Comparison of Science and Engineering Education Technology Production and Competitiveness of Both Sides of the Taiwan Strait

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(2) 696. Journal of Education & Psychology. December, 2004, Vol. 27 No.4, pp. 695-719. Comparison of Science and Engineering Edu cation, Technology Production, and Competi tiveness of Both Sides of the Taiwan Strait Hsen-Hsing Ma * Abstract This study is to investigate the impact of educational reform on higher education and to compare consequently the technology production, and the competitiveness on both sides of the Taiwan Strait. Methodology used was analogous to the Context-Input Process-Produced (CIPP)-model. Important findings are: In the educational reform, both sides have carried out the policy of decentralization. In higher education, Taiwan has re alized the election of academic heads through faculty members, but the Mainland stili fails behind. On the contrary, the Mainland is more energetic to let higher education in stitution to run commercial enterprises. After the revision of the University Law the graduate who earned doctoral degrees overseas have to compete for vacancies in higher education institutions with those who earned at Taiwanese universities. As a result, the number of returnees dropped down in Taiwan, while the Mainland is stili energetic in at tracting overseas students to return. The Mainland gives more emphasis to science and engineering education than Taiwan. This could threat the competitive edge in technology development of Taiwan.. Keywords: science and engineering education, educational reform, international competiti veness. Hsen-Hsing Ma: Professor, Department of Education, National Chengchi University E-mail: gxyzwgcd@nccu .edu.tw Manuscript received: 2003.11 .19; Revised: 2004.2.12; Accepted: 2004.2.27.

(3) ~~~~~~ti.·#tt~ilia.+h~~~. ~7. This study is to compare the com. 89). Ma (2001) treated competitiveness as. petitiveness of both sides of the Taiwan. a latent variable, and used three observed. Strait. Competition is different from. variables, Gross Domestic Product (GOP). struggle. In a struggle one's death is the. per capita, private consumption expendi. bread of his rival, while in the competi. ture per capita, and the life expectancy at. tion one is, under the principle of equal. birth, as its indicators. This is based on. chance and rules of fair play, to win the. the assumption that the stronger a nation's. opportunity for exchange for goods, ser. competitiveness is, the higher the GOP. vices, or currency. Failure in competition. per capita, the stronger the purchasing. is not fatal. The loser still has a chance to. power of its people, and the longer the. win next time. In order to win, one has to. life of its people will be.. raise his capability. Through the mecha. In the modem world, the growth of. nism of competition the capability of the. GOP depends on the expansion of market. whole society will be increased automati. share of a nation's produced goods and. cally, because the capability of every. services. And the expansion of market. member of the society committing to. share of produced goods and services re. competition is improving.. lies largely on technology innovation and. The Organization of Economic Co operation. and. Development. patents. Acquirement of technology inno. (OECD). vation and patents hinges on the repertory. (1992, cited by Llewellyn, 1996) defines. of Research and Development (R&D). a nation's competitiveness as: "the degree. personnel and expenditures.. to which it can, under free and fair market. The R&D personnel were cultivated. conditions, produce goods and services. in higher education institutions. Concomi. which meet the test of international mar. tantly, faculty of science and engineering. kets, while simultaneously maintaining. in higher education institutions also par. and expanding the real incomes of its. ticipate in the basic researches which. people over the longer term (p. 237). The. have also positive interactions with tech. World Economic Forum defines competi. nology innovations in industries, although. tiveness as "the ability of a nation's econ. the lag between the appearance of re. omy to make rapid and sustained gains in. search in the academic community and its. living standards" (Llewellyn, 1996, p.. effect on productivity in the industry.

(4) 698. :#: ~ ~,,:; l£hff Jt. 27 % 4 JiJl. might be as long as roughly 20 years (Ad. strive for economic development. DurinoI:>. ams, 1990).. 1973-1980 he carried out the "Ten Con. The purpose of this study does not. struction Project" including the highway,. aim to designate winner and loser but to. electric railway, seaports, international. portray the potential competitive edge of. airport, shipbuilding, steel foundry, petro. both sides of the Taiwan Strait and to. chemical industry, and nuclear energy.. promote their prosperity through techno. Another man who had also great contribu. logical competition.. tion to the economic take-off of Taiwan is. Politically there were many similari. Li, Guo-ding. He was the Minister of. ties on the Mainland and Taiwan. In the. Economic Affair during the time that Ji. era of Mao, Zedong and Chiang, Kei. ang, Jin-guo was the Minister of National. shek, the governments on the both sides. Defense. Li paved the way for the Estab. were autocratic. They concentrated on the. lishment of the Gaoshiung Economic. stability of political power. Science and. Processing Zone in 1966 and the Hsinchu. technology were underdeveloped. Eco. Science-based Industrial Park in 1980.. nomic take-off began after Jiang, Jing. In China, Deng, Xiao-ping came to. guo and Deng Xiao-Ping came into. power for a third term in July 1977, after. power.. "the four-bandits" were arrested in Octo. Jiang, Jin-guo was appointed as the. ber 1976. In 1978, Deng implemented the. minister of national defense on January. "open-door policy", which gave promi. 13, 1965; as the vice-premier on April 18,. nence to science and technology, and cre. 1970; and as the premier on May 29,. ated the Shenzhen Special Economic. 1972. From 1978 to 1988 he was the. Zone.. president. He survived an unsuccessfully. Both Jiang, Jhin-guo and Deng,. assassination attempt by two Taiwanese,. Xiau-ping. Huang, Wen-Shiung and Zheng, Z-qai, as. demonstrations claiming political power. he visited New York. This event caused. after their people had accumulated a cer. him to consider recruiting, instead of op. tain degree of economic power, the largest. pressing, Taiwanese elites. This is the so. of which was the Formosa Magazine. called "localization policy in personnel. event on December 2, 1979 in Taiwan and. affairs." On the other hand, he began to. the Tiananmen Square event on June 4,. had. confronted. large-scale.

(5) ~*~~~L#.·#~~ilia.*h~~~. 1989 in the Mainland.. ~9. financial aid, rather than political control.. Taiwan set the democratization in. The Mainland China has been more. motion earlier. Law (1996) pointed out,. energetic than Taiwan in establishing. while the Mainland officially incorpo. commercial enterprises within colleges. rated market mechanisms into its socialist. and universities. The commercial enter. economy, but kept its political system in. prises not only create profits, which. tact in the 1980s, Taiwan maintained its. broaden the financing of higher educa. economic system but from 1987 onwards. tion, but also strengthen the connection. modified its political system by legitimiz. between teaching, research and produc. ing oppositional parties, and consequently. tion.. an opposition party, the Democratic Pro. However Taiwan is more successful. gressive Party, has won the election in. than the Mainland in "de-politicization",. 2000.. i.e. the prevention of political influence. In the latest higher education reform,. from the ruling party on higher education,. both sides have devolved limited admini. such as the retreat of party organs from. stration powers to higher education insti. the campus; establishing the petition sys. tutions in four major aspects: personnel. tem for the treatment of grievances of. management, academic freedom, finance,. teachers ; and the election of chainnan,. and curriculum (Law, 1996).. dean, and president through faculty mem. Law (1995) found a similarity. III. bers.. higher education reform between the for. The latest higher education reform. mer socialist countries of Central and. on both sides of the Taiwan Strait has re. Eastern Europe on one side and the. sulted in the expansion of academic free. Mainland China and Taiwan on the other. dom in the college campus. Academic. side. Higher education in all these coun. freedom is a primary element for the de. tries is marked by three major characteris. velopment of science. The major center of. tics of decentralization: the withdrawal of. science of the world moved roughly once. political force from campuses; the elimi. in a century. In the 16th century the center. nation of political and ideological educa. of scientific activity was located in Italy.. tion from the curriculum; and the accep. In the 17th century it moved to England,. tance of the state's guidance by means of. in the 18th century to France, in the 19th.

(6) 700. $tlf~·\;lJ.b1f1E. -. 2744j1,1]. century Germany, and in the 20th century. engineering, technology production, and. prominent scientists moved to USA where. competitiveness of both sides of the Tai. they could enjoy the academic freedom.. wan Strait. Because these constructs have. The growth of academic freedom on both. their logical sequence, methodology used. sides of the Strait absorbed students. in the present study was analogous to the. studying abroad to return to their home. CIPP-model (Context-Input-Process-Pro_. lands and reversed the brain drain to brain. duced-model), which is widely used in. circulation (Cao, 1996). It was called. educational evaluation.. brain circulation, because the returned. Competitiveness was. set as the. scholars also participate in the interna. "product", and the technology innovation. tional scientific activities. activities as the "process". The innovation activities included technology, infrastruc. 1. Method. ture, expenditure on R&D, R&D person. The hard data of the related variables. nel, and the number of patents in force.. of competitiveness used in the present. The number of computers and cellular. study are from the International Institute. mobile telephone subscribers were chosen. for. Development. as proxy for the technology infrastructure. (2002), The National Science Board. because they had higher correlation coef. (2002), and the published governmental. ficients with GDP than other variables in. statistics of the Mainland and Taiwan.. the technology infrastructure. The R&D. Management. and. The political reform on both sides. personnel were nurtured by higher educa. brought about the deregulation in educa. tion, therefore the number of graduates of. tion, which led to the elimination of the. higher education, especially the graduates. constraint on the academic freedom. Aca. of colleges of science and engineering. demic freedom facilitates the innovation. was regarded as an "input". Population. of technology and science. Production of. was chosen as a variable of "context", be. technology would boost the growth and. cause population also represents a market.. finally the living standard of their people.. The relative value of a variable in this. The present study employs this logical. study was acquired by dividing the abso. reasoning to compare higher education,. lute value through population. By the. especially the education of science and. way, the population growth of both sides.

(7) ~~~Rm~~.·#ttAili&R*h~~.. WI. was forecasted by means of Time-Series. partial autocorrelations of residuals were. Analysis (Box & Jenkins, 1976). The sta. not significant. The removal of intercept. tistic software used to forecast popula. led to decrease of standard error estimate,. tions of the both sides of the Taiwan Strait. AIC (Akaike's information criterion) and. was ETS/SAS (SAS Institute, 1984). In. SBC. order to estimate the possible contribution. Hence the final model is p,d,q =1, I, (l ,3). of R&D personnel to the competitiveness,. without intercept.. (Schwartz's. Bayesian. criterion).. the Linear Structure Relation (LISREL). For the population of Taiwan, the. model (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993) was. first three lags of autocorrelations and the. employed.. first lag of partial correlations were sig. 2. Results Results of this study are presented in the sequence of CIPP.. nificant after the first differencing was conducted. Thus a model of p,d,q= 1,1,3 was chosen for forecast. The results showed that no lag of autocorrelations. Context: population. and partial autocorrelations of residuals. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are the growth of. was significant and removal of intercept. population of Taiwan and the Mainland. did not improve the fitness of the model.. respectively. Although the Mainland has. The final estimated parameters as well as. put the "one child policy" into effect and. forecasted populations for 2002-2004 of. Taiwan has legalized abortion, the trends. both sides are shown in Table I.. of popUlation growth do not reverse. For the population of the Mainland, after the. Input: Education of Science and En gineering. first differencing, lag I of autocorrela. What higher education has to do. tions and partial autocorrelations were. with economy is the training of technol. significant. Hence a model of p,d,q = 1,1,1. ogy personnel for production, research. was chosen for estimating parameters and. and development. Most of them are edu. forecasts. But the significance of the third. cated in the colleges of science and engi. lag of autocorrelations of residuals forced. neering. In the last two decades, a greater. the author to change the model into lag. part of salient scientists and engineers. p,d,q= 1,1, (l ,3). After the modification of. from both sides of the Strait had studied. the model, all lags of autocorrelations and. in the USA. Fig. 3 illustrates the number.

(8) -ti: 11 ~ ,(; Jl'.,bJf Jt. 102. 27. % 4 ttJl. 25000000. 20000000. c:. .g. 15000000. :; '". 0... 0. 0... 10000000. 5000000. o ~ ¢ ~ ,0, ,0, - ,0,. ~. ~. ~"5 ~. ~ ~ ,0; ,0;. ~ ~. ,. ,o,~ ~'\ ,o,~. ~ ,0,'B. ~. b. ,o,'b ~'B. ~ ~ ,0,'6 ,0,0,. b. ~. ~o, ~o,. Year. Fig. I. The growth of population of Taiwan. lata source: From Taiwan-Fukien demographic fact book, Republic of China (pp. 978-979), by Ministry of Interior, 2002, Taipei: Ministry of Interior.. 1400000000 1200000000 1000000000 .:. .S 'iil. 800000000. ::>. c.. 0. 0.... 600000000 400000000 200000000. o ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. W ~~. ~. ~. ~. Ye& . Fig. 2. The growth of population of the Mainland China. source; From China population statistics yearbook (p. 200), by Department of Population, Social, Science and Tech nology Statistics, National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China, 2002, Beijing: China Statistics Press.. (.

(9) ~~rf.3 if. l£.L# 1f. Table I. ' t4.ttA tf.j .&.~* JJ ~t:l:.~x 703. Forecast of Population in Next Three Years for Taiwan and the MainIand China Parameters ARIMA model (p,d,q) Intercept <P I. 8 1. 8 2. 83 Year 2002 Year 2003 Year 2004. Taiwan (1,1,3) 307402. The Mainland (1,1,(1,3)). 0.61015 0.16689 -0.09965 22498228 22666916 22829531. 0.96263 -0.0051175 -0.34275 1286210000 1294400000 1303690000. of doctoral science and engineeringde. versities in 1999 is only 4.5 times more. grees earned by Mainland and Taiwanese. than that in 1987, and the number of that. students at their place of ongIn and at. acquired at the U.S universities was. U.S. universities.. merely l.5 times higher than that in 1987. The reasons behind these differences. Data before 1980 in Fig. 3 were missing. An important phenomenon In. are worthy of investigation. The follow. Fig. 3 reveals that while the growth of. ing interpretations are solely suggestive,. doctoral degrees earned by Chinese stu. not conclusive, because data used to sup. dents at the Mainland and American uni. port the explanation are not experimental.. versities has accelerated from 1987 on. 2.1. The dynamics of the skyrocketing of the number of doctoral science and engineering degrees earned by Chinese students. wards, its Taiwanese counterpart has pro gressed only slowly. The number of the Mainland students who earned science and engineering degrees at the Mainland universities in 1999 has surpassed the number in 1987 by 34 times. The number of doctoral science and engineering de. Four impetuses are to clarify this. grees earned by the Mainland students at. miracle (National Science Foundation. American universities in 1996 has also. (NSF), Division of Science Resources. exceeded the number in 1987 by 10 times.. Studies (SRS) 2000, Chapter "Graduate. On the contrary, the number of doctoral. education reform and international mobil. science and engineering degrees received. ity. by Taiwanese students at their local uni. China", available at http://www.nsf.gov/. of scientists and engineering in.

(10) ~Uf ~,\;.rfbiT~. 704. 27 ~ 4. JtJl. sbe/srs/nsf00318/c Is l.htm).. upon came the second wave of expansion. There are five milestones depicting the. 2.1.1 Expansion of graduate. turning points of development. For the. schools in Mainland China Fig. 4 is the curve of the number of. point A, the graduate school was resumed. graduate students in the Mainland China. after the "Reform and Open door" policy. from 1978-1994.. was carried out. The number of graduate. The enrollment of graduate students. students was down slope in the first three. had started to expand since 1980. The. years because undergraduate education. greatest increase occurred in 1985, and. was also resumed in the Mainland in. then declined gradually until 1989, there. 1977, consequently the number of quail. 8000 7000. 6000. ~ 5000. S; ..... 8. '04(0) ..... '"E. -gc:. 3000 2000 1000. o ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. y~. - . - Chinese students at Chinese universities. -0- Chinese students at U.S. universities. --..- Taiwanese students at Taiwan universities. -D- Taiwanese students at U.S. universities. Fig. 3 Doctoral science and engineering degrees earned by the Mainland and Taiwanese students at their place of origin and at U.S. universities Note: The term "science and engineering" is defined by National Science Board (2002) as including natural science, mathematics and computerscience, agricultural science, social and behavioral science. and engineering. Data source: From Science and engineering indicators 2002 (Appendix Table H-4I ), by National Science Board, 2002, NSB-OO-l. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. (Available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/ appendlc2lat02-4I.xls).

(11) ~~~Rm~ft.·#~~ili& • • h~~.. 7M. (ffiX) 5mX). 54(ffi). -0. .B en. 'b. 3(ffi). a3 .D. E. =' Z. 2ffiX). lCXID. o ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~. ~. Year Fig. 4. The Number of graduate students in the Mainland China from 1978-1994. Note: A: "Reform and Open Door" policy was implemented in 1978, and thegraduate education was resumed. B: The 5-year loan Program from the World Bank was started in 1981 for China to strengthen science and engineering education in higher education. C: In May 1985, the document decision on the Reform of the Education System was approved at the National Edu cation Conference. Under the reformed policy, the fee-paying students as well as students contracting with enter prises were also to be allowed for graduate education. 0: Five large-scale student demonstrations took place from 1986 to 1989.. E: the Tiananmen Square event in 1989. Data source: from Graduate education reforms and international mobility in Europe, Asia, and the Americas and interna tional mobililY ofscientists and engineers (Chapter "Graduate education reforms and international mobility in China"), by National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies, 2000, NSF 00-318, Arling ton,VA. (Available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/nsf00318/cls1.htm). fied applicants remained limited in this. in 1985 (point C), the recurrent students. period. Point B marks the onset of the. movements between 1986-1989 (span D). five-year loan Program from the World. (Law, 1995, p. 351) caused the govern. Bank in 1981 to nourish science and en. ment to readjust the admission policy.. gineering programs in higher education.. The decline of graduate admission. The academic degree system, which was. after 1986 arrived at the valley in 1989. established in 1981, conjointly inspired. (point E). But the "admissions stabiliza. more students to pursue graduate educa. tion" policy was continued only in the. tion.. following two years, after that, the up After the expansion reached its peak. swing resumed..

(12) 706. .;ftlf~'\';J.th1f~. 27~4JtJl. 2.1.2 Expansion of doctoral pro grams in Mainland China. 1989-90 and 9.9% in 1993-94. Most of the Chinese students enrolled in American. Because of the rapid national eco. universities were graduate students, e.g.. nomic development and competition of. graduate students accounted for more than. science and technology, the Mainland re. 80% in 1995-96. And most of the Chinese. quires lots of high-level scientific and. students awarded doctoral degrees by. technical personnel for research as well as. American universities from 1985-95 were. for teaching. The number of doctoral de. in science and engineering fields.. grees was boosted deliberately. The ratio. This trend might be influenced by. between master and doctoral degrees in. the Chinese foreign study policy. As the. 1982 was 440: 1, but in 1995, it was 6.4: 1.. Chinese government adopted the "open. 2.1.3 Concentration of the fields of. ing and reform policy" in 1978, the gov. doctoral programs on science. ernment took the first step to send stu. and engineering in Mainland. dents and scholars abroad for moderniza. China. tion and simultaneously relaxed the policy. In 1995, among the doctoral degrees. for non-government-sponsored students. awarded in Mainland China, there were. and scholars to study abroad (Cao, 1996).. 19.4% in science, 16% in engineering,. Zhao (1996) argued that the widespread. 18.9% in medicine, while only 18.6% in. phenomenon of going abroad provided an. philosophy, economics law,. education, lit. alternative for aggrieved university stu. erature, and history altogether.. dents in the late eighties. In addition to. 2.1.4 Increment of Chinese. the privately sponsored students, a large. students studying in the USA. number of "visitors" ended up in Ameri. The enrollment of Chinese students. can graduate schools. By the end of 1991,. in American universities in 1996 was 14.3. only about a quarter of 80,000 Chinese. times more than that in 1980. Between the. students sponsored by the Chinese gov. academic year 1989-90 and 1993-94 the. ernment have returned to China. At the. Chinese students were the largest foreign. end of 1992, the Chinese government sent. student population in the American uni. delegations overseas to recruit Chinese. versities. The percentage of Chinese stu. students and scholars and created a more. dents in American campuses was 8.6% in. attractive working and living environment. I. !.

(13) ~~~~~~#.·#tt~ili& •• h~~.. 7m. for returnees to the Mainland (Cao, 1996).. started to grow in the 1980s, but still less. Fig. S compares the number of the. than that awarded by the US universities.. Mainland and Taiwan graduate students. And this situation was not changed until. enrolled in the USA.. 1999. This phenomenon might be attrib uted to the overseas study policy of the. It shows clearly that Chinese gradu. Taiwanese government.. ate students in the USA have outnum bered that of Taiwanese since 1989/90,. Fig. 6 displays the trends of the. and the gap between them widens thereaf. number of Taiwanese students studying. ter.. abroad, going to the USA, and returning from the USA. Four points mark the im. 2.2 Enlargement of the amount of doctoral science and engineering degrees earned by Tai wanese students. portant events influencing the change of curve (See also the National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Science Resources Studies (SRS), 2000, Chapter: "Graduate education reforms and interna. The number of doctoral science and. tional mobility of scientists and engineers. engineering degrees granted by the Tai. in Taiwan", available at http://www.nsf.. wanese universities to Taiwanese students. gov/sbe/srs/nsf00318/c IsS.htm).. 60,000. ~ 50,000. "0 g 40,000 '0 30,000 ... .] 20,000 gE 10,000. °. ----.. .... ~%. fb' ,"I. fl~. ~~ . ~ry. ,o,o,'\.. ___. ~---t.. fl'>. flfo 0,0,<-). ,0,0,"). '\.. ~%. ~"\. ,0). - - <••. R>~. ~';;:j ,0,0,0,. year. i----- Chinese student _ Fig. 5. Taiwanese student. Enrollment of Taiwanese and Chinese graduate students in the USA. From Science and engineering indicators 2002 (Appendix Table n-21), by National Science Board, 2002, NSB-OO-l. Ar lington, VA: National Science Foundation. (Available at hup:!lwww.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/appendlc2/at02-2I.xls).

(14) -*.1f ~.(>' l!..bfj- 1E 27 % 4 JtJl. 708. 35(0). 300Xl. 25001. C <U. ]. 2(ID). '"o. ". '<U"'. 8. 15(0). ::l. Z. HXXXl. 5(0). o •••••••••.. ~. ~. ~ ~. ~ ~. ~. ~. &~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. w~~ ~~~ ~. ~. ~. ~. Year ~ StOOents retwing from the USA. --tr- Students going to the USA. _. Students sttxlying abrood. Fig. 6 The Number of Taiwanese student studying abroad, going to the USA, and returning from the USA Data sources: The data of the number of students studying abroad are from "Education statistics of the Republic of China, by Ministry of Education, 2001 (pp. 60-61) and 2002 (p. 60), Taipei: Ministry of Education. The data of the number of students going to the USA, and returning from the USA are from Graduateeducation reforms and international mobility in Europe, Asia, and the Americas and international mobility of scientists and engi neers (Chapter "Graduate education reforms and international mobility in Taiwan"), by National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies, 2000, NSF 00-318,Arlington,VA. (Available at hup://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/nsf00318/cls5.htm). Note: The numbers of students studying abroad after 1990 are the numbers of students, instead of permitted, applying for a Visa to study abroad, becauselhey no longer need to get permission from the government. A. The "Regulations Governing Selection for Overseas Study" was abolished in 1976 B. The Marshall Law was lifted ill 1987 C. The "Regulations for Overseas Study" was abolished in 1990 D. The University Act was revised in 1994. Point A indicates the abolishment of. was the "Regulations for Overseas Study". the "Regulations Governing Selection for. which set various requirements for for. Overseas Study" in 1976. Replacing it. eign study. Students meeting the require.

(15) ~~~W.~#.·#~.ilia. •• h~~.. W9. ments could apply for studying abroad. from the USA increased consequentially. without passing an examination spon. as President Jian Jin-guo lifted the Mar. sored by the government. Consequently,. shall Law in July 1987. And the returnees. the number of self-financed students. were cheerfully welcomed because· the. studying abroad began to increase. And. new infrastructure projects - especially. from 1976 onwards the government also. the Ten Construction Project and the. post. Hsinchu Science-Based Park - needed a. master's- and post-doctor's- degree over. lot of professional experts. But after 1995,. seas study programs in the sciences.. tbe number of returnees descended. Why?. Three years after the Lifting of Marshall. Owing to the revision of the University. Law (Point B) the "Regulations for Over. Law on January 5, 1994, the application. seas Study" was abolished in 1990. Stu. for a vacancy in a higher education insti. dents who wanted to study abroad no. tution has to be evaluated and voted by. longer needed to get permission from the. the Faculty Evaluation Committee of the. government (Ministry of Education, 2002,. department, the college, as well as the. pp. 45-46). In Fig. 6, it exhibits a signifi. university respectively. Inevitably, the re. cant rise in the curves of students study. turnees have to compete under the equal. ing abroad and students going to the USA. opportunity with those who earned their. (Point C).. degree at Taiwanese universities. The. extended. financial. support. to. Higher education institutions includ ing graduate education undertook its ex. military threat from the Mainland might also deter those who wanted to return.. pansion in the 1970s in Taiwan after the. In the choice of study fields, Taiwan. takeoff of economic development. The. had progressively concentrated science. number of doctoral degrees granted in. and engineering up to 1994. Between. Taiwan was 15 in 1970, 64 in 1980, 518. 1975-80, 30.9% of doctorate degrees. in 1990 and 1463 in 2001 (Ministry of. among the total science and engineering. Education, 2002, p. 31). Although the. degrees awarded in Taiwan was in social. growth rate was not slow, nevertheless in. and behavioral science, 20.8% in agricul. comparison with the Mainland it was not. tural science, 1.4% in mathematic and. impressive.. computer science, and only 28.8% in en. The number of students returning. gineering. But between 1991-95, Engi.

(16) 710. M:."l ~,~ J1'.bff Jt 27 % 4 jl'Jl. neering increased to 56.1 %, mathematic and computer sciences also rose to 8.7%,. grams in Taiwan has fallen gradually. In. contrast. with. Taiwan,. the. whereas the social and behavioral sci. Mainland, as mentioned previously, pro. ences dropped to 9.6%. (National Science. motes science and engineering to domi. Foundation (NSF), Division Science Re. nate the study fields of higher education.. sources Studies (SRS), 2000, Table 5,. A clear comparison can be found in the. available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/. fourth row of Table II.. nsf00318/c 185.htm).. In 1997, the percentage of total. Since the very beginning of the. bachelor's degrees in science and engi. 1990s the government, especially the. neering at the Mainland universities was. Council for Economic Planning and De. 72.3% and ranked second among 49 im. velopment, has been blamed for manipu. portant economIC countries, but that of. lating the enrollment of higher education. Taiwan was only 39.2%, and ranked at. for their projections of manpower needs. 21. In the Taiwanese labor market there. in various sectors. The latest education re. has been more demand for scientists and. form has not given prominence to science. engineers than supply. Previously the. and engineering education, but to the. high-tech. broader social education, such as commu. could. nity college, and open education. In the. high-tech personnel from an annual cam. final report of the recent educational re. pus manpower exposition. But last year. form, it stated: "any quantitative planning. they could not get the quantity they. for the expansion of higher education is. needed and had to buy data from the. inevitably. (Educational. manpower data banks. To the contrary,. Reform Evaluation Committee, 1996, p.. graduates of liberal arts have to compete. 68).. sharply for fewer vacancies.. self-assertive". manufacturing. recruit. sufficient. corporations well-qualified. Now, every higher education institu. In order to give an overview of the. tion may put forward five potential new. differences of higher educational reform,. 1epartments or graduate schools to the. especially in science and engineering. vtinistry of Education for approval. Fig. 7. education between the Mainland and Tai. :hows that after 1994, the percentage of. wan, major characteristics are summa. ~raduates. rized in Table III.. of science and engineering pro.

(17) ~"* WJ ,if Jl . .L ~Of ' 1. # -ti.i. tlL&. tt -t 11 z H:. fX.. 711. &5 8). 75. i:iU Q) ~. &65. ........ The Reviewal Committee for Educational Reform. was established on Sept.. -.21, 1994. ro 55 ~. 1986. 1987 1988. 1989. 1m. 1991. 1992. 1993. 19)1. 1995. I~. 1997. 1998. 1m. xm. academic year. Fig. 7. Graduates of science and engineering of higher education in Taiwan. Data source: From Manpower Indicators by Council for Economic Planning and Development, 2002. Taipei: Council for Economic Planning and Development. Available at http://www.cepd.gov.tw/people/englishlindicatorIt22.pdf. Table II Comparisons of Competitiveness Related Indicators on the Both Sides of the Taiwan Strait in 2001 on Absolute and Relative Values (number in parenthesis is rank) under the CIPP categories The Mainland. Taiwan. 1265830000. 2216L07. 72.3(2). 39.2(21). Context Population (2000) Input % of total bachelor's degrees in science and engineering (1997). Process Total R&D personnel (in thousands). 889(2). 105(10). R&D personnel per 1000 people (2000). 0.7(34). 4.67(15). 50808(15). 129248(8). 4(37). 577(10). 1159(6). 282.2(17). GDP per capita (US$) (2001). 902(47). 12595(25). Total private final consumption expenditure (US$ billions). 517(7). 179(17). Private final consumption expenditure per capita (US$) (2001). 407(48). 8006(24). 71 (39). 75(29). Total number of patents in force Number of patents in force per 100000 inhabitants) (1999) Product Total GDP (US$ billions). Life expectancy at birth (2000). r .'. Note: Data of China do not include that of Hong Kong. Data source: From The world competitiveness yearbook. by International Institute for Management and Development. 2002. Lausanne, Switzerland: IMD..

(18) 712. tt lr ~.-:,: l.! h1t ~. 27. % 4 JlJl. Table III Major Characteristics of Higher Educational Reform Impacting the Science and Engineering Education on Both Sides of the Taiwan Strait The Mainland . Taiwan. 1. Establishing commercial enterprises within col- I. De-politicization of administration of higher edu leges and universities. It not only broadens the fication, such as retreat of party organs from the nances but also strengthens the relations between campus, establishing the petition system for the teaching, research, and production in higher grievances of teachers, and the election of chaireducation. man, dean, and president through faculty mem bers. Faculty members enjoy more autonomy and academic freedom. 2. Five-year loan program from the World Bank in 2. Deregulation for overseas study. The number of 1981 to nourish the science and engineering edustudents pursuing science and engineering educa cation in higher education . tion abroad increased abruptly. 3. Expanding doctoral programs in science and engi- 3. Concentrating on community colleges and open neering deliberately to meet the demand of re- education and promoting "life-long learning". The science and engineering education lost its domi search and teaching in higher education. nance gradually. 4. Recruiting intensively students and scholars over- 4. Establishing a Faculty Evaluation Committee in seas. each department, college, and university level for. recruitment, promotion, and dismissal, etc. Scien. tists and engineers from overseas have to compete. for faculty vacancies with those of locally trained.. Process: Academic outputs and tech nology production. searchers is regarded as one of the indica tors for publication quality. Fig. 9 is the. 1. Academic outputs . frequency of citations by the world's sci. Fig. 8 is the scientific publications. entific papers to scientific articles pub. from both sides of the Taiwan Strait. The. lished by scholars from both sides of the. absolute amounts of scientific publica. Taiwan Strait. Absolute frequencies of ci. tions of the Mainland (not including Hong. tation by world papers to scientific litera. Kong) were about 2 times more than that. ture of the Mainland scholars were higher. of Taiwan from 1986-1996, and the dif. than that of Taiwan scholars but the. ferences between the two are have wid. curves are parallel from 1990-1999.. ened since then, e.g. Scholars from the Mainland published 11,675 articles in. Fig. 10 is the scientific collaboration from the both sides of the Taiwan Strait.. 1999, and ranked 12 among 204 countries. The amounts of Taiwan scholars who. while those from Taiwan published 667 .5. invited the Mainland scholars to join as. articles and ranked 18. (National Science. coauthor were more than vice versa from. Board, 2002, Appendix table 5-41). 1986-1999. It might be inferred that Tai. Frequency of citations by other re. wanese scholars have been more ready to. i.

(19) ,**Jf.J#J£..L#i1f. '#.:fi'&tl::1Ul*h~l:l:.#. 713. 14,000 12,000 10,000 <II. c:. .~. .!::!. :g. 8,000 6,000. .. ...... 0.. 4,000 2,000 0. ~. ... ~. 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999. year - . - China pUblication. Fig. 8. ---... Taiwan publication. J. Scientific publications from the both sides of the Taiwan Strait. Data source: From Science and engineering indicators 2002 (Appendixtable 5-41), by National Science Board., 2002, NSB-OO-l. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. (Available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/ append/c5/at05-41.xls) NOTES: Publication counts are from a 1985 set of journals classified and covered by the Institute of Scientific Infonna tion: Science and Social Science Citation Indexes. Article counts are based on fractional assignments; for exam ple, an article with two authors from different countries is counted as one-half of an article for each country. scientific papers cited by world. 18,000. 16,000 ~ 14,000 0 .~ 12,000. ....'50 10,000. ... 8,000 t) J:J E 6,000 ::> c: 4,000 2,000 0. --•. Fig. 9.. •. J. 1990 . 1994. _. China ~ Taiwan ~. year. 1999. Citations by world's scientific papers to scientific literature from both sides of the Taiwan-Strait. Data source: From Science and engineering indicators 2002 (Appendix Table 5-50), by National Science Board, 2002, NSB-OO-l. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. NOTEs: Citations are on the basis of a three-year window with a two-year lag; for example, 1999 citations counts are arti cles published in 1999 citing articles published in 1995·97. Nationality of the cited paperis determined by the in stitutional address of the cited paper. (Available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/append/c5/at05-50.xls).

(20) M1f ~'~JJ.~~ 27:4 4 JtJl. 714. 9.0 8.0 7.0. o 6.0. .<:. ~ 5.0 0. ~ 4.0 0. ~. 3.0. I. .. 2.0 1.0. " " ". 0.0. [986. [999. year. ~Taiwanese author coauthored with chinese author ' " " • " "Chinese author coauthored with taiwanese author. Fig. 10. Scientific collaboration from both sides of the Taiwan-Strait. Data source: From Science and engineering indicators 2002 (Appendix Table 5·49), by National Science Board, 2002, NSB·OO·1. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. (Available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/ appendlc5/at05·49.xls). cooperate with the Mainland scholars in. vice. scientific researches.. communication,. 2. Production of technology indus tries. industries. (including. service of. financial. institutions,. business, education, and health) of the Mainland were higher than that of Taiwan. As it reveals in Fig. 11, the absolute. from 1980-1998, and the differences be. values of production of high-technology. tween them became larger and larger.. industries (including life science tech. Product: Competitiveness. nologies, opto-electronics, computers and. Table II lists the absolute and rela. telecommunications,. electronics,. com. tive. values. of competitiveness-related. )uter- integrated manufacturing, material. variables drawn from the database of the. iesign, aerospace, weapons, and nuclear. International Institute for Management. echnology) of Taiwan were higher than. and Development (2002). It makes clear. hat of the Mainland from 1980-1998, and. that the Mainland fell nearly to the bot. wo trajectories were of upsurge almost. tom, when it was ranked according to. ide by side.. relative values, but it stood among top po. However, the absolute values of pro uction of five knowledge-intensive ser. sitions as it was ranked by means of abso lute values, e.g. the Mainland had 7 R&D.

(21) ift~r1'J~JJ..:L-*-lr ,tt.ti£tI::&'~+.hzHA£. 715. 80,CXXl.0 70,CXXl.0 6O,CXXl.0 ]. 50,CXXl.0. Ei. 4O,CXXl.0. c::. ~. 30,CXXl.0 20,CXXl.0 1O,CXXl.0 0.0. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*~~~~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. ~. year. -+Fig. 11. China _. Taiwan. Production of high-technology industries from both sides of the Taiwan-Strait. Data source: From Science and engineering indicators 2002 (Appendix Table 6-1), by National Science Board. , 2002, NSB-OO-l. Arlington , VA: National Science Foundation. (Available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind021 append/c6/at06-0 l.xls) Note: High-technology industries coYer aerospace, computers and office machinery, communications equipment, and pharmaceuticals.. 120,000.0. '" L;. .2 "0. 80,000.0. 'E. 40,000.0. • . .... ,.' . 100,000.0. "0 ..... 0 60,000.0. '"c::. ,g. .'. .... ,. .. ......' ,.'. '. . - :-. 20,000.0. 0.0 0. ao. 0\. ao. 0\. N. ,..,. 0\. 0\. ao. ao. ....t. '<t. ao ~. I£). 'C!. 0\. 0\. ao. ao. t"-. ao. 0\. ao ao. 0\. 0\. ao. ..... 0\ ...... 0. 0\. ~. 0\ 0\. N. 0\ 0\. ,..,. 0\ ~. '<t. 0\ 0\. I£). 0\ 0\. 'C! 0\ 0\. t"-. 0\ 0\. ao. 0\ 0\. year ,- - •. Fig. 12. - - China - - - - - Taiwan. I. Production of five knowledge-intensive service industries on both sides of the Taiwan-Strait. Data source: From Science and engineering indicators 2002 (Appendix Table 6-2), by National Science Board, 2002, NSB-OO-l. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. (Available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/ append/c6/at06-02.xls).

(22) ~-W~'~J1~~~. 716. 27 ;(€..4~Jl. personnel per 10,000 people in 2000, and. expectancy at birth.. ranked 34, whereas Taiwan had 46.7. In Fig. 13 the only latent variable (11). R&D personnel per 10,000 people, and. IS. ranked 15. However when the absolute. indirectly with three indicators: GDP per. value. the. capita, private consumption per capita,. Mainland had 889,000 R&D personnel in. and life expectancy. All, A2I. and A31 are. 2000, and ranked at the second position.. all significant, that means these three ob. Taiwan had 105,000 R&D personnel and. served variables are appropriate to be in. ranked at the tenth.. dicators of the latent variable. This sup. was. taken. into. account,. How important is the reservoir of. competitiveness, which was measured. ports the definitions of competitiveness. R&D personnel to economic competitive. defined by the Organization for Econom. ness? Fig. 13 displays the linear structural. ics Cooperation and Development (1992). relation model. All observed variables are. and by the World Economic Forum. 11 =. in relative value, with exception of life. 0.79 is significant denotes that the £110:0.05. GDP. 1.00. ~ R&D PERSONNEL. .-. 1. 11 0:0.98* ,--_ _ _ _-, £21 0: 0.09. "II 0: 0.79*. I •. 1.21 0: 0.96*. r'". CONSUMPT. I+. = 0.74' I. £31 0: 0.45. r 0: 0.38 Fig. 13 Contribution of the relative number of the R&D personnel to international com petitiveness Data source: From The World Competitiveness Yearbook, by International Institute for Management and Development, 2002, Lausanne, Switzerland: lMD. Note: LIFE=life expectancy at birth (data of 2000) CONSUMT=Private final consumption per capita (data of 2001) GDP=GDP per capita (data of 2001) R&D PERSONNEL =R& D personnel per 1000 people (data of 2000)* sig nificant at least at .05 level..

(23) i$:~ rf,;J ;:f rl'...L -*.11. ' tHt.i. t!:uut -¥ h. ~ ~I:. -tx. 717. number of R&D personnel per 1000 peo. and the implementation of the Ten- con. ple has a significant contribution to a na. struction projects. In Mainland China,. tion's competitiveness. The error term (l;.. Deng, Xiao-ping implemented the "open. = 0.38) designates that the number of. door policy", created the Shenzhen Eco. R&D personnel per 1000 people can ac. nomic Zone, and allowed market mecha. = 0.62) of the vari. nisms to be integrated into the socialist. count for 62% (1-0.38. ance of the competiti veness. This result. economy.. confirms Ma's (2000) prediction that con. In the educational reform, both sides. tribution of human capital to economy is. have carried out the policy of decentrali. about 60% . The model in Fig. 13 has nor. zation. In higher education, Taiwan has. mal theory weighted least squares Chi. realized the election of academic heads. square = 1.17 (p = 0.56); Root mean. through. square residuals (RMR) = 0.0074.; and. Mainland still falls behind. On the con. Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 1.00. It in. trary, the Mainland is more keen to let. dicates that the model is fit because the p. higher education institution run commer. value of X2 is larger than .05, the RMR is. cial enterprises.. faculty. members,. but. the. smaller than .05 and GFI is greater. After the revision of the University. than .90 (Hair, Jr., Anderson, Tatham, &. Law the graduates who earned doctoral. Black, 1995, pp. 682-688).. degrees overseas have to compete for va. 3. Discussion. cancies in higher education institutions with those who earned degrees at Taiwan. From the above comparisons, we can. ese universities. As a result, the number. summarize that there are some similarities. of returnees dropped down in Taiwan,. and differences in the economic as well as. while the Mainland is still energetic in at. educational reforms of both sides of the. tracting overseas students to return.. Taiwan Strait. On the dimension of time,. The Mainland gives more emphasis. Taiwan initiated reforms earlier. In Tai. to science and engineering education than. wan, Jiang Jin-guo led the economic re. Taiwan. This could threaten the competi. form including the establishment of the. tive edge in technology development of. Kaoshiung Economic Processing Zone,. Taiwan. Up to 1998, Taiwan has higher. Hsinchu Science Based Industrial Park,. production of technology industries than.

(24) 7 18. <tt "t ~.(; J.f. "tf- it. 27. ~. 4 .jtJl. Journal of Political Economy, 98(4),. the Mainland. But the Mainland has supe. 673-702.. riority over Taiwan in the production of. Box, G. E. P. , & Jenkins, G. M. (1976). Time. five knowledge-intensive service indus. series analysis: forecasting and Control. tries. In the competitiveness-related vari. (rev.Ed .). San Francisco: Hoden-day.. ables, such as the number of R&D per. Cao, X. (1996). Debating 'brain drain' in the. sonnel, GDP, and private final consump tion,. Taiwan. ranks. higher. than. the ,. Mainland when the relative values are. J. context. of. globalization,. Compare,. 26(3),269-283.. Council for Economic Planning and Devel opment. (2002). Manpower Indicators. Taipei: Council for Economic Plan ninoo. considered, but when the absolute values. and Development. (Available at http://. are taken in to account, the relation is re. www.cepd.gov.tw/people/englishlindicator/. versed. In average, Taiwanese live longer than the Mainlander.. t22.pdf). Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics, National Bu. The implication from the results of. reau of Statistics of People's Republic of. the present study for Taiwan is that in or. China (2002) . China population statis. der to maintain the competitive edge, in. tics yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics. vestment in R&D personnel and expendi. Press. (in Chinese) Educational Reform Evaluation Committee. tures should be enhanced in Taiwan, es. (1996). The fourth report of the evalua. pecially in nanotechnology, which is a. tion of educational reform. Taipei: Ad. new field of innovation and is not dis. ministration Yuan, Educational Refonn. cussed in this article. Maybe nanotech. Evaluation Committee. (In Chinese) Hair, Jr. J. E, Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L.,. nology will bring us into the fourth indus. & Black, W. C. (1995). MlIltivariate data. trial revolution.. analysis (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.. The weakness of the present study is that the limited hard data preclude a thor. International Institute for Management and Development. (2002) . Th e lVorld. COIll. ough comparison between the both sides.. petitiveness yearbook 2002. Lausanne,. Further meaningful comparisons could be. Switzerland: lMD.. done, if more official data are available.. Joreskog, K., & Sorbom, D. (1993). Structural equation Modeling )vith th e SIMOUS. ~~)(iI~. command language (L1SREL8) Hillsdale.. Adams, J. D . (1990). Fundamental stocks of. lishers.. knowledge and productivity growth.. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Pub Law,. w-w.. (1995). The role of the state in.

(25) ~~1f;J ,4lI.:L~ 13. '. #~i'{. ttUuti>- jJ ~~t*x. 719. higher education reform: the Mainland. Ministry of the Interior (2002). 2001 Taiwan. China and Taiwan, Comparative Educa. Fukien demographic fact book, Republic. tion Review, 39(3), 322-355.. of China. Taipei: Ministry of the Interior. (in Chinese). Law, W-W. (1996). Fortress state, cultural. continuities and economic challenge: ~ ational Science Board. (2002). Science and Higher education in the Mainland China. engineering indicators 2002 (http://www. and Taiwan . Comparative Education,. .nsf-gov/sbe/srs/seind02/pdCV2htm). 32(3),377-393.. v. ational Science Foundation (NSF), Division. Llewellyn, J. (1996). Tackling Europe's com-. of Science Resources Studies (SRS).. petitiveness. Oxford Review of Economic. (2000). Graduate education reform in. Polic)" 12(3),87-96.. Europe, Asia, and the American and in. Ma, H-h. (2000). Testing the relationship be. ternational mobility of scientists and en. tween education and economy, Journal. gineers. (NSF 00-318. Arlington, VA.. of Education and Psychology, National. available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/. Ch:mgchi University, 23, 25-46. (in Chi nese). nsf003I 8/htmstart.htm) Organization for Economic Cooperation and. Ma, H-h. (2001) . The contribution of educa. Development. (1992). Technology and. tion to the international competitiveness.. the economy: The key relationships.. Project financially supported by the Na. Paris: Organization for Economic Coop. tional Science Council, Taiwan. (NSC. eration and Development.. 90-2413-H-004-007). Taipei: The Na tional Science Council. Ministry of Education (2001). Education Sta tistics of the Republic of China. Taipei :. SAS Institute (1984). SASIETS User's guide. (Sed .). Cary, NC, USA: SAS Institute Inc. Zhao, D. (1996). Foreign study as a safety. Ministry of Education. (in Chinese). valve: The experience of China's univer. Ministry of Education (2002). Education Sta. sity students going abroad in the eight. tistics of the Republic of China. Taipei: Ministry of Education. (in Chinese). ies. Higher Education, 31,145-163 ..

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