2011). It recognised that while all. sit. y. Nat. nations should take climate actions, some have higher historical responsibilities and. io. er. capabilities. The literature furthermore recognised that the different socio-political realities of. al. different nations might affect organisations’ actions (Fligstein & McAdam, 2012; Kluttz &. n. v i n Cbetter Fligstein, 2016; van Gorp, 2007). To h e understand n g c h itheUimpacts of political settings on organisations’ climate change positions, the researcher chose the three national cases of. China, South Africa, and the US for their different socio-political and economic systems as well as for their different approaches to the international climate change debate. 1.1.1 Socio-political characteristics. The three nations have developed different political systems to address their governance needs. As of 2019, China’s leadership identified as a unitary political system ("China’s legislative system," 2019; World Bank, 2019a). The system is characterised by a robust legal system and subject to the guidance of the Communist Party of China (CPC), the Politburo and the General Secretary of the CPC, Xi. 2. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(15) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Jinping. The Republic of South Africa defined itself as a multi-party representative parliamentary democratic republic. Under this system, eligible voters elect political parties to parliament to serve for five-year cycles. The US identifies as the Federal Republic. The President of the United States and the House of Representatives are indirectly elected through the Electoral College in general elections every four years. The following discussion elaborates. China’s socio-political context. China has undergone significant political and economic changes over the last 40 years. Although China adopted its first constitution in. 治政 adopted in 1982 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. It大 was founded on selected 立. 1954, it replaced it three times in 1975, 1978 and 1982. The most recent constitution was. principles from Marxist-Leninism, socialism and Maoism. The constitution focused on. ‧ 國. 學. developing an institutional foundation to promote the national goals of power, affluence and. ‧. stability (Leonard, 2012; Vogel, 2011; Wright, 2011; Xi, 2014b).. sit. y. Nat. A core part of the 1982 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was to. io. er. lay a strong institutional foundation. Notably, the 1982 Constitution of the PRC brought back. al. the positions of President and Vice President. While the move did separate the powers of the. n. v i n presidency from that of the CPC, it C established defined institution to house the h e n ga clearly chi U. executive powers for the PRC ("China’s legislative system," 2019; Kabashima & White III, 2014; Leonard, 2012). To aid the executive in its decision making, the 1982 constitution identified the 3000-seat National People’s Congress (NPC)1 as the highest organ of state authority (Kabashima & White III, 2014). The NPC would have the duty to elect and hold the State Council responsible, as well as to provide oversight for the Supreme People’s Court and 1. The NPC consists of 8-political parties and various social interest groups, including the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang (中國國民黨革命委員會 or 民革), the China Democratic League (中國民主同盟 or 民盟), the China Democratic National Construction Association (中國民主建國會 or 民建), the China Association for Promoting Democracy (中國民主促進會 or 民進), the Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party (中國農工民主黨 or 農工黨), the Zhigongdang of China (中國致公黨), the Jiusan Society (九三學社) and the Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League (臺灣民主自治同盟 or 台盟).. 3. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(16) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE the Supreme People’s Procuratorate ("China’s legislative system," 2019). Also, the NPC would debate and vote on all major national policy decisions and confirm the positions of the President and Vice-president. When the NPC is not in session, the NPC standing committee would assume these same functions. Another focus of the 1982 Constitution of the PRC, and later amendments, was to promote stability through the rule of law. In practice, researchers and observers noted that the power remains centralised with the CPC and the Politburo ("China’s legislative system," 2019; Kabashima & White III, 2014; Leonard, 2012). The leading members of the CPC also. 治政 CPC exercises indirect control by setting the national legal大 agenda through 5-year and 10立. tend to assume the positions of the President and Vice-president of the PRC. Furthermore, the. year plans as well as making constitutional amendments. Through five constitutional. ‧ 國. 學. amendments and related policy documents, the CPC has mostly liberalised China’s trade but. ‧. also strengthened the rule of law and the centrality of the CPC ("Constitution of the PRC,". sit. y. Nat. 2018). Specifically, the first amendment permitted limited corporate privatisation and rights. io. er. to transfer property. A 2004 amendment further permitted the ownership of private property. al. and human rights ("Constitution of the PRC," 2018). However, the 2004 and 2018. n. v i n C hThe National Intelligence amendments strengthened legal codes. e n g c h i U Law of the PRC (2018) was one example which required corporate actors to assist the State in issues of national security. This law has been cited as a reason for the US adding Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd. to its Entity List of threats to the US telecommunications industry (Lyu & Lee, 2019). Thus, China’s political freedom did not necessarily increase. Figure 1.1 shows that overall liberalisation has decreased in recent years.. 4. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(17) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Figure 1.1 Freedom House Aggregate Scores for China, South Africa and the US 100 93. 92. 92. 80 81. 81. 17. 0 2013. 90. 90. 89. 81. 79. 78. 78. 17. 17. 16. 15. 14. 2014. 2015. 2017. 2018. 86. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10. 政治大. 立. South Africa. US. 學. China. ‧ 國. 2016. Year. The most recent amendment to Constitution was at the 5th session of the 13th National. ‧. Congress of the CPC. It brought three significant changes that further cemented CPC and. Nat. sit. y. State authority. First, the NPC allowed the first constitutional reference to the CPC. n. al. er. io. ("Constitution of the PRC," 2018). This insertion further legitimised the CPC as the only. i n U. v. legal, political party in China (Gill, 2017; Womack, 2017). Second, the revision removed the. Ch. engchi. term limits for both the president and vice-president ("Constitution of the PRC," 2018). In practice, this assures the continuation of Xi Jinping and future leaders of the CPC as the presidents of China. Third, the constitution was amended to include both Hu Jintao’s Scientific Outlook on Development and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, or Xi-Thought ("Constitution of the PRC," 2018; "Full text of resolution on CPC Central Committee report," 2017). Foundationally, Xi-Thought acknowledged that ‘socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new era and the principal contradiction in Chinese society has evolved into one between unbalanced and inadequate development and the people's ever-growing needs for a better life’ ("Full text of resolution on CPC Central 5. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(18) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Committee report," 2017). The result has been a stronger top-down legal model that acknowledges the importance of a science-driven approach to social and technological modernisation. South Africa’s socio-political context. As with China, South Africa underwent dramatic political change. Between 1948 and 1994, South Africa’s apartheid policy was the cornerstone of all social, political and economic policy. The apartheid policy had functioned on the separation of racial groups (Bodley, 2008; Deegan, 2011). Seekings and Nattrass (2008) explained that the South African Apartheid government used the term African to refer. 治政 descendant from European origin and Coloured for people大 who do not fit the previous 立. to native, Bantu, or Black South Africans, Indian for people from India, White for people. categories. This oversimplified colour-system was used to further the socio-economic. ‧ 國. 學. policies that unfairly advantaged the White minority population. This apartheid heritage. ‧. resulted in deep economic, social and educational imbalances that continued to dominate. sit. y. Nat. political discourse after democratisation (Anand, Kothari, & Kumar, 2016).. io. er. When Apartheid officially ended in 1994, South Africa’s first democratically elected. al. government promised to address this inequality. As a first step, the 1996 Constitution of the. n. v i n C hunder the leadershipUof South Africa’s first Republic of South Africa was adopted engchi. democratically elected president, Nelson Mandela, and the African National Congress (ANC) (Deegan, 2011). Chapter 1, act 1 of the founding provisions, immediately established the values of South Africa as being non-racial and non-sexist, with everyone subject to the same law (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996). To further enforce equality, chapter 2 adopted the Bill of Rights and founded the South African Human Rights Commission to investigate rights violations. Figure 1.1 (see page 5) shows that these changes had an overall positive effect on freedom levels. However, it has seen a decline under former South African President, Jacob Zuma.. 6. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(19) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Aside from social equality, the constitution also enacted a representative parliamentary democracy, based partially on the British system (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996). Chapter 4 of the Constitution established Parliament, which consisted of the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces. Both houses would participate in the law-making process, with the National Assembly electing the President and overseeing executive action. The President may serve for two five-year cycles. The members of both houses are, however, chosen by their parties, with the political parties elected in the national general election every 5-years. The proportional representation system allows for. 治政 legal matters, the Constitutional Court ensures serves as the大 final arbiter (Constitution of the 立 multiple parties to be present in Parliament (Deegan, 2011; Venter & Landsberg, 2006). On. Republic of South Africa, 1996).. ‧ 國. 學. As of 2019, 13 of South Africa’s political parties shares the 400 upper parliamentary. ‧. seats. The African National Congress (ANC) holds 230 seats and has the authority to push. sit. y. Nat. most legislation through unilaterally (Independent Electoral Commission of South Africa,. io. er. 2019). ANC policies are, challenged by the opposition parties which collectively hold 170. al. seats. Dominant issues before the Parliament as of 2019, include the amendment of the South. n. v i n Ch African Constitution to allow for land-seizures compensation, high unemployment, e n gwithout chi U climate action and addressing a slowing economy (Climate Change Bill, 2018; Hall, 2017). These proposals are aimed at addressing inequality Socio-political context of the US. Of the three nations in the study, the US has the. oldest constitution. With the main text entering into force in 1789, 27 amendments have since added protections for liberty, justice, rights, powers of government authority, the Bill of Rights and clarifications on government processes and procedures (Edling, Edling, & Press, 2003; Kabashima & White III, 2014). At the core, the US constitution intended to incorporate. 7. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(20) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE the interests of all former colonial US States to ensure a single nation that safeguarded individual freedoms, protection against foreign influence and a stable central government. In this endeavour, the US established a Federal Presidential Democracy with a separation of powers (Edling et al., 2003; Kabashima & White III, 2014). The executive branch (The White House) houses the president, which is elected indirectly through the Electoral College for a maximum of two 4-year terms (Kabashima & White III, 2014; Trent & Friedenberg, 2011). The US President is the Commander in Chief of the US Army, the Navy and, when needed, State Militias. The executive power of the President further allows. 治政大consists of the House of people to public office. The Legislative branch, or Congress, 立. him to preside over national trade, including the making of treaties and the appointment of. Representatives and the Senate. Congress holds the sole right to legislate and oversee the. ‧ 國. 學. Executive. Finally, the Judicial branch houses the legal system. Overseeing all the Federal. sit. y. Nat. Constitution (Edling et al., 2003; Kabashima & White III, 2014).. ‧. courts, the Judicial branch ensures the implementation of laws and the interpretation of the. io. er. The US emphasis on freedom is reflected in the Bill of Rights (Edling et al., 2003).. al. Notably, amendments 1 to 10 of the US Constitution collectively adds freedoms to US. n. v i n C h These rights reflect citizens, including the right to free speech. e n g c h i U a national civic culture of citizen engagement on issues of social and political importance (Benford, 1993; Gamson & Modigliani, 1989; Giddens, 2011; Putnam, 1995). Figure 1.1 (see p. 5) shows that the US has the highest freedom scores between the three nations under study. This regard for freedom was also reflected in US foreign policy. Following World War II, the US has been highly engaged in international diplomacy to promote democracy and human rights (Gilpin, 2001; Kabashima & White III, 2014). In recent years, this trend has relaxed as foreign policy priorities shifted to terrorism, trade imbalance and climate change (Davenport, 2014; Jasparro & Taylor, 2008).. 8. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(21) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE Nationally, the US developed a two-party system. Initially, this system was dominated by elitism, where party bosses and those with the financial controlled political candidates (Trent & Friedenberg, 2011). The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2014 attempted to resolve this by favouring party caucuses. In practice, this gave political candidates access to unlimited small donations from third-party funds, as opposed to Federal funding. These funds shifted power to lobbies, political action committees and online micro-donations from individuals. Former US president, Barrack Obama, managed to raise about 500 million US$ through online micro-donations alone (Trent & Friedenberg, 2011). This change. 治政大 fracking, health care policy, bipartisan policies, including on oil pipelines, arctic oil drilling, 立 exposed candidates to a broader diversity of interest groups and contributed to a rise in. EPA emission regulations and climate change (Gilson, 2017; Nisbet & Kotcher, 2009;. ‧ 國. 學. Obama, 2017). Party debates often fail, causing a bill to become stalled, subjected to. ‧. executive veto or gets overturned when power shifts. As of the 2016 election, Republicans. io. er. Representatives to Democrats in 2018 (Politico, 2018).. sit. y. Nat. held both the Legislature and the Executive branches (2016) but have lost the House of. al. 1.1.2 Socio-economic characteristics. The three nations have also achieved various. n. v i n C hand South Africa U levels of economic development. China e n g c h i are both classifiable as developing economies. China’s economy, however, has industrialised and is in the process of having its focus redefined by the CPC. By comparison, South Africa’s economic growth has remained limited, and its socio-economic considerations have worsened in recent years. The US economy, however, has remained strong and growing. China’s socio-economic context. The 1982 Constitution of the PRC provided the legal framework for liberal economic policies. Domestically, China refers to its economy as being part of a system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and international observers continue to see it as an emerging market economy (World Bank, 2019a). Importantly, China. 9. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(22) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE shifted away from self-reliance and permitted limited direct investment and cooperative projects. That permitted an influx of foreign-owned technologies. The constitutional amendment of 1988 further encouraged a private economic sector, further reinforced in a 2004 amendment that allowed private property ("Constitution of the PRC," 2018; Koleski, 2017; World Bank, 2019a). These changes resulted in strong economic growth from foreignowned factories and thriving exports. China also encouraged its domestic industry. First, it encouraged rural farm owners to develop private enterprises ("Constitution of the PRC," 2018; Koleski, 2017; World Bank,. 治政大 brands. This move shifted to developing a high-technology industry with recognisable 立. 2019a). This move encouraged larger and more efficient farms. More recently, the focus. resulted in both private and state-owned Chinese enterprises, such as Huawei and the. ‧ 國. 學. Sinopec, manufacturing smartphones and solar energy panels for export markets. At its peak. ‧. in the 1990s, China’s GDP growth reached 15%. This growth rate has since fallen to about. sit. y. Nat. 6.5% in 2018, but the GDP per capita has steadily grown to its current 7,755US$ per capita. io. n. al. er. (constant 2010 US$) (see Figure 1.2).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 10. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(23) FRAMING CLIMATE CHANGE Figure 1.2 Carbon Emissions by GDP and Country 25. 60,000. 15. ‧ 國. sit. n. 1981. 1983. 1985. 1987. 1989. 1991. 1993. 1995. 10,000. er. io. al. 0 1979. 20,000. y. Nat. 5. 30,000. ‧. 10. 40,000. 學. CO2 Tons per Capita. 立. 政治大. Ch. engchi. 1997. 1999. 2001. i n U. 2003. GDP per capita (constant 2010 US$). 50,000 20. v. 2005. 0 2007. 2009. 2011. 2013. China CO2 Emissions per Capita. SA CO2 Emissions per Capita. US CO2 Emissions per Capita. China GDP per Capita. SA GDP per Capita. US GDP per Capita. 2015. 2017. 2018. Sources. CO2 emissions data collected from Muntean, M., Guizzardi, D., Schaaf, E., Crippa, M., Solazzo, E., Olivier, J. G. J., & Vignati, E. (2018). Fossil CO2 emissions of all world countries - 2018 Report, EUR 29433 EN, Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2018, ISBN 978-92-79-97240-9, doi:10.2760/30158, JRC113738. World Bank. (2018). GDP per capita (constant 2010 US$). Retrieved from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP. PCAP.KD. 11. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(24) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. China’s rapid economic growth had societal consequences. The World Bank (2019a) notes that China had reached all its UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015. However, its economic growth contributed to inequality. By 2017, the World Bank (2017) measured China’s GINI coefficient at .42, with over 373.1 million people still living below the $5.50 a day international poverty line. However, this inequality has fallen from .44 since the previous measurement, and the World Bank predicted that China (2019a) would eliminate absolute poverty by 2020. Second, China initially encouraged economic growth by linking it to the political success of party officials (Finamore, 2018; Liu & Chen, 2012). As a result, China also saw a sharp rise in pollution and GHG emissions. By 2005, China’s absolute. 治政 emissions exceeded that of the US, with two-thirds from its大 energy and manufacturing sectors 立 (World Resources Institute, 2017). China’s GHG emissions per Capita tripled to about 7.72. ‧ 國. 學. metric tons per person. The rise in emissions was marked by a notable a rise in air pollution,. ‧. with some Chinese cities reporting PM2.5 levels as high as 121 (Finamore, 2018; Leonard,. sit. y. Nat. 2012; Wright, 2011; Yang & Zhang, 2011). As more industrial actors shifted their attention. io. er. to the countryside, reports of illegal and corrupt land-seizures, severe health issues, water and. al. soil pollution, and loss of farming and fishing grounds increased (Coonan, 2006, 2009;. n. v i n C h 2017; Wright, 2011; Duncan, 2015; Leonard, 2012; Womack, e n g c h i U Yang & Zhang, 2011).. Between 1996 and 2012, limited available data suggested as many as 180,000 mass protests per year with at least 980 directly attributable to environmental concerns (Leonard, 2012; T. Yang & Zhang, 2011). Through the governance policy of Xi-Thought and the 13th Five-Year Plan, China is attempting to address both the social and environmental imbalances of its economic growth (Aglietta & Bai, 2016; Gosens, Kåberger, & Wang, 2017; World Bank, 2019a). These have included stricter laws, dedicated environmental courts, allowing NGOs to sue over polluters and harsher punishments, including jail time, fines and public shaming (Leonard, 2012; Mi,. 12. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(25) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. 2016; The Supreme People's Court of the PRC, 2015; Zinda et al., 2017). Policy-level solutions have also lowered the growth outlook to 6.5% in search for a ‘moderately prosperous society’ society by 2020 and shifted the economic focus to renewables (Aglietta & Bai, 2016; Gosens et al., 2017). More recently, even a 6.5% growth rate has come into question as the US-initiated trade war continues to negatively affect China economic outlook (Li, He, & Lin, 2018; Liu, 2018). South Africa’s socio-economic context. After democratising in 1994, the South African economy was released from much of the international economic sanctions brought on. 治政 subsequently opened the economy to global investment but大 was met with varying levels of 立. by Apartheid (Clark & Worger, 2016; South African Market Insights, 2018). Political leaders. success. Early efforts saw GDP growth rates as high as 10% (South African Market Insights,. ‧ 國. 學. 2018; World Bank, 2018a). However, this growth was unstable and short-lived due to two. ‧. factors. First, the increased foreign direct investment exposed unprepared corporations to. sit. y. Nat. international market volatility. During the 2008 monetary crisis, South Africa’s economic. io. er. growth fell into the negatives, before slowing to an average of 1.3% per year and slumping. al. into recession in 2018 (South African Market Insights, 2018; World Bank, 2018b). Second,. n. v i n inadequately prepared corporations C were to international competition. Notably, the h eexposed ngchi U textile industry suffered closures due to cheaper Asian imports (South African Market Insights, 2018). Twenty-five years after democratisation, President Cyril Ramapoza (2019) admitted that South Africa still faces the same issues as it had in 1994. Table 1.2 shows that since 1990, South Africa’s GDP per capita has remained mostly stagnant and dwarfed by the US and Chinese economies (World Bank, 2018; World Resource Institute, 2017). The economic stagnation continues to contribute to high unemployment. As of 2019, data from the World Bank (2019b) shows a 27% unemployment, with 52% of the youth unemployed (Trading. 13. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(26) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Economics, 2019). Furthermore, the gap between rich and poor has increased. As of 2018, the World Bank put South Africa’s Gini coefficient at .69, up from .60 before 1994 (World Bank, 2018a). Since 2008, an ongoing energy shortage has further crippled the economy (Sebitosi, 2008). South African energy utility company, Eskom, has suffered severe shortfalls in electricity production and has been plagued by old and failing infrastructure and high debt (Giglmayr, Brent, Gauché, & Fechner, 2015; McEwan, 2017; Msimanga & Sebitosi, 2014; Pegels, 2010). To remedy the situation, Eskom had by 2018 made and received 350% worth. 治政 In 2019, they launched another pending request to increase大 tariffs by a further 80% (Daniel, 立. of electricity tariff increases from the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA).. 2019; Mdluli, 2019). About 77% of Eskom’s energy capacity comes from coal. The previous. ‧ 國. 學. government had defended the use of coal as part of its policies for poverty relief ("SA. ‧. government defends its use of coal as pro-poor," 2018). However, the continued reliance on. sit. y. Nat. coal, lack of supply and tariff hikes have had adverse effects on the economy.. io. er. To solve the economic impasse, government policies have shifted. First, to address. al. the energy shortage, the government has promoted national energy conservation strategies to. n. v i n C h Second, thisUdecision was supplemented by a reduce household use and improve efficiency. engchi pivot to renewable energy (McEwan, 2017; Msimanga & Sebitosi, 2014; Radebe, 2018;. Standard Bank of South Africa, 2019). In this latter regard, the government has permitted the existence of independent power producers using renewable energy sources. This enterprise has been praised as a source of economic opportunity and social development (McEwan, 2017; Radebe, 2018). Furthermore, President Ramaphosa has also announced the need for further protectionist trade policies to guard domestic industry (Ramaphosa, 2019). US socio-economic context. Compared to South Africa and China, the United States has long dominated global trade. They have been found to push for free trade since at least. 14. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(27) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. 1856. However, it was the events of World War II that facilitated the US transformation into a global industrial powerhouse (Bodley, 2008; Gilpin, 2001). Starting with the rebuilding of the German and Japanese economies, the US Marshal Plan enabled a global free trade system. However, this also led to an exodus of US manufacturers to industrialising Asian nations. Consequently, the US economy refocused on services such as banking, transportation and logistics, high technology and consumption (Central Intelligence Agency, 2016; World Resource Institute, 2017). These changes have seen US emissions peak, while its GDP continued to grow (see Figure 1.2, p. 11).. 治政 manufacturing has received a renewed focus (Dunlap et al.,大 2016; Trump, 2019). Since 立. However, under the current leadership of President Donald Trump, US energy and. assuming the presidency, President Trump has repealed Obama-era Environmental Protection. ‧ 國. 學. Agency (EPA) policies aimed at curbing industrial and power-plant emissions. Specifically,. ‧. President Obama had pledged to reduce national power plants emissions by 80%, methane. sit. y. Nat. emissions by between 25 and 40%, and increasing taxes for the oil and coal-based industries. io. er. (“Whitehouse announces…”, 2015). President Trump’s repudiation of these acts has made it. al. easier for US corporations to go back to carbon-intensive production. In a preliminary press. n. v i n C h that their findingsUsuggested a 3.4% increase in US release in 2019, Rhodium group claimed engchi emissions since 2018 (Rhodium Group, 2019). While these findings are still preliminary, they would suggest that the data in Figure 1.2 (see p. 11), could show an increase in US emissions per capita for the first time since 2005. These findings, if confirmed, are not surprising. National political disagreement on climate change as real has been visible since the signing of the Kyoto Protocol. The Republican-controlled Senate used economic arguments, including the rise of China’s economy and emissions, as a pretext to not ratify Bill Clinton’s, a former US president, the decision to sign the Kyoto Protocol (Buchner, Carraro, & Cersosimo, 2002; Cameron, 2002;. 15. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(28) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Lisowski, 2002). When Republican President, George Bush, took the presidency in 2001, he repudiated the US signature of the Accord. Likewise, US President Donald Trump has used economic reasoning to withdraw from the Paris Accord (Liptak & Acosta, 2017; Trump, 2017; White House, 2017a, 2017b). 1.1.3 National responses to climate change. The three nations have also taken different approaches to address climate change. Of the three nations in the study, China has taken the most initiative-taking role. Domestically, it has instituted legislative efforts to reduce its emissions (Finamore, 2018; Zhao, Lyu, & Wang, 2019). This robust legal system. 治政大 target climate change international finance and technology transfer mechanisms that 立. was not, however, always the case. By comparison, South Africa has tended to rely more on. mitigation (Ramaphosa, 2019). In the US, there has developed a deep bipartisan split in the. ‧ 國. 學. climate change debate. While Republicans oppose any international climate accord, often. sit. y. Nat. 2009, 2016; Trump, 2017; White House, 2017b).. ‧. denying that climate change exists, Democrats actively push for climate solutions (Nisbet,. io. er. China’s response to climate change. In June of 1991, China’s Premier, Li Peng, announced China’s intent to discuss climate change with a group of 40 developing countries. al. n. v i n C h in the 1991 Beijing (Finamore, 2018). This meeting resulted e n g c h i U Ministerial Declaration on. Environment and Development (Beijing Declaration), with many of its principles adopted into the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1991 Beijing Ministerial Declaration on Environment and Development, 1991; Finamore, 2018). However, China’s economy was also at its peak, but dependent on coal-fired powerplants. Furthermore, local government leaders were often judged by their economic achievements (Leonard, 2012; Y. Liu & D. Chen, 2012; Wright, 2013). As a result, there was little political motivation to take climate action.. 16. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(29) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. It was not until 2012 that climate change took a more central position on the CPC’s agenda. Domestically, more people began to take note of the deteriorating air quality and PM2.5 began trending online (Finamore, 2018). In 2012, a documentary by Chia Jing (柴静), Under the Dome (穹頂之下), was published online (Finamore, 2018; Lu, Chen, Li, & Zheng, 2018). The documentary gave the first detailed online commentary on the PM2.5 crisis and inspired a debate that evolved into public outcry despite online censorship efforts. As public anger grew, the government shifted its stand on air-quality. China’s Ministry of the Ecology and the Environment set up measurement standards to better communicate with citizens on. 政治大 Efforts under the leadership of Hu Jintao included cancelling the construction of over 立. PM2.5 and the resulting health hazards (Finamore, 2018).. ‧ 國. 學. 150 coal powerplants and banning of vehicles from the roads during severe periods of city smog. President Hu’s laws also led to dedicated environmental courts that by 2015 saw over. ‧. 8000 arrests and 2400 prosecutions for environmental crimes (Duncan, 2015). Further. sit. y. Nat. legislative efforts were taken under the leadership of Xi Jinping. These included emission. n. al. er. io. caps, and the protection of farmland and forestry (Koleski, 2017; Leonard, 2012; Ministry of. i n U. v. Ecology and the Environment, 2017; Wright, 2011; Xi, 2014; Zinda, Trac, Zhai, & Harrell,. Ch. engchi. 2017). In 2015, China’s Supreme People’s Court applied further pressure on polluters when it ruled in favour of private actors suing over-polluting corporations (Mi, 2016; The Supreme People's Court of the PRC, 2015). This ruling resulted in cases of eNGOs suing corporations. Internationally, China also expanded its diplomatic efforts concerning climate change. Aside from its early efforts to have developing nations’ perspectives adopted into the Kyoto Protocol, China was pivotal in the outcome of the 2009 Copenhagen Accord (Finamore, 2018; Harris, 2010). Although China opposed developing nations making emission cuts, it was here that China first pledged to peak its emissions by 2030. China also pledged to implement a carbon trading system and increase its renewable energy sources to 20% of total 17. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(30) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. national needs (Finamore, 2018). In the run-up to the Paris Accord, China again played a pivotal role. A meeting between former US President Obama and President Xi-Jinping resulted in a potentially stalled Paris Accord to culminate into a historic agreement. China repeated its pledge to become carbon neutral and vocally supported the Paris Accord (Davenport, 2015; Finamore, 2018). By 2017, China had implemented many of its climate change pledges (Finamore, 2018; Liptak & Acosta, 2017; Trump, 2017, 2019; White House, 2017b). A crucial part of this strategy has been the development of its renewable energy sector, including solar, wind. 治政大 into a viable market, pollution (Lu et al., 2018). Renewables have also been developed 立. and hydroelectricity. Renewable energy has led to a reduction of as much as 30% in city. employing an estimated 4.5 million workers by 2018 (Finamore, 2018). China has also begun. ‧ 國. 學. to market renewables through its one belt one road economic initiative. Furthermore, despite. ‧. the adverse economic risks brought by the trade war, China’s leaders have continued to assert. sit. y. Nat. its intent to comply with the Paris Accord. The governance ideology of Xi-Thought. io. civilization’ and modernise China ‘in harmony with nature.’. al. er. encapsulated this intent when it claims to pursue ‘sound systems for building an ecological. n. v i n South Africa’s response to C climate Despite being Africa’s second-largest h e change. ngchi U. economy and its largest polluter, South Africa’s response to climate change has been more muted. Much of South Africa’s emissions stem from its over-reliance on coal. More than 77% of all its energy needs derive from domestically mined coal and its conversion to synthetic fuels (South Africa Inc., 2016). Indeed, coal has become a pronounced part of national debate under the government of former South African President, Jacob Zuma ("SA government defends its use of coal as pro-poor," 2018). Notably, the government argued at the time that its reliance on coal was ‘pro-poor.’ At the same time, South Africa has made the. 18. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(31) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. linkage between climate change, droughts and fires that have cost the National Treasury nearly US$338 million in 2018 alone (Mkhize, 2018; Ramaphosa, 2019). At COP15, South Africa had joined with other developing nations in making voluntary pledges. Most of its emphasis has, however, been on the need for the Green Climate Fund and technology transfer mechanisms to enable developing nations to adapt to transition (African National Congress, 2011; Masupha, Moeletsi, & Tsubo, 2016; Roy et al., 2018). Unsurprisingly, the national focus has been on the use of these funds and technologies for adaptation. In this regard, the national response has focused on developing infrastructure,. 治政大 Programme (REPP). The notable response has been the Renewable Energy Procurement 立. sustainable employment, and improved education to improve climate change resilience. One. REPP, built with the assistance of foreign-owned renewable energy corporations, is an. ‧ 國. 學. example of the technology transfer in action. Since 2014, the project has resulted in three. ‧. wind and solar facilities (Giglmayr, Brent, Gauché, & Fechner, 2015; "Leading the. sit. y. Nat. global…," 2015; "South Africa's first solar…," 2015; Walwyn & Brent, 2015; Whitlock,. io. er. 2015). It has also been credited with leading to a greener and more sustainable jobs and. al. bringing robust community development (Radebe, 2018). Under President Ramaphosa, South. n. v i n African ministers have looked moreC favourably the role of renewable energy and h e n gtowards chi U. opened the prospects of REPP producers to sell electricity directly to businesses ("Climate change bill," 2018; Radebe, 2018; Ramaphosa, 2019). The government has also received support from the civic sector. Environmental NGOs work with the government on education, clean-up and conservation projects (Caniglia, Brulle, & Szasz, 2015; Doyle, 2007). Projects have included cleaning up plastic pellets spilt from cargo ships, oil spills, conservation and pushing for energy efficiency (Death, 2014; Lund-Thomsen, 2005). The corporate sector has also weighed in. In 1994, the Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA) launched the King Report on Corporate Governance.. 19. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(32) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. King III and King IV, the most recent versions of the code, offer a set of mitigative actions that corporations can take (Institute of Directors Southern Africa, n.d.). To ensure a broader implementation of the King Code, the privately-owned Johannesburg Stock Exchange has made the code a listing requirement (Johannesburg Stock Exchange, 2019). In April 2019, two of South Africa’s largest financial institutions also announced place to no longer finance non-renewable powerplants, citing the COP21 declaration (Standard Bank of South Africa, 2019; Yelland, 2019). Thus, South Africa has seen actions from all sectors in response to climate change, but this has usually been under the guise of development. US’s response to climate change. To a degree, the present case of China’s. 治政大industrialisation in the environmental actions mirrored the US historical case. Rapid 立 aftermath of WWII led to unsustainable economic growth in the US, worsening. ‧ 國. 學. environmental conditions, and leading to strong environmentalism (Heberlein, 2012; van de. ‧. Veer & Pierce, 1993). In 1969, the Cuyahoga River caught fire from the pollution of 12. sit. y. Nat. industrial plants upriver (Stradling & Stradling, 2008). This event resulted in public outcry. io. er. and civic action, with US president Richard Nixon enacting the Clean Air Act of 1970 and. al. establishing the EPA through executive action ("Clean Air Act," 1970). Later amendments to. n. v i n the Clean Air Act enabled emissionC controls the automotive industry (Gerard & Lave, h e nover gchi U. 2005) and more recently Obama instructed the EPA to further cut emissions (Murray, Pizer, & Ross, 2015; White House, 2014). However, efforts by Democratic politicians have been overturned by the Republican party. Climate action has become a bipartisan issue. An early example of this political rivalry was the Republican decision to withdraw the US from the Kyoto Protocol. At the time, a Republican-controlled senate rejected arguments by President Bill Clinton and Vice-president Al Gore, both Democrats and refused to ratify the Paris Accord (Lisowski, 2002). On taking the presidency, Republican President, George Bush, repudiated the executive actions to sign the Kyoto Protocol and promptly withdrew the. 20. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(33) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. US from the COP. In both actions, he argued that it would result in the US losing its economic advantage to the China and India (Buchner, Carraro, & Cersosimo, 2002; Dunn, 2002; Lisowski, 2002; McCright & Dunlap, 2003). Republican politicians have also been linked to a conservative movement calling climate change science uncertain (Antilla, 2005; Dunlap & McCright, 2012; Dunlap, McCright, & Yarosh, 2016; McCright & Dunlap, 2011; Nisbet, 2009, 2016). A comparable situation followed the Democratic Presidency of Obama. Former US president, Barrack Obama, had taken the US back to the COP and aggressively pursued. 治政大 affirming that both nations Obama and Xi Jinping, which was followed by a joint statement 立 bilateral climate negotiations. A notable event was a 2014 meeting between Presidents. supported the principles of the Paris Accord (Bodansky, 2016; Davenport, 2014). These. ‧ 國. 學. bilateral efforts were pivotal in the adoption of the Paris Accord. Domestically, Obama also. ‧. instructed the EPA to reduce overall emissions by 80% and methane emissions by between. sit. y. Nat. 25% and 40% (White House, 2014). Again, Republicans used economic reasoning to oppose. io. er. the decision. After taking control of Congress and the White House, Republican actors repealed the Obama’s orders and made it easier for corporate actors to pursue fossil fuel-. al. n. v i n Cwithdrew dependent growth strategies and also ("Approval and promulgation of air h e n gthecUS hi U quality...", 2018; Trump, 2017, 2019; White House, 2017b; White House, 2018). President Trump also cited financial ramifications as the primary reason for withdrawing from the Paris Accord (Liptak & Acosta, 2017; Nisbet, 2016; Shankleman, 2016). The civic environment also appeared split. On the one side, eNGOs have long been opposed to a broader application of fossil fuels. President Nixon’s 1970 legislation enabled additional legal pressure to be applied to corporate actors. Notably, laws passed in the 1970s enabled eNGOs and other private parties to pursue litigation on federal environmental legislation (Heberlein, 2012; Naysnerski & Tietenberg, 1992; van de Veer & Pierce, 1993).. 21. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(34) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Private litigation was particularly permitted in cases where government agencies such as the EPA were unable to act or failed to act. Environmental NGOs also began to lobby political actors for more further steps to be taken against polluters (Endres, Sprain, & Peterson, 2009; Heberlein, 2012). One notable case was the Step It Up (SIU) campaign (Endres et al., 2009). Starting as a student movement, it rapidly developed into an eNGO and was instrumental in lobbying the 2008 presidential candidates to adopt an 80% carbon-cut pledge. A more recent civic case started with a youth group petitioning the Supreme Court for permission to sue corporations over climate change (Blumm & Wood, 2017). The case is ongoing.. 治政大energy corporations’ lobbying researchers and data analysts have pointed to the link between 立 Corporations also displayed characteristics of being divided on climate change. First,. efforts and climate change denial (Centre for Responsive Records, 2018; Dunlap &. ‧ 國. 學. McCright, 2012; Goldenberg, 2013; Heberlein, 2012; McCright & Dunlap, 2003, 2011). An. ‧. often-cited example has been that of ExxonMobil. ExxonMobil has been linked to millions. sit. y. Nat. spent on lobbying and CSR projects aimed at influencing public opinion (Anderson, 2009;. io. er. Goldenberg, 2013; Heberlein, 2012; Sinden, 2007). These efforts included launching and. al. funding an eNGO, Human Rights 267. Conversely, voluntary mitigation appeared to. n. v i n Ch dominate among actors in the high-technology The literature suggested that terms e n gsectors. chi U such as green IT, green suppliers, recyclability and sustainability have been adopted (Heberlein, 2012; Weinhofer & Hoffmann, 2010). Particularly, high-grossing corporations such as Apple Inc., Tesla and Microsoft have all invested in renewables, cleaner supply chains and technological efficiency. These same corporations have also formed political alliances, which in one instance saw them standing with California’s Governor, Jerry Brown, to lobby against President Trump’s decision to withdraw from the Paris Accord (Apple Incorporated, 2018; Elliott, 2000; Ruth, 2009; Shepardson, 2017).. 22. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(35) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. 1.1.4 Summary of national cases. To summarise, the three nations differ significantly regarding their social, political and economic conditions as well as in their responses to climate change. They do, however, share characteristics that make them comparable. First, both China and South Africa are developing nations. China has been more successful at industrialisation, and World Bank (2019a) indicators show that their inequality and poverty levels are decreasing. In contrast, South Africa remains a slow growing, developing economy with high unemployment and inequality. As a result, its national policy agenda and its approach to climate change remain focused on social development. Second,. 治政大 has only begun to emerge US has achieved a higher level of industrialisation while China 立. both China and the United States have achieved strong industrial economies. However, the. from dependence on rapid, unsustainable, growth. Thus, China has higher overall carbon. ‧ 國. 學. emissions even though it has a lower GDP per capita. Furthermore, while both nations. ‧. developed a robust legalistic approach to address environmental and climate change issues,. sit. y. Nat. they differ starkly in their political systems. Finally, South Africa and the US are both. io. er. democracies. However, they differ not only in the type of democracy that is present, but also. al. in terms of GDP per capita and emissions.. n. v i n Thus, the three nations couldCbehlabelled to reflectU e n g c h i their respective characteristics.. China can be characterised as a developing nation with an industrialising economy and an authoritarian model of governance. South Africa can be characterised as a developing democracy focused on solving developmental problems. Finally, the US can be characterised as a mostly industrialised democracy with a bipartisan approach to governance. Table 1.1 offers a summary of the key similarities and differences.. 23. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(36) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Table 1.1 Political and Socioeconomic Differences in China, South Africa, and the US Political System. Policy Making. China. South Africa. USA. China is a semi-presidential socialist republic or a Single Party State. The CPC exercises authority with authority centralised under General Secretary Xi Jinping and the Executive organ of the NPC. In theory, the chair of the party is elected internally by the Party every 5-years and confirmed by the NPC. There is no maximum term limit.. South Africa is a parliamentary representative democratic Republic. It sometimes described as an emerging democracy. Power is exercised through the National Assembly, which is elected by national vote every 5 years. The lower house of the national assembly elects the president.. The US is a federal republic. The power is shared between the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. The President is elected indirectly through ballots cast by the Electoral College every 4 years.. The CPC gives national guidance through 5-year plans and other reports. The 3000-seat National People’s Congress (NPC) debates on specific policies. The CPC Politburo holds final authority on all laws.. Policies are discussed by the Lower House of Parliament, before being voted on by the 400-member Upper House of Parliament. Parties have proportional representation, with 13 parties currently in Parliament. The President must sign acts before it becomes law but has no veto power.. Congress is divided into the 100seat Senate and the 535-seat House of Representatives. The Senate votes on policies and factional negotiations are common. The President has executive power to sign or veto policies.. The African National Congress (230 parliamentary seats), the Democratic Alliance (84 parliamentary seats), and the Economic Freedom Fighters 44 (parliamentary seats).. The Republicans (52 Senate seats), and the Democrats (46 Senate seats).. Developing economy; 41st in GDP.. Developed Economy; 1st in GDP.. Key Political Parties The Communist Party of China.. 立. 政治大. Economy Sources. Agriculture 7.9%, Industry 40.5%, Services 51.6%.. Agriculture 2.8%, Industry 29.7%, Services 67.5%.. Agriculture 0.9%, Industry 19.1%, Services 80%.. Fossil Fuels 62% (Coal, Oil & Natural gas); Hydroelectric 18%; Nuclear 2%; Renewables 18%.. Fossil Fuel 85% (Coal, Oil & Natural gas); Nuclear 4%; Hydroelectric 1%; Renewables 10%.. Fossil Fuels 70% (Coal, Oil & Natural gas); Hydroelectric 7%; Nuclear 9%; Renewables 14%.. Key environmental issues include droughts, crop losses, pollution, water shortages, floods, mudslides, natural disasters, coal mining, deforestation, soil degradation, population growth, and protests.. Key environmental issues include droughts, wildfires, crop and livestock losses, biodiversity losses, pollution, water shortages, coal mining, deforestation, soil degradation, and social consequences.. n. y. Key environmental issues include droughts, crop losses, pollution, water shortages, floods, mudslides, natural disasters, coal mining, deforestation, soil degradation, oil spills, oil Drilling, oil pipelines, fracking, and biodiversity losses.. sit. io. al. ‧. Nat. Environmental Concerns. er. Energy Sources. ‧ 國. Developing/Transitional economy; 2nd in GDP.. 學. Economic System. i n U. v. Sources. Summary by the author. CIA World Factbook Data. (2019). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook. World Resources Institute. Washington DC. Retrieved from http://cait.wri.org. Election Report: 2019 National and Provincial Elections. (2019). Electoral Commission of South Africa [ECSA]. Retrieved from http://www.elections.org.za. Politico. (2016). 2016 Senate election results. Retrieved from http://www.politico.com/2016-election/results/map/senate.. Ch. engchi. 1.2 Outline of the Study To recapture, the impending disastrous change of the climate has enabled climate scientists, policymakers and other stakeholders to call for mitigation actions over the past twenty years. The study will investigate the organisations’ positions towards climate change and prospective solutions. The study also aims to analyse patterns of differences across nations, by comparing the three politically and socio-economically varying nations, namely, China, South Africa and the United States.. 24. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(37) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. The study consists of five chapters. In addition to the first chapter that introduces the background and problematics of the study, Chapter two first reviews the literature on climate change negotiations before turning to the literature on framing. The conceptual explication will then establish a theoretical framework for further identification and analysis of the variables. Chapter 3 will introduce the strategies of data collection, reduction, and analyses. It also includes the operationalisation of the concepts derived from the literature review and the analytic framework. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 will report the inductive and deductive findings of the study, respectively. Chapter 6 will then take an in-depth discussion of the results and. 治政 addresses the limitations and future prospective research. 大立. their practical and theoretical implications. The study will end with a conclusion that. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 25. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(38) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. 2. Literature Review To provide the contexts for the fundamental concepts used by the study, Chapter 2 first performed a thematically structured review of the climate change literature. Next, it discussed recent applications of framing and theory of fields. Finally, the theoretical framework was developed using van Gorp’s (2007, 2010) cultural approach to framing and the theory of fields (Fligstein & McAdam, 2012; Kluttz & Fligstein, 2016). 2.1 International Climate Change Debates Nisbet (2009) accentuated that presidential popularity is an insufficient condition to. 政治大 the State intends to intervene in pro-climate change policy, as Giddens (2011) argued it 立. pass a climate change policy. What it needs, Nisbet advised, is widespread public support. If. ‧ 國. 學. should, this engagement demands a broader inclusion of the markets and society. Political and communication researchers have echoed this view. The consensus has been that national. ‧. policy-making entails or should entail a complex interaction of various actors who vie for. sit. y. Nat. preferred policy outcomes (Giddens, 2011; Kabashima & White III, 2014; Laumann &. io. er. Knoke, 1987; Leonard, 2012; van Gorp, 2007). A review of the climate change literature. al. reveals a current trend towards this ideal.. n. v i n C h differs by nationU(Hammond, 2009; Kabashima & The exact process of policymaking engchi. White III, 2014; Trent & Friedenberg, 2011). However, in all cases, the agents of political parties form the basis of policy decisions. These political parties take different policy positions in line with their electorates. As a result, policy discourse often reflects disagreement at the national level. This disagreement has in the past been reflected at the international level, where various nations’ policy agents debated international climate change agreements. Table 2.1 and the following discussion summarises some of the key climate agreements and disagreements that have emerged since 1988.. 26. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.

(39) FRAMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Table 2.1 Important National and International Climate Change Agreements Event. International Agreements. 1988. The IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) was established.. 1990. The first IPCC assessment report was published supposing anthropogenic climate change.. 1994. The UNFCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) was adopted by 196 nations, establishing the conference of the parties. 1995 COP1. The Berlin Mandate laid the framework for stricter commitments by developed nations and exempts non-annexure A countries from additional obligations.. 1997 COP3. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted, but not ratified, on December 11. It achieved consensus on: -. legally binding emission targets for Annexure 1 members;. -. targeting carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride;. -. market-based mechanisms of emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism, and the Joint Implementation mechanism;. -. the need to monitor emissions and keep accurate records.. 政治大. The US Congress declined to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.. 立. The Marrakech Accord reached a formal agreement on:. implementation of international emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism, and the Joint Implementation mechanisms, establishing a compliance regime, and accounting procedures.. -. the establishment of the Special Climate Change Fund. It outlined mechanisms for financing adaptation projects, technology transfer and capacity building.. -. the founding of the Least Developed Countries Fund to support the preparation and implementation of national adaptation programmes of action; and. -. the opening of discussion on the use of carbon sinks as a carbon credit.. 學. -. ‧. ‧ 國. Nat. y. 2001 COP7. er. -. the development and transfer of technologies;. -. improved land use, land-use change and forestry;. -. the UNFCCC’s financial mechanism;. -. improved national communications infrastructure;. -. capacity building, education, training, and public awareness; and. -. improved response measures.. al. n. 2005 COP11. Members of the COP began discussions on adaptation options, including. io. 2004 COP10. sit. The US Congress, under Republican leadership, repudiated the Kyoto Protocol.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. After enough nations ratified The Kyoto Protocol, it entered into force in 2005. Several eNGOs and civic movements engaged in pressuring the adoption. These same movements criticised members of the COP for not doing enough. The EU launched a carbon emissions trading mechanism.. 2006 COP12. The Clean Development Mechanism was launched. The subsidiary for Scientific and Technological Advice was launched to oversee programmes that address impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change.. 2007 COP13. The Bali Action Plan was launched for future climate change negotiations.. 2008 COP14. The Joint Implementation mechanism was launched.. 2009 COP15. Before the Copenhagen meeting, China volunteers to peak its emissions by 2030 and increasing its renewables to 20% of national capacity. China’s State Council votes for carbon reduction of 40-50%. 27. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901071.