美國規劃教育之新趨勢

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(8) ffr± **J3.~f¥J~. 0. j:)'1±;kJ['U::g~.tD:mff~.tD:1xf;ltJ'~f¥J.if;kJ[. 1~utlDtf:!ffr±~pga'9±j:m7:HiM±~. :lU '. 1JDffr±~pga'90J:t~1iffi ~~. 0. " fflj* " &I*1Jeffl ' :HH:ttJ. ' tiDI!ilIU'B " .wt~:J:;ffl. " ffr±~m!iWr:pJL\. Jt*fi* nrfj~~-1[EJ;kJ[:lU~tfff¥Jffd: ~ ,. 1:ffE8~ ~ffif. ,. ;kJ[.Ij::gtf1ltS1.!ltJl:1~. I*Jf¥JAfF9ltS1JttgtfjMili]~~~tfff¥J~m. ' ltSIWT ( Gans 1968,. "~. 0. 1991)~~fI[filmjf~.Jt;kJ[.Uf¥J. m~.~~~~'~~M*.f¥J~~m~'A~m~~f¥Jtfff¥J ~mnrfj~~W.Jta'9±j:m:fljffl.tt~~Z;fEltMl. '. ,. ~f¥Jtfff¥J~m~WI~"mm". ". "M~~~. ;fEl1t*~tMl~~~ Fs'~1m. 0. • tffa'9~mtf11±1±~WjE.9:Y-E! ". ltSIJtt '. " *~7JJf " &?i?. 1m~Jtt~~~;kJ[.U::gJ5fffFf¥J.'f;fm:lIJ:HH~~~~. tfff¥J~rfI.if¥Jflim:lJ!:lJ!1tt ,~,. •• ". 0. §7±f:.* • ~~T.tiffi~.1t;kJ[.Ij~.BZ. ~t§7.~1'~7~O/1tt!1r~~.tD:.'f;fm.lJa'9mjftYl. '. 3ft.~;kJ[.U. '. (Pivo. §t.lja'9~~J5fff!t:! ~t~. AfF~J5ff~~. 1989, 26):fEltb '. ( Dagenhart and Sawicki 1992,. 7). Ji;t~~fi1b. 1:E~t§71'flHp&~~. 8*~~~tJ~mcm:lJ!T. '. '. 0. ~sM&5t. ~.tD:;kJ[.U~W1b. 3ftMM~oo~~ • • m~~~.'~~~~C.~~*f¥J.'f;f ?i?Fs'.*~ffr± fr?i?Fs'. , 1Je1~;kJ['U1:E.1i1LJ W~&*.fllHdJ~ - m;. Z~':HH~WJtBM*.W-.~.m.m'~~-MM~f¥J. .;f4 ( discipline), ffifJt~~f¥Jmf.~tf1:fJE~~0J:tjE.9:Jlf¥JMITfi. 0. (2)lt4JJl,'1 J£ 'MittJ9 ~it ~~tE;kJ[.Ij~~ffil1::iITfi. Mm:lJ!.~W /f~f¥Jft~. 0. . !itft~B8fV(;~. ~;kJ[.U~W~f¥J. '18~.::gZOO~~Bf¥JI*J~Wtf1:fJEtbTff§7 ~.tD::'§'t$IJT~~&;f4f:1tflf'j*}~lilMf¥J*j:rOO~. , tE. .=**~*fi*Z1&' 1'o/m.Ij.::g~;g~m'Ij~WJfi~~j:)'W!l~.

(9) ~IIIMl.J."zf1i.1'}. :t~VltJA~. ( technician)~:=1: .. :?£:::tejj:~J1:tWiE~1i1 &U ftfiftJm!¥J1Jl. ftl§.a ( political and social values)~Uff!~~1m:iiy*fIjI& ' t::fr~. ~ m *~ EE m. 1960)o~$. pJT ~ JL !¥J. mA 31<: Jft1T ~r:ii. IZ§~. ( Harris. ( efficiency)glG~mJU~If'Flf,ffiim~!¥J$W ' ft!1. ~~;g~nt~tmlft:::t~~il1:B"JmJU ~m~&j§.1~. ( rational planning)o. ( Meyerson and Banfield 1955, 314). -fUID~tEI'l"J;kJ!JIj~1:Ef'Fil&~tRJE~. gf\ '. 87. JlH:H*[J~ffl~Mmrl=1~1mB"J~1~. ,. M~-ar~),$tlfJJ!H~PJT1=f!¥Jfl. ; lltJi-. '_f[gJ~il1:!¥J;kJ!JU~. fu-arUm.B"J~~ffl~Mm~1m!¥J~~-ar~m31<:!¥J~.&.. *;fii.'-oo~ttB"JmE~~-arUm.ft!1!¥J1Jl~~~(~~. *). 31<:~~~tifB"J~i~. 0. :?£:::te~il1:;kJ!JU~B"J:=1:~1:E~~U~~.. ~fflWB"J~~'IZ§~1:E-OO&:=1:~fl*:=1:.Uft8·fflWti:te ~ffl. & ~~ ffl *S t~ B"J ~. ( Meyerson 1956) -ar ~ ,. ~~. 0. ~~¥~ti:te_l:.~jj:m~MC!¥J~il1:;kJ!JU~,~~P~1=f. ~~·JlH:H~lli. (Davidoff. 1t, iE~ JfJ ~ 31<: !¥J. ~~~mE~.o.~~. ~*.~~. 1965),fif!lt~~1'11@ (value)~~m1t£PJTg~B"J~il1:;kJ!. E~*~!¥J,mE~0~* • • ft!1ffl.B"J1Jl~a'JlH:~~m ~. 0. ft!1g;g~mJU~&;';J'l~!kAJi-1:EB"Jil&ttff:i;!:J!. i!iIBB"JA~fU:frit. &:=1: ~W ' m~B"JfEl. ; .IltJi- '. '. ~1~iE~JfJ&&rs'. *mJ~~~}jUmjf~0&1:E;kJ!JIj~f~B"J. 1if!~;g~0.R1:E0~iE~~I'l"Jifjlj~J~f~~ ff!IDij[~?Fm. '1£mJIjB"J~f~~~ff"jHe:l.R*1~F~1:EJi-. ~1'l"Jifjlj~J:®m-~-m~~. ,. 'Iffi~n!$.B"J~}gJE. 0. 1if!:=1:~iE~. ( a matter of. choice, never of fact), lZ§.Ift ' 1:E-1UID.R:=1:;fr±ftf.l .. ~~!¥Jtl1J. • •n!~m1:E0&B"J~~·fu~~.EE&:=1:B"J~W:::t-arU~Jft.

(10) 3:]!/~ § t~ f¥J ~ ~. m~. 0. f!P. fJi! te T f~ ~ mJU ( advocacy planning) S"J. . ~~JiJ!JU~£\~~MWJ~~~~. ~~~f¥J~ffl/J\~ft. • ~Df~l/:~CA*~ a. lfi;l¥JmJU~~ 5tll.1~ ~ MlJiJ!JIJ3:]!~iffl. • 1ltrJJi~~~JjUthbWJ#~Jl:l;;1m. ( Friedmann 1973) i:f1m te T ff. ( transactive planning), f!P.~~temJUI¥JI 1"F1.11.11~. ffi:IXf,ltjA~*~~. ,. ~lj-w*vzfj~f¥JmJU~. ,~fkD~I¥J*Ek:m.U~z.ra~B*&!ljT-f,*~m lj5&l¥Jm~. llii!t~ti~1N~. 0. ,. j.:J-:Y:~fkD~. 1t:~1jiIJ. a. mf¥Jlij~flt!. a. f!P.~~temJU~WmJU~';;;:'. ( dialogue), *&!ffiti~ft~?i1£'Ml .. ,. 1El.!l:t#~1'iJ. ( mutual learning), -MirefkD~". §}9i- • .. -~Z.fM]~i*:ii!Hj. 5tll.1~~it~~mJlJ~~WEJiDJ. ~z.ra'l¥Jgf*£'~1~*S11iJ/~I¥J~~ ra,&:,~J[g,;i1§1jft~?i. '. " ~.lj~±j'~~. ( Kaufman 1978). :tE1}~J£;(. ( interventionist) f¥Jftlfti 1:£. JiJ!J1J~~~fI A. ~. j.:J-1.11¥J3:]!/~mJUmAflt!. te. 0. ' -w*mJU1!f pJTWEMWI¥~fF31S~~ftt:p. ll.f¥J·ft~1}~am.~~te~.W~~flA.°MW·:tE1}~. am I:j::l. , -. f[g) i:k:. I¥~. tU §J 1.1 1.1 ~. ~. choice), JiJ!JIJ~JJi~~fIA.ti~~1'1¥J1jiIJl:j::l. ~~. ( social. 0. .!l:t>ri- · i:f1lj ~~1t£ii1iI:~ftfti ( radical concept) te ~ , ft1JI! ;~I¥JJiJ!JUmAm. and Heskin. te. 0. ~~;tp lk. wr~. 1973)~iEt~3:]!'~l¥JmJU;fj.tA{E:'t-l1J~1:j::l. lk&:!t~j¥Jf¥JJiJ!JU~1!.~. I¥Jf4vz (. f¥Jf1tWfi ; ·. " .~A ". f!P.1r~1ltr*1J ttt*U 3:]!tEJiJ!.IJ~~PJT~~. technology)lk~ft. ~1¥J9!2.9:ti~JiJ!.UmA. ( Grabow. ( objectivity)I¥J3:]!~. a. f!P.1r~~*111t. #~JiJ!.UI¥J;f-l1Jili'3C:~;fIjJ:B-~. fjgfJE;i1§A1r~~w!f¥Jifd:mifd:.. 0. Wf~m3:]!;f~. i:f11t£~JHJ;{l¥JftIli31<Jttl¥f3:]!;~m.U;f~~. " 1ltrJ3.. ( Beauregard 1978). • f!P.it~~:J~jH1UW*I¥JW~.

(11) *111•••• 1Jt~g&ili*~*I¥J~.. '. tE~- :nOOrm~. ,. ztli.... 89. ~tfj31~t:lff:EJifjl¥J. ;jff1J*'r:'ifflJ& f*~~;jff {ff!.\t;l.llt::t 5:R:EJifjj;Jf41Jt W~~ ::t I¥J~IDl 0. lfMW '. &~Jl:lu::g-Wif&J&zrl'l'l¥Jmm{*. ZJSI¥J~.~,*j{l&{-\:~*. '. '. ~~'~{'Fi£'OOl¥JmJJ!. 0. ~. M!.£i7Hlial¥J:iE~tf2~'~l&{-\:if&J&~Y. l¥Jo. ~ti:l1¥J. ¥Hi- , ~Tili*-ffEj~::tl¥Jm:lUH~H¥ ' .W1~~I¥JWI~~ W • ~flffiWT~ ( Forester 1982).*l.$jlllxf1j!{I§I¥J{,,~~p~m:llJz ~ , f1j!ti:l~~~Jl:lU ( progressive planning)I¥J:E!!~ a {ff!.flirEEIim 5lWT ( Lukes. 1974)ijT~. IUI¥J~f¥CPjt~. (. r :fI1J.::::fI!OOrtu J I¥JW~f~ti:l. ' tEm. infonnation)1.1q.1\t;lif&m&*~~~fflJtt\t;l*. rm:rltffi BiI ' tEj1[fj!'l1fiR r m:lu::g-l¥J::t ~f:f:~ I!P ~~:92.j1[fj!'I~$ I¥J~±. '. ~~~~g~t~f~!tE¥U:iElitl¥Jjt&\. ~:rBH!JB:T1J.. '. ~[J.tlt-*. '. ~:iEI¥J~::tmJU~f¥:tfjPJ~g~JVG. 0. '. L~T'/1"!Jm:lU:E!!~ftlll¥J~~171tE~1jcp. flR51~. ,. ,. ~I¥JW~tf2T'lWil¥J. rm13-flrilmJU*~~f4*tEt~ct~m:lU:E!!~ftllfm'. T'/1"!JE"Jf:f:~::g-rm13-fj?fT~. , tE:E!!'~mJU:E!!~ftllZ1~ , -arJjg~:i!l T'f¥tEl¥J. ~~:t~g. '. tf21.11.1~. ( Niebanck 1988)0 ~Ji:t ' -flril~~!£E"JmJIJ$fB. ( Alexander 1984). (3).1t.~1f1t.aqJ;}f1t~*. ~mrm. ( paradigm). 0. ?. ~JlJu*r~ I¥Jliff~:n$~W~flril;ji± tl *f4I¥Jliff~:ni$:}~U@HI3. H '. EE1ft~ $1J1'j~::t ~. ( behavioralism) I¥J~. '. I!J:E!!~ftllE"J~t~::g-:iI!ffll)(.A. tf2:i1!ffl*~~*l¥Jm~. ,. ilt~ :E!!'~m. ( quantitative)I¥J1iff~:n$ , {ff!.1rJ. ~mTliff~I¥JI)(.~A. ( fact)~-arJ..)'W11ffrnI ( value)7t~1¥J '. a. {ff!.1r~lt!R~$.. 1iff~::g-?fTmmttl¥Jff!m?<~. ~::g-'rmT'~~~'tf2.fj~~·1iff~~I¥J~.:t~~WCP.

(12) ~;lli~~~.~~·-. ( Harris. 'L. 1%7)~m. m~. ~ ~ j::. '3't J§U. 1P skJ:ftt W¥ '. ~D ~ ~. ,. Dror. tBj:£!2:1fl'r1:~r",,'miB~Pm. TIfiii~.:I!:1tE~lli~z~JJlm:E-'.tt.lt9*. 0. (. ~ • • £~~~~~~~~E~*~~~. t),j&~~$*~~~F:I!:1t~{il{@. :f~7. ••. ~~~~. 1960) 0. 1?~rrm. "ft '. ~~. ( ~D~Ij~h ). ~ft~h'N~M$*~M*& • • ~*~'llirt~~M$*~ :l!:OOA~~.&~#~ttffM'~~~~mM~~tB~.~fi E~BIK Fflftj:£!2:1fl L 1~'t!il~~. SkJ5t;fJT J:?X:0::tt j:£!2:m ~1~ IE '. ~if.S*iB ;@tf:W:{~. 0. ml~. ¥JjJ:. Y::f~. (cost benefit analysis). pJT*~m. mskJp.x;*~~~fi. J§IJ 7 tf:W:* SkJiltW¥ * 0. t:Jjj:£!2:IMSkJ1~m~f¥' M~~.FtG*5<Y:~5)-;fJTSkJ~m. 1987). *~~$. 0. iftl{f§PJT~~SkJj:£!2:IM~>g~;@Wj:£50fl~1m. '. ~m. ~{IE1~m~f¥JJii:*;@~j:£!2:1fl~jljJ &frJ~pJT~WSkJ. {B ;@nlG*5<Y:~~ifJT~Y:t~~~t;(~~t~.:::r-M~~rm!±B. ~r&m. ( Byrne. J~t. '. itt!'!!"~. TIfi;@!'.ijj:£!2:JffSkJ1=rj:£k~$. ~ .;J:J;Y:t-if~W\mnlG*5<y:i;it5)-ifJT*1&1~j:£!2:1fl. Jff~t& :E-'.I1-'F**J.?,;t;@JI; ~j:£!2:m SkJilmll!l. 1i71ffi'. '. '. 0. *,~~)g~ij(. ;@JI:}~1.{@SkJ~~~. 'B~$~~~ttSkJ~$~.*~W~~o. ,. ~f4. ( Chilcote 1981,. 58)~i'!7~{lL~~SkJ~~. ,. §;g~. ~~~W1J);r",,~~* jt ~~i'Mff!~1~1J);:fx1*riRi J:?X:_I$Jr1:SkJ~~. -rm~.. ( fact). ;@~']r:p~SkJ. ( value);@~$5)-OOSkJ ' '. f4~*~lli:M!~F. '¥1J);1.{@skJ~i'Mf[iJ,Q;\;;JiiW*D1ffiMtl~~. *O~15J.:::r-,Q;\~~iJH:fr~~JHf:. '. ;. ; PJT~l¥J. &\;;Jii*{*i'lIA~tt)(:1tLSkJ-.®.

(13) ~1tI~.Jti:.z.tfi.f}. iI®: '. ffiJl'{if~{'F-@:JX1'fLjA~. ,. 91. W1t!!1r~pJT~liH~8"JFp~:Ji!1!:~1'. ffi~;~~'~.ID~ili~~~A~B~fi~$'.WW~~ ~8"JiE)l:¥~1t. '. ML§'ff!JtHt!!1r~~~D.*2)l:~ifr±1t. ~7tiffT~IJff!~2)l:~~AliH~ f&1'T~-=tR~tJ.lf 7~tm3L~ffil. (. ~~;1t8"JliH. '. qualitative)oL~-=t51H~ffijz~. ( postbehavioralism),. e:w§t~;kJ!.U~::gt~5t. 0. .,,~m~ ~~M~'mE~::g~~~~~*~.~~~,e~.~ lli~@r.F~ ~liH~m~(j ~Ik'j~mif~. ,. ( concentrations), ffiJ ililZ9~f;t~ifr± 1t. 1~1~;kJ!.U~{;jtJ1~j;J-~~-{Im~f4. ~rtE*~1-'3LJE. 0. ~ffiJ. '. ~~:;§~-@ ~f4~¥~Hffil fflJl~~~F~~~f4. ( discipline), ij~. 5'l-tE~{;jtjW~~)EMI¥~:Wf$:ll::;kJ!.U~. '. ~t~ ;kJ!.U~::g~;g~ff!~#~m.U~{;jt-I. ( interdiscipline)::t J:t~'i,@!&'. J.iVe;t-lrWT ( Cullingworth. 0. 1970)g;t~;g~;kJ!.UliH3i:~~~j;J-. ~~~.~'ffiJ-@~:Ji!1!:M.~~~~~*~~~~~.~'* l'Q}ij~j;J- -@~f4*#~J:t:**, ft!!~f4.)E~~~m~8"JW~~. ,. ' pJT j;J- '. ;kJ!.U~F~:fNl'~~WJ:t:. rmff!~#~J:t:if~~-@JY5'~F~~~. Mo.~~~~m~TJ:t:~~::g~~~,~~~&¥~WT. ( Rich and Warren l'ij~#~J:t:;f~ -. 8"J. 0. ffi~. 1980)ilit~.llt3L~ffil. 1t!!1r~~;g~m.U~F~17J~. @ ~ f4 ' j;J- ~~ F~ ~ f4 * f;t:f=<f ~ #~~J:t~ 'i,@!&'. j;J-q1.:Wl'y~::gf;t~;kJ!.U~:;§ij~~~-{~I~f4Mi~:tt~. ,. , mf§,:%WT ( Brooks 1993), -{lL1&~1N~~~,*~t~;kJ!.U. *f,jtJ~3L~ - {1m ~f4 ~~::g. f& '. '. , tE ft!!1i;f~~ l' ~ 1Y'1 ;kJ!.U~~ Z. itP1N~n8"J§;g~;kJ!.U~{;jtj~~f~t1:&7E¥~5-'tt~1N{OO:1~~.

(14) $f¥J*'I"M · iif1:Yi!J~~flt1r'H!~1i5t~t~mIU~filtj~lLRX; -ffm ~f4 f¥J~~. 0. •. ~Wf. mllJ~vltjf¥J~IIIIH!.~t;P)tt~J!JJDf¥J.*. ~[]*P)lf:tlL;I:~*~~JiIlJ~V& ~f¥J.~:t~1mz7'i~~~::tS9pgnIi?. '. WII. ' f¥Jrl:l~m. 0. • mIlJ~W~7 ~Wf/t;lmIlJA. 1974)1~tfj. • ~D*m.U~W~. . 1JraJij~i.R1~mIU~fi(tB2:::jftxfsltj~1i5t ' '. ffiJj$:~Dlf:t. ~Dlf:t-*. ~~ 7. • ~JiIlJ{HlfQJij~frMi'ifd:frm. • mIU~W1Hlf&:\~:ttfJJD~::t:nlIDa9. 1ffiPfT~~f¥J~::t~I1~~JJD5.$mIUAjlf¥JAmJmtf!. '. ~Jj$:it. 0. i1§'ffii:ttta ( Ellul1964)f;fJj$:f4txf¥J~~~ , fa. m.lJ~fli!.cpAf¥Jm~Jr:1. *~Jmf¥J1~*. a. mH!~~:tg:JHif11r'RX;~-ifm~::t. m*&fliJm* (PerloH and Klett Jj$:mjf~.~~"I*,*. ftl!ltt[~~~. ( Lucy 1994)mFf:f§IBJf¥JJ!m '. &JJi4-jfd:frcpf¥J~~~~. ~~A. '. a. rm ~ -1l1t'i,w:f!E ~ & $imrWf ( Rich and Warren 1980) f¥JJmI!i $~:f§lli. ,. '. iif11r'~~~mllJ~WH!~~mjf~m~tt. ( normative). (~00ZP:,wlE~) 'rm**~JiIU~Wf¥Jmll1t'iH!~~UI. Jj$:A.§'!;f¥J.§'!;:±:m:f!E ( governance), ~P~000&Jttr@f¥J~'1Hp~*-1f flI! '. A.§'!;~~eij~~.L-~.§'!;:±::nA*iR:JEfrl1J. 0. iif11r~m. '. ~D*:ft. 1r~t~~JiIU~W1i5t~~ifm*~~*}~~. , QJ PJ{HM~f¥J~JJiP)tt. filtj&5&$~:±:f¥J.::tWII*'*~~JE~1i]S9. • flt1r~Ri~~{@~.§'!;~ ,. ~JiIlJ.*. " &ij.iE!x:'§ jlzrtJ]~:f§lI~fjj • ~1&:lf:tij~~1I:f§f;flm. &~~o. }~t ' B~~{f]{f]f¥Jr&&mjIJ:f!E~ifIl&~~:n$f¥J~~. 0. filtj&5&$~:±:f¥J:f!E'I:1~JiIUmAB~$~@~i~f¥J~~. j1J:f!E~~~~~B~ffm.o~M.f¥Jff~. ~*P)tt. ,. ~.m. ,. ,~.

(15) ~. ~1II~.J • • z.f4T.~. (Friedmann. 1973') m t±l I¥J. planning)~ff.S;Ji~ , 7ffi9t~. :t~ ~. ( 1993, 1994). 'U~W1J5l:~,l:)11.:t3tf;ILJttl¥J;kJ!:lUf~::a: m:lUf~::a:. ( non -. ;kJ! :lU :flIl.. '. ~ffil. (. 93. transactive. ]!!1:Elli:if.*~~i;kJ!. ~rPJ-@~F~~lI!1~::a:1¥J. Euclidian mode of planning), 1i:f!~T 'f.R1I~$~. m:lUff!~~~O~&1jJ}]I¥J*~i'!)7}. , Jlt[mt±l T;kJ!:lUI¥J1iJ~!f-j7!.lti '. m~~:m~tt,~~tt'~ffltt,.~tt,&~*~~tt,o. EE1B-0~iBB"J;kJ!:lU:flIl.~ffil~fB § lW~{-tz~tzo m§~51 *:t'!f~ rEJU~ti::g l¥J:tltWf. (. '. 9t~~1B-;kJ!:lUI¥J~. Alexander. 1994)0 ~lttZ. ~,~~-~~m~m~:flIl.~~.I¥J.~IT~.1:E.*Z$'. ' :1JtiHffil '. ?JT~~l¥Jft'Ij:_±j~~EE~O~I¥J~iB~~ffil. ~~l?51*. Forsyth. '. ~)jUJ!:lU:flIl.~ffilff!g&*P9ftttB"Jm*. ( Sandercock. and. 1992)0. tzOJ:) fU~tl¥J~fBU~ti;f~z ' f8Z1~. ;kJ!:lU::gpJT1.5eJfjl¥J~. ,. 1:E:flIl.'Ij:;kJ!:lU:flIl.~ffil ~¥H1Z*ff.S~. ;kJ!:lU~1/fLJB*~¥f@]1![~iJlW~fBfP'~~. phase), ~rEJB"Jf-'-~ffil#:1j-1Euttft~. ,. ( preparadigmatic. @Xmftt1B-m:lUm~l¥J~j~. ,. ®~~ffl~I¥J~,m~~Wili~1:E~.*~$rPJlW~~oOO~ ~~.fJ!~. "Jj~1'tW '. ,. fX1r~~~t~~~:ffi~'R:WT. ( Brooks. J:)fjf@OO*~1-'!f~@Jf%~F51¥J~f4. '. 1993)I¥J~U. li;f§'§~ , ~~&. ~.'ili~@~~ • • ~&~~,]!!~~ft.m~l¥Jm~~ ~o.

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(17) :i. ~1II~.Jlt.Z.tfiMm. 95. Press. Colquhoun, A. 1991. Twentieth - century concepts of urban space.. In Modernity and the classical tradition. ed.. Colquhoun. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Cullingworth. J. B. 1970. The politics of research, Centre for Urban. and. Regional. Studied,. the. University. of. Birmingham. Dagenhart, Richard and David Sawicki. 1992. Architecture and planning: The divergence of two fields. Journal of Planning Education and Research 12: 1 - 16 Davidoff, Paul. 1965. Advocacy and pluralism in planning. Journal of the American Institute of Planning 31 :331 338. Dror. Yehezkel. 1967. Policy analysts: A new professional role in government service. Public Administration Review 27: 197 - 203 . Ellul. Jacques. 1964. The technology society. New York, NY:Alfred A. Knopf Inc. Forester, John. 1982. Planning in the face of power. Journal of the American Planning Association 49: 67 - 80. Friedmann. John. 1973. Retracking American: A theory of transactive planning. Garden City. NJ: Doubleday and Anchor. 19 93. Toward a non - Euclidian mode of planning. Journal of the American Planning Association 59: 482 .

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