• 沒有找到結果。

IP Layer

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2022

Share "IP Layer"

Copied!
27
0
0

加載中.... (立即查看全文)

全文

(1)

IP Layer

Michael Tsai


2016/03/30

(2)

ptg

IPv4 and IPv6 451

IP Networking

Exhibit A TCP/IP layering model

IPv4 and IPv6

The version of TCP/IP that has been in widespread use for three decades is proto- col revision 4, aka IPv4. It uses four-byte IP addresses. A modernized version, IPv6, expands the IP address space to 16 bytes and incorporates several other les- sons learned from the use of IPv4. It removes several features of IP that experi- ence has shown to be of little value, making the protocol potentially faster and easier to implement. IPv6 also integrates security and authentication into the ba- sic protocol.

All modern operating systems and many network devices already support IPv6.

However, active use of IPv6 remains essentially zero in the real world.3 Experience suggests that it’s probably best for administrators to defer production use of IPv6 to the extent that this is possible. Everyone will eventually be forced to switch to IPv6, but as of 2010 that day is still years away. At the same time, the transition is not so far in the future that you can ignore it when purchasing new network de- vices. Insist on IPv6 compatibility for new acquisitions.

The development of IPv6 was to a large extent motivated by the concern that we are running out of 4-byte IPv4 address space. And indeed we are: projections in- dicate that the current IPv4 allocation system will collapse some time around 2011. (See ipv4.potaroo.net for a daily update.) Even so, mainstream adoption of IPv6 throughout the Internet is probably still not in the cards anytime soon.

More likely, another round of stopgap measures on the part of ISPs and ICANN (or more specifically, its subsidiary IANA, the Internet Assigned Numbers Au- thority) will extend the dominance of IPv4 for another few years. We expect to see wider use of IPv6 on the Internet backbone, but outside of large ISPs, academic sites involved in Internet research, and universal providers such as Google, our

APPLICATION TRANSPORT

NETWORK LINK PHYSICAL

LAYER LAYER LAYER LAYER LAYER

IP ICMP

ARP, device drivers

Copper, optical fiber, radio waves UDP TCP

DNS, Halo 3 traceroute SSH, FTP, HTTP

arp

3. A Google study presented at RIPE 57 in October 2008 indicated that overall IPv6 penetration (actual use, not capability) was 0.24%. No country had IPv6 penetration greater than 0.76%.

(3)

IP (Network layer) 的主要功能

!

1.

Forwarding: Router通常有多個interface (網卡)。把

packet從來源的interface移到目的地方向的interface並發 送出去叫做forwarding。!

一般client並不會開啟此一功能!!

2.

Routing: 找出往目的地方向的一條路徑。通常由routing algorithms/protocol決定。!

!

因為系上通常到特定的目的地都只有一條路徑,我們網管

的工作通常只會接觸到第一部分。

(4)

IP封包的格式(v4)

表示是否需要特殊處理(如即時的影像或聲音) v4 or v6

用來處理


fragmentation
 (想想MTU)

最多可以經過
 幾台機器(router)

Transport layer使 用的協定


(通常為TCP or UDP)

(5)

Where is IP packet?

Preamble

Start of frame delimiter

MAC destination

MAC source

Length (IEEE 802.

3)

802.1Q tag

(optional) Payload

Frame check sequence(3

2‑bit CRC) 7 octets 1 octet 6 octets 6 octets 2 octets (4 octets) 42–1500

octets 4 octets

Ethernet Frame

IP Packet is in 


Ethernet’s payload!

(6)

Typical Internet Packet

ptg

Maximum transfer unit 453

IP Networking

Exhibit B A typical network packet4

Ethernet framing

One of the main chores of the link layer is to add headers to packets and to put separators between them. The headers contain each packet’s link-layer addressing information and checksums, and the separators ensure that receivers can tell

where one packet stops and the next one begins. The process of adding these extra bits is known generically as framing.

The link layer is actually divided into two parts: MAC, the Media Access Control sublayer, and LLC, the Link Layer Control sublayer. The MAC layer deals with the media and transmits packets onto the wire. The LLC layer handles the framing.

Today, a single standard for Ethernet framing is in common use: DIX Ethernet II.

Historically, several slightly different standards based on IEEE 802.2 were also used, especially on Novell networks.

Maximum transfer unit

The size of packets on a network may be limited both by hardware specifications and by protocol conventions. For example, the payload of a standard Ethernet frame is traditionally 1,500 bytes. The size limit is associated with the link-layer protocol and is called the maximum transfer unit or MTU. Table 14.1 shows some typical values for the MTU.

4. For specificity, RFCs that describe protocols often use the term “octet” instead of “byte.”

Ethernet frame (146 bytes)

Ethernet

header IPv4

header UDP

header Application data

14 bytes 20 bytes 8 bytes

Ethernet CRC

4 bytes 100 bytes

IPv4 packet (128 bytes)

UDP packet (108 bytes)

Table 14.1 MTUs for various types of network

Network type Maximum transfer unit

Ethernet 1,500 bytes (1,492 with 802.2 framing)a

FDDI 4,470 bytes (4,352 for IP/FDDI)

Token ring Configurableb

PPP modem link Configurable, often 512 or 576 bytes Point-to-point WAN links (T1, T3) Configurable, often 1,500 or 4,500 bytes

a. See page 541 for some comments on “jumbo” Ethernet packets.

b. Common values are 552; 1,064; 2,088; 4,508; and 8,232. Sometimes 1,500 to match Ethernet.

(7)

IP Address (v4)

AAA.BBB.CCC.DDD (4 bytes) = ? # total hosts

Network + host address —> same network address == same network (subnet)

Class 1st byte Format Comments

A 1-127 N.H.H.H Very early networks

B 128-191 N.N.H.H Large sites 


(hard to get)

C 192-223 N.N.N.H Easy to get


(often obtained in sets)

D 224-239 - Multicast addresses

E 240-255 - Experimental addresses

Historical Internet Classes (no mask)

(8)

But this is inefficient

Most networks only have ~100 hosts

Class A & B addresses are wasted

Thus we need to find a way to further split the

networks! (subnetting)

(9)

Netmask

Netmask == 


32-bit number with leading 1’s + trailing 0’s

Digits mapped to 1’s —> network address
 Digits mapped to 0’s —> host address

Expressed as (a) 0xffffffc0 or (b) 255.255.255.192

ptg Tricks and tools for subnet arithmetic 459

IP Networking

Exhibit C Netmask base conversion

A /26 network has 6 bits left (32 – 26 = 6) to number hosts. 26 is 64, so the network has 64 potential host addresses. However, it can only accommodate 62 actual

hosts because the all-0 and all-1 host addresses are reserved (they are the network and broadcast addresses, respectively).

In our 128.138.243.0/26 example, the extra two bits of network address obtained by subnetting can take on the values 00, 01, 10, and 11. The 128.138.243.0/24 net- work has thus been divided into four /26 networks:

128.138.243.0/26 (0 in decimal is 00000000 in binary)

128.138.243.64/26 (64 in decimal is 01000000 in binary)

128.138.243.128/26 (128 in decimal is 10000000 in binary)

128.138.243.192/26 (192 in decimal is 11000000 in binary)

The boldfaced bits of the last byte of each address are the bits that belong to the network portion of that byte.

Tricks and tools for subnet arithmetic

It’s confusing to do all this bit twiddling in your head, but some tricks can make it simpler. The number of hosts per network and the value of the last byte in the

netmask always add up to 256:

last netmask byte = 256 – net size

For example, 256 – 64 = 192, which is the final byte of the netmask in the preced- ing example. Another arithmetic fact is that the last byte of an actual network

address (as opposed to a netmask) must be evenly divisible by the number of hosts per network. We see this fact in action in the 128.138.243.0/26 example, where the last bytes of the networks are 0, 64, 128, and 192—all divisible by 64.7 Given an IP address (say, 128.138.243.100), we cannot tell without the associated netmask what the network address and broadcast address will be. Table 14.3 on the next page shows the possibilities for /16 (the default for a class B address), /24 (a plausible value), and /26 (a reasonable value for a small network).

The network address and broadcast address steal two hosts from each network, so it would seem that the smallest meaningful network would have four possible

IP address

Decimal netmask Hex netmask

Binary netmask

128 138 243 0

255 f f

1111 1111

255 f f

1111 1111

255 f f

1111 1111

192 c 0

1100 0000

. . .

. . .

. . .

. . .

7. Of course, 0 counts as being divisible by any number…

(10)

Two Special Addresses

Network address 


= “network address” + “host address = 0”

Broadcast address


= “network address” + “host address = all 1’s”

(11)

Setting Interface Address

ifconfig -a —> display all interfaces

ifconfig eth0 192.168.25.1 netmask 255.255.255.0


—> set the IP and netmask of an interface

ifconfig eth0 up


—> enable the interface

ifconfig eth0 media auto 


—> set the media type to auto-sense

(12)

Why do we need to know the

“network address”?

Answer: we need to know if the destination host can be reached directly (in the same network).

How? Q: is the network address the same?

Question: what if it is not on the same newtwork?

Answer: we ask a host to relay for us.

Question: but, which host? 


(it has to be on the same network as us)

(13)

系上防火牆的Routing table (部分)

Routing Table:!

192.168.48.0 255.255.248.0 192.168.55.254!

192.168.219.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.219.254!

140.112.28.0 255.255.252.0 140.112.30.254!

0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 140.112.x.x 140.112.28.0/


255.255.252.0

140.112.30.254 192.168.55.254

192.168.48.0/


255.255.248.0

192.168.219.0/


255.255.255.0

192.168.219.254

(14)

How to represent 


a group of destination hosts?

CIDR == Classless Inter-Domain Routing

Borrowing the netmask idea:


IPs from192.144.0.0 to 192.144.7.0,


we can say 192.144.0.0/21 (21==255.255.248.0)

Any IP address falls in that “network” 


(though might not be a real network), can be

represented by that CIDR

(15)

Private IP

Private IP


==IPs that are not globally allocated to anyone

IP Class From To CIDR range

Class A 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 10.0.0.0/8

Class B 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 172.16.0.0/12

Class C 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 192.168.0.0/16

(16)

NAT (Network Address Translation)

門 : 140.112.91.208

只有一塊門 發給我們,怎麼辦 ?

馬撒起 菜瓜布

凱莉

小小郭

內部用: 192.168.0.2

內部用: 192.168.0.3

內部用: 192.168.0.4

內部用: 192.168.0.5

內部用門

:192.168.0.254 Src: 192.168.0.2!

Dest: 8.8.8.8

Src: 140.112.91.208!

Dest: 8.8.8.8 對照表:!

• 菜瓜布有連到8.8.8.8!

• 要找助教請轉到192.168.0.4

Src: 8.8.8.8!

Dest: 140.112.91.208 Src: 8.8.8.8!

Dest: 192.168.0.2

(17)

Routing Table

netstat -nr (不看hostname) or 
 netstat -r (看hostname)

!

route add default gw 140.112.30.254


—> all traffic not to local subnets goes to the gw

route add -net 132.236.220.64 netmask 255.255.255.192


—> all traffic that has destination address with the

described network address goes to 132.236.220.64

(18)

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

一些管理用的 息,用來通知client關於網路的狀況。!

常用的用途:!

1.

通知client此路不通。(Destination network/host/protocol/port unreachable or unknown)!

2.

Ping使用的echo request & reply!

!

!

!

!

!

!

3.

TTL expire (用來偵測或預防路徑中的loop或是traceroute使用)

(19)

Firewall

馬撒起 菜瓜布

凱莉

小小郭

Bit Torrent 封包

Firewall 規則表:!

1. 如果是小小郭的封 包,直接丟掉!

2. 如果是Bit Torrent 封 包,直接丟掉!

3. 如果是去以下IP address的封包 (x.x.x.x, y.y.y.y, z.z.z.z)直接丟掉!

4. 剩下的可以過

(20)

DNS (Domain Name Service)

一言以 之: 將名稱轉為IP的服務!

常見的轉換種類:!

Domain name -> IP (type A): 


! ntucsv.csie.ntu.edu.tw -> 140.112.30.28!

@domainname的mail server (type MX):


! csie.ntu.edu.tw -> ms.csie.ntu.edu.tw!

Domain name -> domain name (type CNAME):


! www.csie.ntu.edu.tw -> ntucsv.csie.ntu.edu.tw!

IP -> domain name (type PTR)


! 140.112.30.21 -> csman.csie.ntu.edu.tw!

可以多重宣告: 增加可靠度或分散性.!

例如www.google.com的A指到了6個IP!

(21)

分散式的架構: 分層負責 (recursive query)

csman.csie.ntu.edu.tw!

(Local DNS的角色)

Your Machine IP of www.ntu.edu.tw?

Root DNS

.tw NS!

(Top-level Domain 
 DNS server)

.edu.tw!

(Authoritative DNS Server)

.ntu.edu.tw!

(Authoritative DNS) 我不負責主管ntu.edu.tw!

請問負責.tw的機器

我負責主管ntu.edu.tw!

www.ntu.edu.tw=x.x.x.x

(22)

DNS的細節

!

如果local DNS本身主管被查詢的domain,則可以直接

回覆。!

例如140.112.30.21如果被查詢www.csie.ntu.edu.tw!

Local DNS可以暫存之前查詢過的結果。!

主要用來減輕主管DNS server及網路的負擔。!

每筆在主管DNS server上的紀錄都有對應的TTL值,規範可

以被占存多久。

(23)

/etc/resolv.conf

nameserver 140.112.30.21 nameserver 140.112.254.4 nameserver 140.112.2.2

search csie.ntu.edu.tw

search 


—> resolve incomplete names (linux1 —>

linux1.csie.ntu.edu.tw)

nameserver —> specify the address of the DNS server

(24)

DNS延伸閱讀

Top 10 DNS attacks:


http://www.networkworld.com/article/2886283/

security0/top-10-dns-attacks-likely-to-infiltrate-your- network.html#slide1

Distributed Reflection DoS attack

Cache poisoning / DNS hijacking (sol: DNSSEC)

TCP SYN floods

(25)

常用DNS指令

Examples:

dig @8.8.8.8 -t MX csie.ntu.edu.tw

dig @140.112.30.21 www.csie.ntu.edu.tw

(26)

課堂作業

找出linux1到www.nasa.gov經過了 些機器(domain name可) keyword: mtr, traceroute

找出csie.ntu.edu.tw和ntu.edu.tw的mail server們 (SMTP)的IP是什麼

答案請寄給hsinmu+wnfa16spring-0330@gmail.com

(27)

延伸閱讀

前講師(小小郭)的線上投影片:


http://xdlab.org/~math120908/slides/nettool.html#/

introduction-to-network-tools

參考文獻

相關文件

In taking up the study of disease, you leave the exact and certain for the inexact and doubtful and enter a realm in which to a great extent the certainties are replaced

We would like to point out that unlike the pure potential case considered in [RW19], here, in order to guarantee the bulk decay of ˜u, we also need the boundary decay of ∇u due to

Finally, we want to point out that the global uniqueness of determining the Hartree po- tential (Theorem 2.5) and the determination of the nonlinear potential in the

According to the historical view, even though the structure of the idea of Hua-Yen Buddhism is very complicated, indeed, we still believe that we can also find out the

In section29-8,we saw that if we put a closed conducting loop in a B and then send current through the loop, forces due to the magnetic field create a torque to turn the loopÆ

The case where all the ρ s are equal to identity shows that this is not true in general (in this case the irreducible representations are lines, and we have an infinity of ways

questions and we are dedicated to are dedicated to are dedicated to are dedicated to future research and development to bring you the future research and development to bring you the

It is useful to augment the description of devices and services with annotations that are not captured in the UPnP Template Language. To a lesser extent, there is value in