行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫 成果報告
傳統知識智財權保護之研究----子計畫六
計畫類別: 整合型計畫 計畫編號: NSC92-3112-H-002-010- 執行期間: 92 年 06 月 01 日至 93 年 10 月 31 日 執行單位: 國立臺灣大學農藝學系暨研究所 計畫主持人: 郭華仁 報告類型: 完整報告 處理方式: 本計畫可公開查詢中 華 民 國 94 年 4 月 1 日
行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫期末報告
傳統知識智財權保護之研究
計畫類別:□ 個別型計畫
■
整合型計畫
計畫編號:NSC 92 - 3112 - H - 002 - 003 -
執行期間: 92 年 6 月 1 日 至 93 年 5 月 31 日
計畫主持人:郭華仁 教授
協同主持人:陳昭華 副教授
計畫參與人員: 研究助理陳士章、研究生周欣宜
成果報告類型(依經費核定清單規定繳交):□精簡報告
■
完整報告
本成果報告包括以下應繳交之附件:
□赴國外出差或研習心得報告一份
□赴大陸地區出差或研習心得報告一份
■
出席國際學術會議心得報告及發表之論文各一份
□國際合作研究計畫國外研究報告書一份
處理方式:除產學合作研究計畫、提升產業技術及人才培育研究計
畫、列管計畫及下列情形者外,得立即公開查詢
□涉及專利或其他智慧財產權,□一年□二年後可公開查詢
執行單位:台灣大學農藝學系
中 華 民 國 93 年 4 月 30 日
中文摘要
在 1970 年代以後,西方化工以及藥品跨國公司逐漸熱中於前往生物資源豐 富地區進行生物探勘,這些生物資源豐富地區經常在熱帶開發中國家,特別是這 些國家的原住民生活圈。跨國公司由這些資源進一步研發,並且經由智財權保障 其研發結果而獲利。原本對於原住民智慧創作的保護僅限於人類學者所重視的民 間傳說、音樂、舞蹈等,就因之而擴充到民族生物學者以及相關保育團體對於生 物多樣性保護的關懷。這些部門認為原住民、地方社群在農業、醫療、生態以及 其他方面的傳統知識對於社群的永續發展是相當珍貴的憑藉。這些思潮最後具體 地呈現於 1992 年的生物多樣性公約,特別是在第 8(j)條:「依照國家立法, 尊重、保存和維持原住民和地方社區體現傳統生活方式而與生物多樣性的保護和 持久使用相關的知識、創新和做法並促進其廣泛應用,由此等知識、創新和做法 的擁有者認可和參與其事並鼓勵公平地分享因利用此等知識、創新和做法而獲得 的惠益」。 此外,世界智財組織(WIPO)從 1998 年開始,在南亞、南太平洋、阿拉伯 國家、東南非、西非、美洲等 28 個國家進行了九次的實情調查,訪問的對象囊 括原住民與地方社群居民、政府官員、學術研究單位以及非政府組織等。這些訪 問肯定了傳統知識在許多領域的確是產業技術不斷創新的來源,包括農業、藥 物、藝術等。 近年來,對於傳統知識的保護,各方的研究相當豐碩,基於對保護傳統知識 的目標,在各個國際論壇中已有相當數量的著作以及許多關於規則與行動的建 議。本為主要目的在於比較傳統知識與近代科技間特性的異同,並將報告國際保 護傳統知識之方法,以及台灣之保護現況,以作為討論傳統知識保護的參考。 關鍵詞:傳統知識;智慧財產;生物多樣性公約;原住民;地方社區Abstract
Starting in the 1970s, multinational pharmaceutical and chemical corporations gradually started heading to areas in other parts of the world, areas rich in biodiversity, to conduct bio-prospecting concerning natural resources. These areas are frequently in developing countries of tropical areas, and especially in areas where indigenous peoples live. The multinational corporations further researched and developed these resources, and the protected the results of the R&D with intellectual property (IP) protection to make a profit. These activities raise the issues of protecting genetic resources and traditional knowledge (TK).
Originally, protection was restricted to for certain creations (such as folklore, music, dance, etc.) of indigenous people, but later biologists and other environmental groups pushed for expansion of this protection to include protection of other forms of biodiversity. These groups felt that the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities in the fields of agriculture, medicine, and ecology, etc., could have very important contributions for sustainable development. These ideas are present in the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), specifically in Article 8(j): Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices.
Moreover, from 1998, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has conducted nine fact-finding missions in 28 countries (including countries in South Asia, the South Pacific, Arab nations, Southeast Africa, West Africa, the Americas, etc.), visiting indigenous peoples, and local tribes, governmental officials, the scholarly research institutions, and non-governmental associations (NGOs) etc. These visits affirm that TK in many fields (including agriculture, medicine, art, etc.) is the source for innovative technology.
Many scholars have conducted research regarding TK protection in recent years, with the goal of increasing protection of TK. Moreover, international forums have distributed many suggestions for action plans and regulations.
The goal of this article is to compare TK with modern technology, and to discuss the protection of TK at the international level, as well as in Taiwan, as a reference for the different methods of TK protection.
Keywords: Traditional Knowledge, Intellectual Property, CBD, indigenous people, local communities
目錄
壹、報告內容
一、前言
二、什麼是傳統知識
三、傳統知識的特性
四、傳統知識保護的國際現狀
五、初步建構我國保護傳統知識之模式
六、台灣傳統知識英文網站之創設
貳、參考文獻
附錄 A:出席國際學術會議心得報告
附錄 B:發表之論文
壹、報告內容
一、前言
在 1970 年代以後,西方化工以及藥品跨國公司逐漸熱中於前往生物資源豐富地 區進行生物探勘,這些生物資源豐富地區經常在熱帶開發中國家,特別是這些國 家的原住民生活圈。跨國公司由這些資源進一步研發,並且經由智財權保障其研 發結果而獲利。原本對於原住民智慧創作的保護僅限於人類學者所重視的民間傳 說、音樂、舞蹈等,就因之而擴充到民族生物學者以及相關保育團體對於生物多 樣性保護的關懷。這些部門認為原住民、地方社群在農業、醫療、生態以及其他 方面的傳統知識對於社群的永續發展是相當珍貴的憑藉。這些思潮最後具體地呈 現於 1992 年的生物多樣性公約,特別是在第 8(j)條:「依照國家立法,尊重、 保存和維持原住民和地方社區體現傳統生活方式而與生物多樣性的保護和持久 使用相關的知識、創新和做法並促進其廣泛應用,由此等知識、創新和做法的擁 有者認可和參與其事並鼓勵公平地分享因利用此等知識、創新和做法而獲得的惠 益」。 傳統知識相較於近代科技,既然有其可資利用之處,因此傳統知識利用智慧產權 或其他相關法律的保護,可算是順理成章。世界智財組織 (WIPO) 從 1998 年開 始,在南亞、南太平洋、阿拉伯國家、東南非、西非、美洲等 28 個國家進行了 九次的實情調查,訪問的對象囊括原住民與地方社群居民、政府官員、學術研究 單位以及非政府組織等。這些訪問肯定了傳統知識在許多領域的確是產業技術不 斷創新的來源,包括農業、藥物、藝術等。 近年來,對於傳統知識的保護,各方的研究相當豐碩,基於對保護傳統知識的目 標,在各個國際論壇中已有相當數量的著作以及許多關於規則與行動的建議。本 研究主要目的在於比較傳統知識與近代科技間特性的異同,並將報告傳統知識保 護的國際現況,以作為討論傳統知識保護的參考。二、什麼是傳統知識?
傳統知識的定義為何,對於其保護機制類型的選擇與保護範圍,將有著重要影 響。一般而言,傳統知識係由多類型且跨領域的知識所組成,包括醫療、狩獵、 農業生產等使用的生物、其他材料、以及生産方式等;此外廣議的傳統知識也及 於設計、文學、音樂、宗教儀式和其他技術和工藝等。此 一廣泛的內容也包括 功能和美學性質的資訊,即所有可以用於農業或工業的方法和産品以及無形的文 化價值等。傳統知識透過以下方式予以區別:構成的要素,知識潛在的或實際的 應用,文獻化程度,個體所有或集體所有形式,以及其法律狀態。傳統知識産生的背景和表現形式多所不同。有些傳統知識已被文獻化,即已被以 某種方式正式表現出來(例如紡織品設計,傳統醫學)。然而,當今絕大部分的傳 統知識是未被文獻化或是約定俗成的,例如,原住民於部落間醫療知識,基於傳 統的信仰、準則和實踐,歷經數世紀的以家族爲單位的嘗試錯誤,不斷改良,並 透過世代口耳相傳而沿用迄今。 傳統知識可能被個人擁有(例如治療經驗和宗教儀式)、可能被一個群體中的某 些成員所有,或者可爲群體中的所有成員獲及(即共同知識),例如,已被數百 萬婦女和老人掌握的關於藥用植物的家庭療法的知識。 傳統知識在脫離當地、傳統或氏族的環境下,某些傳統知識依然能夠被妥善運 用。但情況也並非總是如此。傳統知識中常有一些與神靈、精神有關的組成部分, 它們僅適用當地社群,一旦離開當地社群環境就不能運用的傳統知識,將不具有 商業交易的價值,儘管該傳統知識對當地社群是有價值的。 總而言之,傳統知識包括了不同類別、不同功能的資訊,它的出現時間經常是早 期而且不可考,但是會順應時代而發展,適應時代而變更。傳統知識以各種非文 獻和文獻形式表現出來,根據其潛在或實際的用途而可能具備商業價值。 多數情況下,傳統知識由那些在過去已經發展成熟的知識所構成。它們已經被世 代沿用,並且在許多情況下已被人類學家、歷史學家、植物學家或其他研究學者 和觀察家收集和公開。然而,傳統知識並非靜止不動,它因不斷的改進或適應改 變的情況而不斷演變並産生新的資訊。 世界智財組織 (WIPO)的「傳統知識、遺傳資源與民俗創作智慧財產權之政府間 委員會」(以下簡稱 IGC)秘書處於 2003 年七月中旬所開之第五次會期中,再次 重申傳統知識之意含,依其官方文件所載,「傳統知識」係指基於傳統而生之文 學的、藝術的或科學的作品、表演,發明、科學發現、外觀設計(designs)、標 幟(marks);名稱或符號、未公開之資訊,以及其他一切基於傳統在工業、科學、 文學或藝術領域內智能活動所生之創新/新發明(innovations)與創作 (creations)。其中之「基於傳統」係指某種知識體系、創作、創新及文化表達 方式,其通常皆為代代相傳,且被認定爲係某個特定民族或其居住地域所固有 的,並會隨著環境變遷而不斷演進者。 從其具體內容觀之,傳統知識包括農業知識、科學知識、技術知識、生態知識、 醫藥知識,此包括相關之藥品及治療、生物多樣性相關知識、民俗創作,其方式 包括音樂、舞蹈、歌曲、手工藝、設計、傳說及藝術品、語言之要素(elements of languages),如名稱、地名及符號,以及其他具可變動性之文化財産(movable cultural properties)。
三、傳統知識的特性
要談傳統知識的保護,必須先對於傳統知識的性性加以掌握,才能擬定最恰當的 做法。若要引用現代科技的智財權保護框架來建構傳統知識保護的機制,則有必 要先對於兩者間的異同加以比較。以下引用一般對於傳統知識特點的分析作文論 述的基礎。1. 傳統知識的起源乃是集體創作的、整體 (holistic) 的:
近代科技的創新,通常經由簡化影響因素,將不擬探討的因素加以標準化,然後 來觀察某些特定因素間的因果關係。就內容而言,近代科技乃是被分門 (compartmentalization) 的,而其獲得乃是經由化約的 (reductionismic)、常 是脫離生活的、分析的、以及演繹的方式;即使強調整體觀的生態學,其研究的 過程仍然難以避免化約,雖然程度上較輕。反之,傳統知識的起源,是原住民或 傳統社區居民基於日常生活上與環境的互動所產生的觀念,這樣所形成的知識可 說是整體的,並且經常是經由觀念的傳遞,集體演繹而成。 然而集體創作並非傳統知識的必要條件,個人的獨創是可能的;反之近代科技的 創新也不排除集體創作的方式,雖然其創新常侷限於少數受過訓練的個人或小團 體。 近代科技的論證常是基於現象背後的抽象概念,其描述經常是數量化的,而其概 念的演繹是推進式的;反之由於傳統知識的整體性,因此其內容常是敘述性的、 是直覺的、是為現象的關聯,而其概念的演繹經常是重複驗證的、侷限於現象的; 不過這並不表示傳統知識缺乏抽象概念的支持,印度與中國傳統醫學可以為例。2. 傳統知識之傳遞基於代代口語相傳:
原住民傳統上並無文字,因此其知識的累積只能靠代代間的口語或肢體語言來傳 遞。反之近代科技的傳承則主要是仰賴文字紀錄與發表,教授者的功能只是加速 知識的傳遞。 然而並非所有傳統知識都缺乏文字記載,例如中國、印度傳統醫學都是經由經典 的出版而擴散流傳,而這兩者目前都被 WIPO 視為傳統知識的典範。新的傳統知 識,也可望經由文字記載而流傳。3. 傳統知識具變動性,會因社會環境變遷而演進:
傳統知識既然是人類生活與環境的互動所產生,因此在環境的變遷之下,傳統知 識並非靜止的,而是動態的;因此所謂傳統,並非一定指過去的知識,而是指該知識產生的方式是「傳統的」。 近代科技當然也是經常演進,而且其速度遠比傳統知識者快速,其改變的幅度可 能是相當巨大的。然而這並步表示現代「傳統知識」的創新速度一定很慢,特別 是在傳播時代,原住民與傳統社區居民與環境的互動所產生的觀念,是可能在短 期間擴散流傳的。不過傳統知識的變動,似乎缺乏典範性的革命,除非受到外來 文化巨大的衝擊。傳統中醫從秦漢之際到目前為止仍然以陰陽五行為基礎,可見 一斑。
4. 傳統知識的創新者經常無法可考:
許多傳統知識由於是長期集體的創作所產生,而且其過程缺乏文字記載,因此常 無法認定知識的創新者。反之近代科技除了文字記載為常規外,也相當重視原創 者身分的確定。然而當今傳統知識的形成,既然可能發生於短期之內,因此其創 新者也可能能夠指認。5. 傳統知識常歸屬於某個特定居住地域的人民:
特定的傳統知識經常是創新、保存於於較為封閉的社會,為特定地區的居民所共 有,或者某地區的個人或少數人所擁有;然而傳統知識的擁有者通常對之並不具 有如西方社會所賦予的私權。反之近代科技起源於西方世界,而且已生根於接受 西化的社會,其擴散是系統性的,既快速而且廣泛,而知識的創新者可以經由智 財權的申請而成為私權。不過傳統知識並非無擴散,不過其擴散較為侷促,而且 是不具有系統系的。 比較傳統知識以及近代科技,除了以上的分析外,也可以採「操作性定義」的觀 點,就西方智財 (專利) 權的要件來比較,提供為傳統知識智財權保護的參考。 1.新穎性
申請專利權的近代科技發明,不得為既有技術 (prior art),也就是說申請之時 已經被揭露者。準此,曾經被外人訪談紀錄而且發表過者,都可以算是既有技術, 而無法為現行專利法所保障。 2.可 重 複 性
傳統知識既然是住民基於與環境的交感而產生,因此該項知識常需要在恰當的時 空環境下才能重現 (有效)。然而近代科技基於化約式的探索,因此只要掌握特定的條件,遵循發明的步驟,比較易於重複該項發明。傳統知識若經近代科技分 析其抽象的原理,其結果常能不限於時空而達到可重複性的要求。 不過鑒於生物具有變異的特質,因此生物學的近代科技,其可重複性與一般工業 發明者相比,是較為低落的。以植物育種家權利--專利的特別法--而言,其重複 性體現於申請要件新穎性、可區別性、一致性、穩定性中的一致性與穩定性。然 而植物品種一致性與穩定性的審查基準,會因植物的遺傳特性而有差別,例如自 交作物的一致性與穩定性要求較高,而異交作物則允許較為寬鬆的標準。 3.
非 顯 而 易 見 性
專利權的授與,因發明的高度而有不同的保護程度,高度的創新可以享有發明專 利,對物品形狀、構造或裝置的創作或改良者可授與新型專利,而對物品之形狀、 花紋、色彩或其結合之創作者得給予新式樣專利。傳統知識也有難易不同的創 新,例如中藥的全新配方以及其加減方即是。 4.工 業 可 利 用 性
近代科技並非全可為專利來保護,例如不涉及物質材料的自然科學理論因為不具 工業可利用性,因此不得為專利之授與。甚至於某些可用以生產的發明,如生「生 產動植物的實質生物程序」,可得以排除專利權之外。同樣的,廣義的傳統知識 也有若干成分也是不得授與專利,例如舞蹈之不具工業可利用性以及農業知識之 實質生物程序。四、傳統知識保護的國際現狀:智慧財產權以外保護方式
傳統知識以智慧財產權以外方式保護者有:國家設置保護區、針對瀕臨絕種物種 採取保護措施、限制土地開發、文化遺產保護、物種棲息地保護等;此外,CBD、 農糧條約等國際公約所明定落實遺傳資源或傳統知識取得、利益共享機制,亦為 傳統知識保護方式之一。(一)生物多樣性公約(CBD)
1992 年各國領袖在 Rio de Janeiro 舉行的地球高峰會議(Earth Summit)通過 生物多樣性公約,明定各國應致力於生物多樣性之保育、組成之永續利用、公平 合理分享遺傳資源所衍生之利用利益,包括以適當方式取得遺傳資源及相關技術
之適當移轉,並考量資源、技術之一切權利及提供適當資金(Art.1 CBD)。
CBD 規定之義務與責任,需由會員國內國政府落實之。在南北國家不同利益考量 下,完全達成 CBD 立法成效實有困難。無論如何,CBD 就採取必要措施防止傳統 滅絕、遺傳資源取得、公平合理分享利益、原住民及地方社區共同參與機制、國 際合作等事宜均有規範。
(二)聯合國農糧條約(FAO)
鑑於農糧植物乃民生必需品,相關智慧財產權保護問題攸關民生所需,因此,在 聯合國農糧組織(FAO)督促下,歷經七年協商,終於在去年 11 月 3 日由會員國 通過農糧條約,以就農糧植物種源之智財權保護問題訂定國際規範標準。 由農糧條約第一條立法目的可知,本條約與生物多樣性公約具有一致性的立法目 的與精神:農糧植物種源之保育及永續利用。為達此等目的,會員國應致力於農 糧種源之保育、研究、蒐集、分類、研析與建檔事宜,並監控、維持農糧種源之 多樣性(農糧條約第五條及第六條)。此外,會員國相互間、或透過 FAO,應就 前述農糧種源保育等事宜建立合作與分享機制、落實本公約內容;會員國亦應協 助開發中國家建立或擴展農糧種源之保育及永續利用;此等協助應包含對開發中 國家之技術協助(農糧條約第七條及第八條)。 農糧條約承認農民權 (Farmers’ Rights) 存在,肯定在地社群、原住民及所有 農民對於農糧種源所為貢獻。此外,對於農糧種源取得與利益分享之多邊系統、 資訊交換、技術取得與移轉、執行力建構 (capacity-building)、物品轉移協議 (Material Transfer Agreement, MTA)、設置國際性的專責組織等均有規範。(三)世界智慧財產權組織(WIPO)
WIPO 在今年 9 月的會員國大會上除討論對 IGC 委員會的授權及 WIPO 涉及傳 統知識、遺傳資源與民俗創作等領域未來討論議題,會議另就未來議題之具體目 標以及可能的進程進行探討,並提出一系列繼續推動的工作建議,整理如下: 工作 1:傳統知識之保護的立法政策建議 該次會議提出,IGC 委員會於之後兩年在國際層面的傳統知識和民俗創作保 護上,應朝更具體的目標進行。但,各國代表團對進行這些工作的適當形式和立 法政策建議有不同意見。一些代表團認爲當務之急是在 2005 年之前,建立一個 有法律約束力的國際協定;另一些代表團則建議先在近期確定能加強國際共識的 建議和原則,日後再談是否建立一個有法律約束力的國際條約。一些非政府組織 (NGO)代表則強調應當加強與擴展對傳統知識習慣法(例如原住民社區適用的 習慣法和議定書)的國際肯認,建議 IGC 委員會對本議題作一詳盡之研究,確保
原住民族(indigenous peoples)和地方社區(local community)的代表能在 所有國際協議的推動上有充分之參與。 工作 2:加強國際共識一致性 該次會議同時強調應使 WIPO 在傳統知識領域的智慧財產權工作與生物多樣 性公約 (CBD)、世界糧農組織(FAO)和聯合國教科文組織(UNESCO)的條約 制定和實施及其他國際協議相互協調。 工作 3:加強各國傳統知識保護機制之交流 該次會議鼓勵對傳統知識和民俗創作的現有法律保護形式繼續進行交流,包 括傳統知識的定義,把傳統知識作爲智慧財產權保護的政策問題,對傳統知識用 專門立法或特別法保護的智慧財產權法律制度選擇等。 工作 4:彙整各國傳統知識保護的調查研究 由哥斯大黎加、尼日、秘魯、菲律賓、葡萄牙、美國和尚比亞等國學者或外 交官組成的專家小組,介紹用專門立法或特別法機制保護傳統知識可能出現的各 種問題,概述在國家和區域層面解決這些問題的具體法律措施,並彙整各國詳細 的調查研究報告,案例研究和法律分析,提供 IGC 委員會在思考各種解決方案和 不同政策的成本與評價,作一符合國際間需求的政策。 工作 6:關於民俗創作保護問題 關於民俗創作保護問題,IGC委員會對民俗創作的法律保護問題提出一項 綜合報告。委員會並且對提出的民間文化保護的新建議進行辯論。例如,關於「公 共領域」的定義,許多原住民社區認爲從原住民的角度,根據現有的智慧財產權 法律已屬於公共領域範圍的民俗創作資訊,但根據習慣法和宗教對其使用的限 制,實際上不能算落入公共領域。 IGC委員會還對 WIPO 在該領域正在進行的工作進行討論,包括協助建立 一個有效的國家和區域民俗創作保護系統,以及制定「WIPO 民俗創作法律保護 實用指南」。 工作 7:傳統知識文獻化相關議題討論 傳統知識文獻化也是會議的主要內容之一。許多國家的社區都在從事對其傳 統知識與相關遺傳資源文獻化的活動。爲了保存這些傳統知識,對這些傳統知識 進行編撰即文獻化是有必要的。但,文獻化的過程同時將使得傳統知識擁有者的 利益,因此被損害。這顯示應事先採取一適當授權程序,傳統知識才能在不需徵
求同意,例如不需受習慣法和習俗限制的情況下被獲取、傳播和使用。對此,I GC委員會表示將爲“傳統知識和遺傳資源文獻化對智慧財產權的影響”制定 一個解決機制。該機制本身不鼓勵或促進文獻化,它只是防止傳統知識文獻化對 相關社群的利益造成損害(例如傳統知識在非故意情況下被視爲進入公共領 域)。該機制只要任務在明確:當社群爲文化、宗教、法律或商業理由願保留對 文獻化資料的控制時,這些資料的文獻化並不意味著它們已進入公共領域,只要 原住民族或地方社區不是有意識要放棄對傳統知識之權利,文獻化不能導致原住 民族或地方社區對其傳統知識權利的喪失和失去控制。但,一些與會代表對原住 民族和地方社區的傳統知識文獻化措施持懷疑態度,強調要保障原住民族和地方 社區能全面參與該機制的制訂與產生。
(四)保護內容
1.保存傳統知識 在符合聯合國憲章及國際法之基本原則下,CBD 會員國得依據內國環境政策,有 權亦有義務確保管轄區域內之特定活動,或控制特定活動對其他國家或管轄區域 外的環境造成損害。因此,任何活動對於生物多樣性有不利影響者,CBD\會員國 享有權限採取一定措施(及第四條)。 CBD 第 8 條 j 款明定:由於原住民及地方社區與生物多樣性之保持及永續利用具 有重要關係,因此,會員國應透過內國立法方式,尊重、保存及維持原住民與地 方社區之知識、創新與生活方式。 查明與監測措施乃防止傳統知識滅絕之重要措施。亦即:會員國應盡可能、且以 適當方式(CBD 第七條): (a)查明對保持及永續利用生物多樣性重要之組成。 (b)以抽樣或其他技術監測前述保持及永續利用生物多樣性重要之組成, 對於具有緊急性及永續利用潛力大者,應採取必要措施。 (c)透過採樣或監測方式,查明特定過程或活動類型對於生物多樣性之保 持及永續利用影響,或可能產生重大不利影響。 (d)保管、整理前述調查、監測數據資料。 2.確保原住民及在地社群共同參與 在擁有傳統知識之原住民與在地社群的認可與參與下,應促進傳統知識之廣泛應 用(CBD 第八條第 j 款)。 CBD 第十條第 c 款及第 d 款明定:傳統文化下之生物資源固有利用方式,若符合 生物多樣性之保持及永續利用需求者,會員國應盡可能的保護及鼓勵該生物資源之固有利用方式。在生物多樣性已減少地區,會員國應支持原住民規劃及實行相 關補救措施。 3.資訊交換 前述 WIPO 所建置之傳統知識相關文獻檢索系統、傳統知識資料庫等,均為落實 資訊交換之重要方式。 4.傳統知識取得程序—事前同意與充分揭露
菲律賓 Executive Order No.247, 1995, Sec.2(a)明定:在原住民部落或在地 社群進行遺傳資源探勘前,需取得該社群之請准,並不得違反該社群之習慣法。 5.利益共享機制 應使傳統知識之擁有者,能公平地共享此等知識、創新與生活方式利用所獲得的 利益(CBD 第八條第 j 款)。根據 CBD 第十五條第 g 項規定,會員國應以法律、 行政規則或其他政策措施,落實利益分享機制。 6.國際合作 為保持及永續利用生物多樣性、發展公民意識與教育,會員國間應儘可能與其他 國家直接或透過國際組織方式合作(CBD 第五條及第十三條第 b 款)。 會員國應相互合作,特別是向開發中國家提供財務或其他協助,以落實本公約第 八條原境保育相關措施(CBD 第八條第 m 款)。 會員國應考量開發中國家之特別需求,就查明、保持及永續利用生物多樣性事 宜,建立並維持一定的科學、技術教育與訓練;會員國亦應協助開發中國家落實 此等教育與訓練事宜(CBD 第十二條)。
五、初步建構我國保護傳統知識之模式
初步提出我國在保護傳統知識可以思考的兩個面向:建構「台灣傳統知識及 其創新資料庫」以及「傳統知識智財權權利取得與惠益均享」,方便提供我國建 構一套完善的傳統知識保護制度時之參考。(一)地區傳統知識及創新資料庫
涉及已公開傳統知識的專利申請不應被授予專利權。問題在於傳統知識往往 不能提供詳細資料,或者即使有文字資料也不容易被專利審查員檢索到。特別是 關於傳統知識的資訊不太可能在各國專利審查專責機關於專利申請的新穎性和 創造性時,在其所架設的專利檢索資料庫中發現。為解決這一問題,WIPO 以及 以印度為例的開發中國家正在尋求建構傳統知識資料庫。這些資料庫不僅可以詳 細地記錄大量已被公開的傳統知識,而且還會先作一資料處理,符合於國際分類標準(WIPO 國際專利分類(IPC)體系),以便專利審查員能容易地取得該資料。 傳統知識資料庫的建立不僅在防止不當專利授權方面有意義,而且更重要的 是有助於傳統知識的保存、促進和可能的開發。此外,WIPO 和許多發展中國家 的憂慮之一,就是 WIPO 發掘出來的許多資料庫中所記載資訊的利用是否得到該 知識所有人的事先知情同意。在 WIPO 關於傳統知識文獻化的討論中,開發中國 家對於所有資料庫中能夠或者應該包括的資料類型仍存在明顯分歧。例如,一些 國家主張這樣的資料庫只適用於已經經過整理,能夠為公眾得到的資訊,而另一 些國家主張也可包括還未經整理的傳統知識。
(二)傳統知識以地理標示保護與惠益均享
如果一項專利申請的內容由傳統知識組成或由傳統知識產生,則申請人應當 在其專利申請中明確指出這些傳統知識的來源,並證明取得了享有這些資源的國 家的事先知情同意。 各政府應明文規定申請專利時,需要檢交新發明來源的驗證:根據傳統知識 與地方種原發展出來的申請案件需要提出保證聲明,詳述 1.) 該發明如何用到 的哪一個地方的原住民或地方社區的哪些遺傳資源、傳統知識、創新或慣法;2.) 事先向前述原住民或地方社區請准通過、惠益公平分享等協議的文件;3.) 將這 些驗證的體系提升為國際標準化。六、台灣傳統知識英文網站之創設
台灣傳統知識網站(TTKW)係本研究計畫之重要工作之一,亦為台灣第一個關於 傳統知識資料庫及其智慧財產權保護的學術網站。本站係以介紹台灣之傳統知識 以及其研究給予國外研究者認識,故全以英文為主,另附有一中文網頁係為提供 國內研究者之平台,網址為http://tk.agron.ntu.edu.tw/,附屬於國立台灣大 學農藝學系伺服器底下。目前已經完成整個網站的架構,以及部分內容,其餘將 持續充實。(部分網頁畫面請見附錄) 網站資訊的提供約略可分為十大領域,分別敘述如下:計畫緣起及說明(TKResearch Project);台灣原住民族(The Indigenous Peoples);地方社區(Local
Communities);民族植物學(Ethnobotany in Taiwan);民族動物學
(Ethnozoology in Taiwan);民族生態學(Ethnoecology in Taiwan);基於傳
統知識所衍生之創新(Innovations);傳統知識之保護(Protection of TK);
國內外傳統知識相關網站連結(Related Websites);及台灣傳統知識智慧財產
權中文網頁。
該網頁內容,簡介台灣各族原住民族,計有 Ami、Atayal、Bunun、Paiwan、 Puyuma、Rukai、Saysiyat、Thao、Tsou、Tao 等族。透過外接英文網頁,介 紹台灣原住民各族基本資料,便於國外研究學者了解我國原住民基本狀況。
(2)地方社區(Local Community):
該網頁內容,分三部分:第一、1600 至 2000 年農業史(Brief History of
Agriculture 1600-2000);第二、農村(Farming Villages);第三、漁村(Fishing
Villages)。並蒐集與地方社區相關傳統知識之學術論文,收錄計有台灣的都
市農業(Taiwan's Urban Agriculture)一文由 Robin Turner 所撰,以彰化 縣花壇都市農業為例;另外,以照片介紹台灣農民製作米粉的過程。
(3)民族植物學(Ethnobotany in Taiwan):
該網頁內容,主要分三部分:
i. 台灣原住民族植物學資料庫(Ethnobotanical Data of Taiwan Indigenous
Peoples, 1900-2000):本英文資料庫為台灣原住民族植物學資料庫中文版 編譯而成,內容約略計有 700 種植物的用途,以學名字首 A 至 Z 排列,說 明個別植物之用途。依以下用途整理:食用植物、香料用植物、食鹽代用 植物、造酒用植物、咀嚼用植物、藥用植物、洗滌用植物、染齒用植物、 染料用植物、裝飾用植物、毒魚用植物、造船用植物、器具用植物、纖維 用植物、建築用植物、其他用植物; ii. 學術論文:計有:南投縣泰雅族賽德克亞族民族植物之研究,張汶肇所撰; 民族植物與其生育環境相關性之研究-以泰雅族鎮西堡部落為例,黃詩硯 所撰等碩士論文; iii. 台灣各民族運用植物之個別介紹:目前蒐集有鄒族如小米的栽培及其運用 與鄒族人用 Arenga engleri Beccari 做成的雨衣。
(4)民族動物學(Ethnozoology in Taiwan)
該網頁內容,主要分兩部分:第一、台灣各原住民族與動物關係之個別介紹: 目前蒐集有鄒族如捕魚及毒魚方式的傳統知識;第二、學術論文:已收錄有:
Intertidal Crabs Culture of Iratay Village, a Yami Tribe等文章。
(5)民族生態學(Ethnoecology in Taiwan): 該網頁內容,主要分兩部分:第一、台灣各原住民族運用生態智慧之個別介紹: 目前蒐集有鄒族在高山利用耕地的獨特方式以及種植小米等技術的傳統知 識;第二、相關學術論著之蒐集。 (6)基於傳統知識所衍生之創新(Innovations): 該網頁內容,主要分兩部分:第一、台灣各原住民族與地方社區傳統知識創新 之個別介紹:目前蒐集有排灣族製作其傳統琉璃珠之介紹;第二、學術論文: 已收錄:有看不見的技術 —「蓮霧變成黑珍珠」的技術發展史,楊弘任所撰。 (7)傳統知識之保護(Protection of TK): 該網頁內容,主要分兩部分:
i. 規範傳統知識保護之法律或國際協定(Laws):
1. 初步蒐集並彙整台灣與傳統知識相關之法律,計有 Aborigine Reservation Land Development Management Procedure 以及 Mountain Slope Conservation & Utilization Law 兩部法律。
2. 初步蒐集並彙整各國與傳統知識相關之法律,計有孟加拉、巴西、 哥斯大黎加、印度、巴基斯坦、巴拿馬、秘魯、菲律賓等八國。 3. 初步蒐集並彙整國際組織與傳統知識相關之協定,計有東南亞國 協、安地斯山脈社區、拉丁美洲、非洲國家組織、太平洋論壇等五個國 際組織。
ii. 探討傳統知識保護之論著( Essays ,Thesis, Report, Forum, Meeting):
1. 初步蒐集並彙整台灣與傳統知識相關之論著,計有 IPR draft law for Aborigines under attack;Intellectual Property Rights of the Aboriginal Peoples of Taiwan;Taiwan Aboriginal SIingers Settle Copyright Lawsuit 等。
2. 初步蒐集並彙整各國與傳統知識相關之論著,計有Traditional
Knowledge and Patentability;Biodiversity and Biotechnology and
the Protection of Traditional Knowledge等。
3. 初步蒐集並彙整各國與傳統知識相關之論著,計有:Intellectual Property Rights and Biodiversity: Process and Synergies; Assemblies of the Member States of WIPO;52 document(s) of Seventh Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity;Intellectual Property and
Traditional Knowledge: Our Identity, Our Future等。
(8)國內外傳統知識相關網站連結(Related Websites):
該網頁內容,主要分兩部分:
i. 本國相關網站連結:計有行政院原住民族委員會、北縣市原民局、中研院 民族學研究所、東華大學民族學院、布農文教基金會以及泰雅等相關網站。
ii. 外國相關網站連結:計有生物多樣性公約網站(CBD)、世界智慧財產權組
織(WIPO)、國際糧農組織(FAO)、聯合國教科文組織(UNESCO)以及相關
國組織與學術研究機構網站。 (9)台灣傳統知識智慧財產權網:
該網頁為中文網站,係針對台灣的傳統知識研究者所架設,內容目前主要為兩 部份:民族植物資料庫以及傳統知識智財權保護。
貳、參考文獻
中文資料 1. 郭華仁、陳昭華、陳士章、周欣宜,傳統知識的特性及其保護的國際現狀,「台 灣原住民族傳統醫療與生物倫理」研習會,台北:福華國際文教會館。清華 大學科技法律研究所主辦,2004 年 5 月 14 日。 http://seed.agron.ntu.edu.tw/publication/TK2004.pdf 2. 郭華仁,原住民的植物遺傳資源權與傳統知識權。蔡中涵編:生物多樣性與 台灣原住民族發展。台北:台灣原住民文教基金會,2000 年,頁 165-185。 3. 郭華仁,專利與植物育種家權的接軌及其問題,植物種苗 6(3)。2004 年, 頁 1-10。 4. 郭華仁,台灣民族植物學資料庫之建構。賴明洲編:植物生物多樣性與植物 資源永續利用研討會論文集。台中:東海大學,2003 年,頁 211-217。 英文資料1. Carols Correa, Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual Property:Issues and Options Surrounding the Protection of Traditional Knowledge,(2001), p.4.
2. Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, the Final Report, Chapter 4:
Traditional Knowledge,
http://www.iprcommission.org/graphic/documents/final_report.htm. 3. Nuno Pires de Carvalho, In Search of Effective Protection forTraditional
Knowledge, University School of Law’s Washington University, St. Louis,
Missouri, April 4-6, 2003.
4. WIPO, Intellectual property needs and expectations of traditional knowledge holders, WIPO Report on Fact-Finding Missions on Intellectual Property and
Traditional Knowledge (1998-1999), p25.
5. WIPO Information Note on Traditional Knowledge, WIPO International Forum
on “Intellectual Property and Traditional Knowledge: Our Identity, Our Future”,
Muscat, January 21 and 22, 2002, note 1.
http://www.wipo.int/arab/en/meetings/2002/muscat_forum_ip/iptk_mct02_i3.htm 6. WIPO, WIPO Reviews of Existing Intellectual Property Protection of TK
附錄 A:出席國際學術會議心得報告
行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫期末報告
傳統知識智財權保護之研究
計畫編號:NSC 92 - 3112 - H - 002 - 003 -
執行期間: 92 年 6 月 1 日 至 93 年 5 月 31 日
計畫主持人:郭華仁 教授
出席人:陳士章 研究助理
計畫名稱
後基因時代智慧財產法制應有之理性思維-子計畫六
傳統知識智財權保護之研究
執行單位
台灣大學農藝學系
主持人
郭華仁 教授
協同主持人 陳昭華 副教授
發展中的生物科技相關智慧財產制度-歐亞觀點
會議名稱
The Evolution of the IP-system, especially in
Biotechnology
-European and Asian Perspectives
會議日期 93 年 8 月 17 日 至 93 年 8 月 18 日
會議地點
芬蘭瑞典經濟學院IPR Center
發表論文
Nature of Traditional Knowledge and its
Protection— -Taiwan’s Perspective
會議名稱
The Evolution of the IP-system, especially in
會議議程
Sunday, 15 August 2004
15.20 Arrival at the Helsinki-Vantaa Airport (Flight AY842)
Professor Bruun will meet you at the airport.
15.30 Transportation to Helka Hotel
Monday, 16 August 2004
10:00-11:00 Visit IPR University president
11.00 – 11.30 Visit and introduction of the IPR University Center
Ms Mansala will meet you at the Helka Hotel……… (附件一).
11.30 – 13.00 Lunch offered by Marianne Stenius, Rector of the Hanken School of Economics and Business Administration
13.00 – 14.00 Discussion on the co-operation 14.30 – 17.00 Helsinki Sightseeing Free evening
Tuesday, 17 August 2004
10.00 – 17.00 Symposium “The Evolution of the IP-system in Biotechnology – European and Asian Perspectives” in Hanken premises..
(附件四) 會議議程
18.30 Departure from Helka Hotel to the dinner
Ms Mansala and Professor Bruun will meet you at the Helka Hotel.
19.00 Water Bus from the Market Square to Suomenlinna Sea Fortress 19.30 Dinner for all participants ……… …. (附件二) Walhalla Restaurant, Suomenlinna Sea Fortress
Wednesday, 18 August 2004
9.00 – 17.00 Symposium “The Evolution of the IP-system in Biotechnology – European and Asian Perspectives” in Hanken premises Free evening
Thursday, 19 August 2004
10.00 – 12.00 Presentation of Westlaw Online Service in Hanken
之故,錯失申請時間,故無法如期參訪,改安排介紹west law)
會議過程
整體研究團隊於200 4年8月15 日下午於芬蘭首都赫爾辛基(Helsinki)會齊, 並於次日上午前往會見該學院之校長, 接著於中午參加由主辦單位大學智慧財 產中心(IPR University Center of Finland) 主任Nicklas Bruun 教授所主持 之歡迎儀式(reception)。正式之研討會“The Evolution of the IP- system, especially in Biotechnology – European and Asian Perspective”於次日召 開,議程共計有兩整天,分別於200 4年8月17-18 日間假位於芬蘭瑞典經濟與 商業學院(Swedish College of Economic & Business Administration) 召開。 在第一天開場時先由對方主持人Nicklas Bruun 教授及我方計劃主持人范建得 教授致詞,其後並由我方邀請之德國幕尼黑大學Max Planch Institute for Patent Law 之Christopher Heath 教授專題演講會議過程 (keynote speech), 講題為:“The Evolution of the IP-system –European Perspective.”緊接著 會議的議程正式展開。本次會議配合雙方之共同研究,共計安排三大議題;即 “Current Trend of the IP-system,”“The IP-system, Copyright and
Traditional Knowledge,”“Biotechnology Perspective”三大主題。
第一大主題於8月17 日完成,雙方共計發表論文 6 篇(其內容詳見附件議程資 料),第二與第三主題則於次日完成,雙方共計發表論文8 篇(其內容詳見附件 議程資料),全部議程共計發表論文14 篇,其中我方有 7 篇。 會議的次日(19日)預先安排的參訪芬蘭科學院(Academy Finland) 因故取銷, 改變為在會議場地聽取該中心安排之資料庫介紹以及與對方人員之交流。
會議心得
一、 在這次的會議中,我深刻感受到國外學者們的表達能力都很不錯。 我認為原因並不只是因為英語是他們的母語,而是他們的表達技巧很有 條理,能讓聽眾清楚的理解他們的邏輯。我認為這種能力非常重要,在 未來我將儘可能的多參加國際研討會,以磨練自己的膽識與表達能力。 二、 本次的交流活動已經為雙方後續的共同研究奠定基礎,其中芬蘭與 會人員中並有參與政府科研經費分配、參與政府規劃保護傳統知識計 劃、參與籌設國家智慧財產法庭等專業人員,深度交流之下,雙方人員 已建立未來續行推動共同研究的良好基礎。 三、 我方之論文出版規劃業已徵得德國知名機構慕尼黑大學Max-Planc 智慧財產研究中心的同意,納入其出版之叢書,並將隨其發 行網絡遍及歐美相關研究機構。 四、 我方研究人員表現認真,會議全程包括研究助理及工作人員在內均 無人缺席, 且每一個人員均參與討論,是一場成功的交流。 五、 本次會議之舉行確實證明我方人員之素質及研究水平均高,只要進 一步克服語言及國際參與的心理障礙,將能為我國研究成果之國際參與 奠基。 六、 基本上,我們認為本次的交流從規劃、撰寫全文論文、發表論文、 參與討論、匯集論文在國際發行、推動後續合作,本次與會團隊成員已 成功的執行原訂工作目標。 七、 由於芬蘭方面對於此次交流十分滿意,以積極表示希望在 IP 領域 之合作研究有更符合「歐亞」稱謂的架構,故此明年希望能真正擴大邀 請包括其他歐亞國家之專家與會,這點我們也希望爭取捕助單位的支 持。 八、 本子計畫研究團隊由郭華仁教授代表上台報告,由於其所製作投影 片之內容豐富,在報告完畢後隨即引起熱烈回應與討論,不僅達到台灣 的直智財法中傳統知識等相關議題之研究成果,提供至國際學界之效 果,更藉由此次赴芬蘭參與研討會,帶回豐富的後續研究方向資訊。
附錄 B:發表之論文
Nature of Traditional Knowledge and its Protection
--- Taiwan’s Perspective
Warren H.J. KUO1, Jau-Hwa CHEN2,
Shih-Chang CHEN3,
and Shin-Yee CHOU4
1 Professor, Department of Agronomy, National Taiwan University. 2 Associate Professor, Department of Financial and Economic Laws,
Fu-Jen Catholic University.
3 Assistant, Department of Agronomy, National Taiwan University. 4 Graduate Student, Department of Financial and Economic Laws,
Fu-Jen Catholic University.
I. Introduction
II. The Definition of Traditional Knowledge (TK) 1. The scope of TK
2. Whether or not documented 3. Ownership of TK
4. Continuous evolution III. Characteristics of TK
1. The creation of TK is collective and holistic
2. Oral transmission of TK from generation to generation
3. TK is changeable, and may evolve because of changes in the social environment
4. The innovator is often unidentifiable 5. Residents of specific areas share TK IV. Methods of Protection of TK
1. Non-IP protection of TK 2. IP protection of TK V. TK Protection in Taiwan
1. Background
2. Current protection of TK in Taiwan
3. Significant problems Taiwan may face in protecting TK VI. Future Directions (Conclusion)
I. Introduction
Starting in the 1970s, multinational pharmaceutical and chemical corporations gradually started heading to areas in other parts of the world, areas rich in biodiversity, to conduct bio-prospecting concerning natural resources. These areas are frequently in developing countries of tropical areas, and especially in areas where indigenous peoples live. The multinational corporations further researched and developed these resources, and the protected the results of the R&D with intellectual property (IP) protection to make a profit. These activities raise the issues of protecting genetic resources and traditional knowledge (TK).
Originally, protection was restricted to for certain creations (such as folklore, music, dance, etc.) of indigenous people, but later biologists and other environmental groups pushed for expansion of this protection to include protection of other forms of biodiversity. These groups felt that the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities in the fields of agriculture, medicine, and ecology, etc., could have very important contributions for sustainable development. These ideas are present in the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), specifically in Article 8(j): Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices.
Moreover, from 1998, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has conducted nine fact-finding missions in 28 countries (including countries in South Asia, the South Pacific, Arab nations, Southeast Africa, West Africa, the Americas, etc.), visiting indigenous peoples, and local tribes, governmental officials, the scholarly research institutions, and non-governmental associations (NGOs) etc. These visits affirm that TK in many fields (including agriculture, medicine, art, etc.) is the source for innovative technology.
Many scholars have conducted research regarding TK protection in recent years, with the goal of increasing protection of TK. Moreover,
international forums have distributed many suggestions for action plans and regulations. The goal of this article is to compare TK with modern technology, and to discuss the protection of TK at the international level, as well as in Taiwan, as a reference for the different methods of TK protection.
II. The Definition of Traditional Knowledge (TK)
What is TK? In July 2003, the Secretariat of the WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC), defined TK as: tradition-based literary, artistic or scientific works; performances; inventions; scientific discoveries; designs; marks, names and symbols; undisclosed information; and all other tradition-based innovations and creations resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.1 “Tradition-based” refers to knowledge systems, creations, innovations and cultural expressions which have generally been transmitted from generation to generation; are generally regarded as pertaining to a particular people or its territory; and, are constantly evolving in response to a changing environment.2 Categories of traditional knowledge could include: agricultural knowledge; scientific knowledge; technical knowledge; ecological knowledge; medicinal knowledge including related medicines and remedies; biodiversity-related knowledge; “expressions of folklore” in the form of music, dance, song, handicrafts, designs, stories and artwork; elements of languages, such as names, geographical indications and symbols; and, movable cultural properties.3
In reference to the above, the elements of TK include the following four points:
2. The scope of TK
TK includes technical knowledge (including agricultural, technical, ecological, medical, and other forms of related technical knowledge), in
1
WIPO 2003 Composite Study on Protection of Traditional Knowledge. WIPO/GRTKF/IC/5/8, p. 24. http://www.wipo.int/documents/en/meetings/2003/igc/pdf/grtkf_ic_5_8.pdf
2
WIPO 2001 Intellectual Property Needs and Expectations of Traditional Knowledge Holders, Report on Fact-Finding Missions on Intellectual Property and Traditional Knowledge (1998-1999).
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Mugabe, J. 1998 Intellectual property protection and traditional knowledge, an exploration in international policy discourse. http://www.acts.or.ke/paper%20-%20intellectual%20property.htm
addition to general TK (including music, dance, sculpture, weaving, designs, clothing, and other folk custom techniques, and other expression of folklore). While the first kind of TK concerns knowledge of natural resources or science and technology, the second kind of TK concerns cultural expression of the humanities and the arts (note that many people refer to the second kind of TK as “expression of folklore” or “expressions of traditional culture”). The two types of TK are different, and the types of protection for these two types of TK are naturally different as well.
3. Whether or not documented
The background of TK and manifestation of TK is quite different; some TK is documented, such as TK concerning traditional medicine. However, the vast majority of TK is NOT documented, perhaps due to custom (for example, the transmission of indigenous medical knowledge by word of mouth from master to disciple, or transmission by movement or performance of a dance, play, or ceremony, etc.). Whether one publishes or records the knowledge makes no difference at all, TK published or not, is still traditional knowledge of the peoples.
4. Ownership of TK
Because tribes and indigenous peoples develop ideas, opinions, or thoughts as TK, the creation of TK is a process of gradual accumulation over time. This is not to say that it is not the product of each individual. The creation of TK may be the work of one individual or the joint efforts of a group of individuals. Therefore, an individual, a family, or a local community, or a tribe may all own TK. For example, several million women and older people have traditional household remedies from their mastery of knowledge of the special medicinal properties of plants. Most TK involves collective ownership by a group of people.
5. Continuous evolution
While TK often appeared in early times when tracing the origin of this knowledge was impossible, TK still changes with the times. For this reason, TK is not truly ancient, backward, or unchangeable knowledge, as TK can develop new information and improvements as a result of this unceasing change.
III. Characteristics of TK
When discussing TK protection, one must first grasp the special characteristics of TK, in order to create the best type of protection system for TK. For this, a comparison of TK and modern science will help explain the special characteristics of TK.
1. The creation of TK is collective and holistic
Science relies on an abstract conceptual framework to interpret phenomena. The description of phenomena is usually quantifiable by scientific experiments, and follows a step-by-step scientific deductive process. In order to figure out the conceptual relationship of complex phenomena of the world, scientific inquiries always involve reduction process. Cause and effect between certain factors are easier to be found by standardizing and leaving alone, as far as possible, all other factors that the inquirer do not looking for. Even with ecology as a science of complex interactions among living and non-living matters of the whole ecosystem, it is inevitable for the research process to be somewhat reductionistic.
On the other hand, indigenous peoples or local communities live their lives with vast knowledge formed over the centuries during their daily life interacting with the environment. Epistemologically, this type of knowledge is holistic in nature and cannot be dissected. For example, a festival after the taboo month celebrating the beginning of the hunting season should avoid the breeding season of the animal, a form of TK that assures sustainable hunting. TK is an articulation of phenomena. Instead of step-by-step deduction, TK uses the repeated verification of an idea that a person or group of people deduce from facts.
However, TK is not necessarily a collective creation. Individual creation is also possible. On the other hand, modern science and technology do not exclude collective creation for innovations; although usually only one or more trained individuals own the technology as a small, definite group of individuals.
2. Oral transmission of TK from generation to generation
Traditionally indigenous peoples have no writing system. Indigenous people would transmit knowledge by oral language or by body language. On the other hand, the transmission of scientific information
relies on written records and publications, and a teacher simply accelerates the transmission of this knowledge orally.
However, not all TK lack the written records. For example, the distribution of classics on Chinese and Indian traditional medicine disseminated TK on Chinese and Indian traditional medicine. WIPO considers both forms of medicine as model forms of TK. Today, indigenous peoples may also use writing to transmit their TK, whether new or old.
3. TK is changeable, and may evolve because of changes in the social environment
“Traditional” does not just mean knowledge of the past, but rather that the method of creation of this knowledge is in the “traditional” way. Since people’s interaction with the environment produces TK, TK is by no means static, but rather dynamic, because of environmental changes. Since, in the past, the environment changed very slowly, TK also changed in a very slow and continuous way.
Science and technology change frequently, and at a rate that is faster than the rate at which TK changes. However, this does not mean that the speed of innovation of modern "TK" is slow. Today, indigenous peoples and tribal inhabitants may exchange new ideas very quickly. Nevertheless, TK changes are not typically revolutionary, unless outside influences affect such TK. Traditional Chinese medicine still maintains the concepts of the five elements and the principles of Yin and Yang from the Chin and Han Dynasty, a good example to illustrate the nature of the TK.
4. The innovator is often unidentifiable
Many peoples accumulate TK as a collective creation without a written record. Therefore, the innovators are often unidentifiable. Modern technology, by contrast, has written records as a rule, and places great emphasis on the importance of determining the original creator. Nevertheless, since, in modern times, indigenous peoples can invent some TK quickly, their innovator usually is identifiable.
5. Residents of specific areas share TK
dissemination of TK is limited and non-systematic. One individual, a small group of individuals, or even an entire community may all share TK. The indigenous peoples usually do not have the same concept of private property as in mainstream society. Modern technology, however, spreads in a broad and systematic manner, and mainstream culture embraces science by granting the specific individuals who create technology individual rights through the IP system.
IV. Methods of Protection of TK
Due to the non-dissectible nature of TK, the realization of TK usually relies upon physical materials. Medicine in indigenous peoples often consists of learning which herbs heal people. Extinction of that plant species means the disappearance of the concept. The disappearance of the concept may leave the herb useless to the people. Because of this, TK protection is of two kinds, which are by no means clear-cut. The first is non-IP protection of TK, while the second is IP protection of TK. Non-IP protection focuses on protection of ecological resources, while IP protection focuses on the protection of the knowledge.
6. Non-IP protection of TK
Non-IP protection includes establishing conservation parks, protecting endangered species, restricting development, protecting cultural remains, and conserving habitats, among other forms of protection. Moreover, the CBD, the Convention of Agriculture, and other international agreements provide protection to genetic resources or TK, and the benefit sharing mechanism. These are the non-IP type protections of TK.
1.1 International regulations
1.1.1 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) include the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies,
and by appropriate funding (CBD Article 1).4
Although the CBD created basic policies and obligations and a system of cooperation of transnational technology and finance, the implementation of the CBD obligations is for each CBD Contracting Party. Given the different perspectives of North and South countries, the purpose of the CBD may prove difficult to meet. Despite that, the CBD has important provisions concerning keeping traditions from disappearing:
a), respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities (Article 8(j)),
b), access to genetic resources (Article 15),
c), sharing in a fair and equitable way the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with the Contracting Party providing such resources (Article 15.7),
d), International cooperation, etc.
1.1.2 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
After seven years of negotiations, in November 2001 the FAO Conference adopted the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), which came into force in June 29, 2004, after ratification by 55 countries. This legally binding Treaty covers all plant genetic resources relevant to food and agriculture. The objectives of this Treaty are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security.
The legislative purpose of the ITPGRFA matches that of the CBD, with respect to “the conservation and sustainable usage of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.” In order to meet the goal, each Contracting Party shall, subject to national legislation, and in cooperation with other Contracting Parties where appropriate, promote an integrated approach to the exploration, conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and shall in particular:5
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http://www.biodiv.org/convention/articles.asp 5
a), survey and inventory plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, taking into account the status and degree of variation in existing populations, including those that are of potential use and, as feasible, assess any threats to them;
b), promote the collection of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and relevant associated information on those plant genetic resources that are under threat or are of potential use;
c), promote or support, as appropriate, farmers and local communities’ efforts to manage and conserve on-farm their plant genetic resources for food and agriculture;
d), promote in situ conservation of wild crop relatives and wild plants for food production, including in protected areas, by supporting, inter alia, the efforts of indigenous and local communities;
e), cooperate to promote the development of an efficient and sustainable system of ex situ conservation, giving due attention to the need for adequate documentation, characterization, regeneration and evaluation, and promote the development and transfer of appropriate technologies for this purpose with a view to improving the sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture;
f), monitor the maintenance of the viability, degree of variation, and the genetic integrity of collections of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (Article 5.1).
Moreover, the ITPGRFA requires cooperation among the Contracting Parties, including: enhancing international activities to promote conservation, evaluation, documentation, genetic enhancement, plant breeding, seed multiplication; and sharing, providing access to, and exchanging, plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and appropriate information and technology; and establishing or strengthening the capabilities of developing countries and countries with economies in transition with respect to conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. (Article 7.1 and 7.2(a) and (b))
The Contracting Parties recognize the enormous contribution that the local and indigenous communities and farmers of all regions of the world, particularly those in the centre of origin and crop diversity have
made, and will continue to make for the conservation and development of plant genetic resources which constitute the basis of food and agriculture production throughout the world (Article 9.1). Other related provisions include: (a) The multilateral system of access and benefit-sharing (Article 10); (b) The exchange of information, access to and transfer of technology, capacity-building, sharing of monetary and other benefits of commercialization (Article 13); and (c) material transfer agreements (MTA) (Article 12.4, 12.5).
1.1.3 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
In the year 2000, WIPO established the Intergovernmental Committee for member states to discuss TK protection. This Intergovernmental Committee held several meetings, focusing on (a) the definition and protection of TK; (b) the standardized contract of accession of genetic resources and benefit sharing; and (c) constructing electronic search databases, including traditional knowledge, contract clauses, and judicial opinions, as well as for prior arts research and for public use.6
1.2 Scope of protection
Non-IP protection of TK includes the following kinds of protection: 1.2.1 Conservation of Genetic Resources
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (CBD Article 3). CBD Article 4 defines the jurisdictional scope. Therefore, the CBD Contracting Parties bear the obligation to take certain steps to prevent activities that will harm biodiversity.
Under CBD Article 8(j), each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, and subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional life styles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of
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the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices.
Identifying TK and monitoring TK are important steps to prevent the disappearance of TK. Under CBD Article 7, this means that each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, in particular for the purposes of Articles 8 to 10, (a) identify components of biological diversity important for its conservation and sustainable use having regard to the indicative list of categories set down in Annex I; (b) monitor, through sampling and other techniques, the components of biological diversity identified pursuant to subparagraph (a) above, paying particular attention to those requiring urgent conservation measures and those which offer the greatest potential for sustainable use; (c) identify processes and categories of activities which have or are likely to have significant adverse impacts on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and monitor their effects through sampling and other techniques; and (d) maintain and organize, by any mechanism data, derived from identification and monitoring activities pursuant to subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) above.
1.2.2 Establishing databases
Over the years, ethnobiologists have explored and recorded TK of indigenous peoples around the world for academic or commercial purposes. The record is by no means a complete picture of the TK. Rather these records are simply the written observations of trained scientists who interpret what they see or hear within the context of the scientific paradigm. Although the comprehensiveness of TK may sometimes sound unfamiliar or even absurd to ethnobiologists, TK often supplies scientists with ideas or hints that may eventually prove useful in modern technology. In this way, much traditional knowledge is dissected to fit the form that is compatible to the IP systems of the mainstream societies.
The patent on turmeric is just one of many famous biopiracy cases. Since the patent authorities lack information about existing technologies related to TK, they may not realize the technologies are from foreign TK and may grant the patent to applicants. The main reason for the lack of information is that TK often exists orally, or is recorded in ways that patent