從優選理論分析華語擬聲詞結構 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學華語文教學碩士學位學程碩士論文 National Chengchi University Master’s Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language Master Thesis. 指導教授：蕭宇超博士 Advisor: Dr. Yuchau E. Hsiao. 立. 政治大. 從優選理論分析華語擬聲詞結構. ‧ 國. 學. An Optimality Theory Analysis of Mandarin Onomatopoeia. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 研究生：葉雯琪. i n U 撰. Student: Wenchi Yeh 中國民國一百年六月 June, 2011. v.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 致謝辭這本論文的完成，從起始的發想、語料的整理到撰寫成稿，需要感謝的人實在太多了。其中最讓我滿懷感激的就是我的指導老師蕭宇超教授。蕭老師是語言所的老師，但我並非語言所的學生；可是跟隨著老師學習音韻方面的知識時，我從未感到自己是一個局外人，而真切的是追求語言學中廣渺知識的一份子。不僅在論文方面蕭老師給予難以估量的指導，老師同樣非常鼓勵我其他面向的學術表現，並且分享許多他的人生經驗、處事態度，讓我了解到身為學生、身為社會上的一份子應當如何自處待人，所以我非常感謝老師的陶冶，我實在是受益良多。我還要感謝論文口試的兩位口試委員林蕙珊教授及吳瑾瑋教授。兩位老師在. 政治大. 口試過程中提出許多鞭辟入裡的評論，並且提供寶貴的修改建議，讓我清楚看見自己的盲點，在修改論文時能夠有更加清楚的概念與依據，使我的論文更加詳實且有說服力。另外我想要感謝語言所的何萬順老師、黃瓊之老師及語言所現任所長的徐嘉慧老師。在他們的課堂上，我得以窺見語言學浩瀚知識的冰山一角，真是要好好感激這些優秀的老師當我的領航員。. 立. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. 而華語文教學碩士學位學程的大家們也是功不可沒。感謝學程主任張上冠教授，正因他對於華語文教學的前瞻理念在本學程實務上的落實，我才能夠如此專心地學習華語語言學相關的一切；學程助教的翠雯學姐、惠君助教都在我的碩士生涯中提供很多協助，實在是非常感謝。我還要謝謝我在政大的好同學們，總是在我最需要鼓勵打氣時逗我笑。感謝. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. n. 齡文、育婷，我很珍惜我們從大學就開始的緣分，也感激無論碰到甚麼狀況你們都願意聽我傾訴。還有跟我同門的子權、啟美還有淨涵，我會永遠懷念和你們一起上課念 paper 討論問題的時光。我還要感謝明德、昱夫跟亦儒，沒有你們的陪伴，我的研究生生涯必然失色不少。你們無論我是喜是悲，總是陪伴在我身邊，並付出你們的關懷，我實在太感謝你們了。. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 最後要感謝的就是我的家人，不論我的決定為何，你們總是無條件地支持我，我會永遠珍惜你們對我的愛跟期許，感謝老爸、老媽、阿姨、老弟跟老妹，而我也希望我會將我最好的愛留給你們。. iv.

(4) VITA EDUCATION . . 9/2004-6/2008 National Chengchi University, Taiwan B.A. in Chinese Literature; also Minor in Japanese 9/2008-7/2011 National Chengchi University, Taiwan M.A. in Master‘s Program in Teaching Chinese as Second Language (In progress). PUBLICATION Conference Presentation . 政治大. . 11/2009 ‗A Phonological Analysis of Disyllabic Mandarin Onomatopoeia‘ 42nd International Conference of Sino-Tibetan Language and Linguistics (42nd ICSTLL) Payap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand 12/2009. . ‗The Monosyllabic and Disyllabic Inputs of Disyllabic Mandarin Onomatopoeia: an OT Perspective‘ Mao Kong Forum- 1st International Graduate Student Conference on Modern Phonology. National Chenchi University, Taipei city, Taiwan 12/2009. . ‗The Reduplication of Mandarin Onomatopoeia- Disyllabic and Quadrisyllabic Ones‘ 9th World Conference on Chinese Language Teaching. World Chinese Language Association, Taipei City, Taiwan 11/2010. . ‗Alignment and Adjacency in Mandarin Quadrisyllabic Onomatopoeia‘ Western Conference on Linguistics 2010 (WECOL 2010) California State University Fresno, CA, U.S.A 06/2011 ‗Alignment, Anchoring and Adjacency in Mandarin Trisyllabic Onomatopoeia‘. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 23rd North American Conference on Chinese Linguistic, University of Oregon, OR, U.S.A (Accepted) Conference Proceeding Papers . 12/2009 v.

(5) ‗The Reduplication of Mandarin Onomatopoeia- Disyllabic and Quadrisyllabic Ones‘ 9th World Chinese Language Teaching Conference Collection Volume 1-. . Language Analysis, 1-35~1-61. Taipei: World Chinese Language Association. ISBN: 978-986-83847-1-2 (In Chinese) 11/2010 ‗Alignment and Adjacency in Mandarin Quadrisyllabic Onomatoppoeia‘ Western Conference on Linguistics 2010 (WECOL 2010) Online Proceedings (Under construction). GRANTS AND SCHOLARSHIP  Second Semester/2009 Graduate Student Scholarship. ‧. 2009-2011 Theoretical Phonology Laboratory Assistantship 2008-2010 Master‘s Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language Assistantship. io. sit. y. Nat. . 學. . 立. n. al. er. . 政治大. Second Semester/2010 Graduate Student Scholarship 11/2011 Travel Grant of National Chengchi University to attend to the Western Conference on Linguistics 2010, California State University Fresno, CA, U.S.A.. ‧ 國. . Ch. engchi. vi. i n U. v.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................ iv VITA......................................................................................................................... v CHINESE ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... xi ENGLISH ABSTRACT .......................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1. 治政大 1.2. Mandarin core lexicon and Mandarin onomatopoeia reduplication ..... 3 立 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 6 Reduplication of Mandarin onomatopoeia .......................................... 2. 2.1.. Optimality Theory .............................................................................. 6. ‧ 國. 學. 1.1.. Basic concept of OT ........................................................................... 6. 2.1.2.. Constraint family in OT...................................................................... 8. 2.1.3. Cophonology...................................................................................... 9. 2.1.4. The emergence of the unmarked ....................................................... 10. ‧. 2.1.1.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. i n U. v. 2.2.. Mandarin Chinese reduplication and Mandarin onomatopoeia .......... 10. 2.3.. Reduplication in Optimality Theory ................................................. 13. Ch. engchi. 3. MANDARIN DISYLLABIC AND TRISYLLABIC ONOMATOPOEIA............ 16 3.1. Mandarin Disyllabic Onomatopoeia ................................................. 16. 3.1.1. Some background information .......................................................... 16. 3.1.2. The description of reduplication data of Mandarin disyllabic. onomatopoeia ................................................................................................... 16 3.1.2.1 3.1.2.2. AA Mandarin onomatopoeia .............................................. 16 AB Mandarin onomatopoeia .............................................. 22. 3.1.3. Categories of Disyllabic Mandarin Onomatopoeia ............................ 28. 3.1.4. Analysis of Monosyllabic Input ........................................................ 29 vii.

(7) 3.1.4.1. Generalized alignment constraint ...................................... 30 3.1.4.2. Anchoring constraint………………………………………31 3.1.4.3. Adjacnecy constraint ......................................................... 31 3.1.4.4 Total Reduplication of AA ................................................. 32 3.1.4.5 Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of AA Mandarin onomatopoeia ................................................................................... 34 3.1.4.6 AB Mandarin Onomatopoeia— Consonant + /l/ ................. 34 3.1.4.7 Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of AB Consonant+/l/ Mandarin onomatopoeia ................................................................... 38 3.1.4.8 AB Same Onset Collocation Mandarin Onomatopoeia ....... 38 3.1.4.9 Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of AB Same Onset Collocation Mandarin onomatopoeia ................................................ 41 3.1.4.10 Cophonology in monosyllable input Mandarin disyllabic. 政治大 Analysis of Disyllabic Input ............................................................. 42 立 onomatopoeia ................................................................................... 42. 3.1.5. Summary.......................................................................................... 45. ‧. 3.2. ‧ 國. 3.1.6. AA Original Disyllable ...................................................... 42 Sound combination in AB Mandarin onomatopoeia ........... 44. 學. 3.1.5.1 3.1.5.2. Mandarin Trisyllabic Onomatopoeia ................................................ 46. Nat. 3.2.2. The description of the reduplication data of Mandarin trisyllabic. er. sit. y. Some Background Information ......................................................... 46. io. 3.2.1. al. onomatopoeia ................................................................................................... 46. n. v i n C h onomatopoeiaU............................................ 47 ABB Mandarin e onomatopoeia g c h i ........................................... 49 AAB Mandarin n. 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.3. The input claim of Mandarin trisyllabic onomatopoeia ..................... 50. 3.2.4. Constraints for Mandarin trisyllabic onomatopoeia reduplication ..... 51. 3.2.5. Analysis of ABB Mandarin onomatopoeia ....................................... 52 3.2.5.1 3.2.5.2. Consonant+/l/ and Stop+stop groups .................................. 52 Other AB patterns input forms and its ABB generation. prediction ......................................................................................... 54 3.2.5.3 Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of ABB Mandarin onomatopoeia ................................................................................... 57 3.2.6. Analysis of AAB Mandarin onomatopoeia ....................................... 58 3.2.6.1. Same Onset Collocation group ........................................... 58 viii.

(8) 3.2.6.2 Other AB patterns input forms and their AAB generation prediction ......................................................................................... 59 3.2.6.3 Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of AAB Mandarin onomatopoeia ................................................................................... 63 3.2.7. Summary.......................................................................................... 63. 4. MANDARIN QUADRISYLLABIC ONOMATOPOEIA .................................... 66 4.1 4.1.1. 4.2.. Mandarin Quadrisyllabic Onomatopoeia .......................................... 66 Some background information .......................................................... 66 The description of reduplication data of Mandarin quadrisyllabic. onomatopoeia ...................................................................................................... 67. 4.2.2. 4.2.3.. AlBl Mandarin onomatopoeia .......................................................... 73. 學. 4.3.. 政治大 AABB Mandarin onomatopoeia ....................................................... 71 立 ABAB Mandarin onomatopoeia ....................................................... 67. ‧ 國. 4.2.1.. The input claim of Mandarin quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia ............... 75 The input of ABAB and AABB Mandarin onomatopoeia ................. 75. 4.3.2.. The input of AABB and AlBl Mandarin onomatopoeia .................... 76. 4.3.3.. The /l/ segment as second and fourth onset of AlBl Mandarin. ‧. 4.3.1.. sit. y. Nat. al. n. 4.4.. er. io. onomatopoeia ................................................................................................... 77. i n U. v. Constraints for Mandarin quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia reduplication 77. Ch. engchi. 4.4.1.. Generalized alignment constraint...................................................... 77. 4.4.2. Anchoring Constraint………………………………………………..78. 4.4.3.. Adjacency constraint ........................................................................ 78. 4.5.. Analysis of ABAB Mandarin onomatopoeia ..................................... 78. 4.5.1.. Consonant+/l/ group ......................................................................... 79. 4.5.2.. Same onset collocation group ........................................................... 80. 4.5.3.. Sound combination group................................................................. 81. 4.5.4. Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of ABAB Mandarin. onomatopoeia ................................................................................................... 84 4.6. Analysis of AABB Mandarin onomatopoeia ..................................... 84 ix.

(9) 4.6.1. Same onset collocation group ........................................................... 85. 4.6.2. Sound combination group ................................................................. 86. 4.6.3. Obstruent +affricate/fricative group .................................................. 87. 4.6.4. The prediction of other AB Mandarin onomatopoeia groups ............. 87. 4.6.5. Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of AABB Mandarin. onomatopoeia ................................................................................................... 90 4.7 4.7.1. Analysis of AlBl Mandarin onomatopoeia ........................................ 90 Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of AlBl Mandarin onomatopoeia 94. 4.7.2 4.8. 政治大 Summary.......................................................................................... 94 立 Other AB Mandarin onomatopoeia ................................................... 94. 5. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 97. ‧ 國. 學. NOTE ....................................................................................................................101. ‧. REFERENCES.......................................................................................................107. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. x. i n U. v.

(10) 國. 立. 政. 治. 大. 學. 研. 究. 所. 碩. 士. 論. 文. 摘. 要. 研究所所別：華語文教學碩士學位學程論文名稱：從優選理論分析華語擬聲詞結構指導教授：蕭宇超研究生：葉雯琪論文摘要內容：(共 676 字) 本計畫擬於優選理論 (Prince & Smolensky 1993/2004) 框架下，探討現代華語擬聲詞在音韻上的特點與表現，並分析優選理如何論操作單音節及雙音節輸入項所衍生出的雙音節擬聲詞，進而完全或部分重疊成三音節及四音節華語擬聲詞。擬聲詞為模仿自然界中的聲音形成的詞彙，但並非隨意衍生形成，仍然需要. 政治大研究方面，歷來學者對於擬聲詞的討論並不豐富詳盡，因此本碩士論文便嘗試探立. 遵循語言的構詞及音韻規律，才能衍生成為合法詞彙並順暢地使用。在華語音韻. ‧ 國. 學. 討華語雙音節、三音節及四音節擬聲詞在音韻分析中的樣貌。重疊在漢語擬聲詞中為極為常見的現象。如現代華語中單音節的「咕」與雙. ‧. 音節的「咕咕」；雙音節的「滴答」與四音節的「滴滴答答」。故擬聲詞衍生中. sit. y. Nat. 的重疊機制為本計畫中主要討論議題，此外由於華語擬聲詞結構在音段選擇中展. al. er. io. 現一致性，故另聚焦於固定音段，如邊音/l/及前元音/i/在現代華語擬聲詞中高. v. n. 度頻繁地出現，我將對其起源提出假設並分析，如現代華語「劈哩啪啦」的/l/. Ch. engchi. i n U. 及/i/。而華語雙音節擬聲詞的來源二分為單音節輸入項及雙音節輸入項亦為討論對象。最後預期華語擬聲詞大致符合現代華語成詞的語法，但進行重疊時與實詞相異，語意因素不會成為衍生動機；經由優選理論分析，從音韻結構角度切入，不僅可了解華語擬聲詞衍生的制約排序，亦更加了解其音韻構詞規範，且與實詞如形容詞進行重疊時的制約排序進行比較，說明華語擬聲詞在衍生過程中傾向遵循邊緣音韻規則，與其他實詞多依據核心音韻. 規則的狀況大異其趣。以此為基石. 去了解其他漢語方言對於擬聲成詞的標準，甚或研究日語、韓語中豐富的擬聲詞，便能構擬出擬聲成詞更具體且具有說服力的語法規則。 xi.

(11) ABSTRACT In this thesis, the generation of Modern Mandarin disyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia under phonological viewpoint via Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolensky 1993/2004) approach will be discussed. In my M.A. Thesis ‗An OT analysis of Mandarin Onomatopoeia‘, four factors motivated this study. First, the different sources of Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia which I thought there are monosyllabic and disyllabic inputs aroused my interests. Second, there are some similarities of Mandarin onomatopoeia between Mandarin core lexicons. Third, the. 政治大 this study. For example, in 立 Modern Mandarin ‗gu‘ (Sound of bird sing once) will. reduplication mechanism in Mandarin onomatopoeia will be taken as a main point in. ‧ 國. 學. extend into ‗gugu‘ (Sound of birdsong) under total reduplication. Finally, the issue concerning what will be the best choice when Mandarin onomatopoeia is reduplicated. ‧. with fixed segmentism also plays an important role in this study. For instance, the /l/. sit. y. Nat. and /i/ in Modern Mandarin‘s ‗pilipala‘ (Sound of many things falling).. n. al. er. io. Onomatopoeias have their special function as sound-imitating icons. They are not the. i n U. v. words which are formed by arbitrary but by the rules. They sometimes violate. Ch. engchi. phonological structures of the language in which they occur; hence they belong to the peripheral phonology rather than core one. The Mandarin onomatopoeia is different from Mandarin content words; they are not motivated by semantic factors. So the Chinese onomatopoeia generation analysis via OT approach supplies not only the morpho-phonological constraints but also the comparison of peripheral words between content words. I would like to assume that the Mandarin onomatopoeia generation follows the peripheral phonological rules. This study will provide as a basement to study on other Chinese language‘s onomatopoeia or even onomatopoeia in Tibetan, Japanese and Korean. xii.

(12) 1. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This thesis investigates Mandarin onomatopoeia in three patterns, disyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic structures. It records and analyzes the different forms of the reduplication process in these patterns. The elicited data are accounted for in terms of the Optimality Theory (OT). Onomatopoeia is special part in Modern Chinese. It imitates sounds happened in the world then generate into words so that there is direct relation between sounds and. 政治大. words. Ma (2002) proposed that Mandarin onomatopoeia is the sounds of things,. 立. action and changes rather than the words that refer to things, actions and changes.. ‧ 國. 學. However, Mandarin onomatopoeia not only mimics but also obeys the rules of Mandarin Chinese. If Mandarin onomatopoeia is generated without following the. ‧. rules of Mandarin Chinese, they will not be taken as grammatical items. Therefore,. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. daily language use.. sit. there must be rules in Mandarin onomatopoeia since they are very active character in. i n U. v. Reduplication is a special type of morphological construction. It is generally regarded. Ch. engchi. as a process which combines aspects of both phonology and morphology. It contains two parts with at least some identical segmental content. One part is called the base, which directly inherits the phonemic melodies from the input, usually the stem. The other part is the reduplicant, which copies and duplicates the phonological content from the base. Reduplication not only involves affixation, both with respect to morpho-syntactic structure and with respect to the segments in the stem, but also a process of copying both segmental and prosodic features from the base to the reduplicant. Conventionally, there are two basic types of reduplication, total and partial reduplication. Total reduplication refers to the total copying of the reduplicant.

(13) 2. from the base; in partial reduplication, only part of the base is duplicated (Katamba, 1993). (1) Total reduplication:. ABCDE. →. ABCDE-ABCDE. Partial reduplication. ABCDE. →. AB-ABCED, ABC-ABCDE, etc.. (The underlined portion refers to the reduplicant; This notation is used throughout this thesis.). 政治大 1.1. Reduplication of Mandarin onomatopoeia 立. ‧ 國. 學. After observing Mandarin onomatopoeia we can find that many of them are generated through the process of reduplication. Most Mandarin onomatopoeia undergoes total. ‧. reduplication while a limited number undergo the process of partial reduplication. io →. al. n. A. (3). y. sit. Total reduplication. er. (2). Nat. process. Examples are given below.. AA. CABB hengchi. AB. →. AB. →. AAB. AB. →. ABAB. AB. →. AABB. i n U. Partial reduplication C1V1. →. C1 iC1V1. C1C2V1. →. C1V1C2V1. C1V1C2V2. →. C1V1 lV1C2V2 lV2. v.

(14) 3. In total reduplication in Mandarin onomatopoeia, the reduplicant syllable can be related to the base syllable completely. In addition, almost every reduplicant is next to the base undergoes rightward reduplication. The rightward reduplication copies at least one syllable of the base and the reduplicant is affixed toward the right edge of the prosodic word (Chang 1998, Adelaar 2000, etc). Nevertheless, there is one reduplicant A which in ABAB pattern does not undergo rightward reduplication. It will be discussed in a later section with an explanation.. 政治大 segmentism in reduplication, where the /i/ and /l/ always emerges as the nucleus and 立 Partial reduplication of Mandarin onomatopoeia represents a case of fixed. onset of the reduplicant.. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 1.2. Mandarin core lexicon and Mandarin onomatopoeia reduplication. sit. y. Nat. Onomatopoeia is taken as a peripheral part in Mandarin Chinese. Mandarin. io. er. onomatopoeia has special characteristics compared with core lexicon such as nouns, verbs and adjectives. The characteristics can be shown in the reduplication process. al. n. v i n C h Also, the characteristics and are the central point in this thesis. similar to core lexicon engchi U shown in reduplication are the main issue in my analysis.. In Mandarin Chinese, reduplication takes the form of a total one, which is also one of the most common morphological operations. Reduplication may mark plurality but also has other semantic or pragmatic effects. Much previous research looked not only into the semantic, grammatical and syntactic functions in the reduplication of Mandarin verbs and adjectives, but also at the formal aspects of the reduplication of the Mandarin core lexicon. However, the formal analysis of Mandarin onomatopoeia reduplication has not been treated with the proper attention. The principle and mechanisms proposed in previous studies for the reduplication of.

(15) 4. Mandarin verbs and adjectives, as well as the account of Mandarin onomatopoeia formation presented below will reveal theoretically significant similarities among OT analysis. The morphological difference between the Mandarin core lexicon and Mandarin onomatopoeia also deserves special attention. Unlike adjective and verb reduplication, Mandarin onomatopoeia involves fixed segmentism during the process of reduplication. As a consequence, a fixed segmentism in the reduplication process is required to generate well-formed Mandarin onomatopoeia. This research project will be implemented in a step-by-step manner. First I will. 政治大 Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeias will be assumed the source of monosyllabic ones. 立 analyze how Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia is generated. The input of partial. The input for other Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia will be supposed as different. ‧ 國. 學. disyllabic forms. Then the Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia will be taken as the. ‧. input to generate trisyllabic patterns. Because there are two structures for Mandarin. sit. y. Nat. trisyllabic onomatopoeia, together with two distinct forms of analysis will be provided.. io. er. Finally, the Mandarin quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia is also generated from disyllabic ones. There are three different patterns in Mandarin quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia, and. n. al. i n three different explanations for C generation will be given. hengchi U (4). v. Generation process of Mandarin onomatopoeia Mandarin onomatopoeia Monosyllabic pattern. Disyllabic pattern. Disyllabic pattern. Trisyllabic pattern. Quadrisyllabic pattern. This thesis consists of four chapters and is organized as follows. Chapter 2 reviews.

(16) 5. previous works on Mandarin onomatopoeia, Mandarin reduplication and the theoretical background related to Mandarin onomatopoeia and reduplication. Chapter 3 discusses the generation of Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia and will provide an explanation of the various structures of the disyllabic patterns. The fixed segmentism in reduplication process will be major issue also. Moreover, how Mandarin disyllabic Mandarin extends into trisyllabic ones will be analyzed in Chapter 3 as well. Chapter 4 describes the process of the generation of Mandarin quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia. Three different structures used in the reduplication of Mandarin quadrisyllabic. 政治大 quadrisyllabic pattern analysis will also be studied in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 sums up 立 onomatopoeia‘s will be looked at. The fixed segmentism and the input form for. the phonological analysis of Mandarin onomatopoeia. This thesis also illustrates the. ‧ 國. 學. categories and phonological structures of Mandarin onomatopoeia. Chapter 5. ‧. summarizes the similarities and difference in core lexicon and onomatopoeia in. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Mandarin Chinese investigated as well as the solutions under OT.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(17) 6. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter contains three sections. Section 1 reviews the Optimality Theory (OT). Section 2 provides information from previous studies on reduplication in Mandarin Chinese and on Mandarin onomatopoeia. Section 3 discusses reduplication under OT and the constraints used. 2.1. Optimality Theory 2.1.1. Basic concept of OT. 政治大. Optimality Theory, which was first introduced by Prince and Smolensky (Prince &. 立. Smolensky 1993/2004; McCarthy & Prince 1993a, 1993b, 1994, 1995, 1999), has. ‧ 國. 學. aroused great interest in the study of phonology. OT is a development of Generative Grammar, a theory sharing its focus on the formal description and quest for universal. ‧. principles on the basis of empirical research of linguistic typology and language. y. Nat. io. sit. acquisition. However, OT radically differs from the generative model and has the. n. al. er. central idea that surface forms of language reflect resolutions of conflicts between. i n U. constraints. The five basic tenets of OT are given below.. Ch. engchi. (5) Principles of Optimality Theory a.. v. Universality UG provides a set Con of constraints that are universal and universally present in all grammars.. b.. Violability Constraints are violable; but violation is minimal.. c.. Ranking.

(18) 7. The constraints of Con are ranked on a language-particular basis; the notion of minimal violation is defined in terms of this ranking. A grammar is a ranking of the constraints set. d.. Inclusiveness The constraints hierarchy evaluates a set of candidates analyzes that are admitted by very general considerations of structural well-formedness.. e.. Parallelism Best-satisfaction of the constraint hierarchy is computed over the whole. 政治大 are consistent with a-d, as well) 立. hierarchy and the whole candidate set. There is no serial derivation. (Other views. Universality is essential to the emergence of the unmarked (TETU), one of the main. ‧ 國. 學. points in this thesis. Since structural constraints are universal and present in every. ‧. grammar, even those that are obviously and commonly violated in a given language. sit. y. Nat. are predicted to be available to do their work under appropriate conditions. It needs to. io. er. be noticed that Universality is hopeless without Violability and Ranking, in the face of the diversity of inter-linguistic variation seen in linguistic systems.. al. n. v i n These principles must figure in C a particular conceptionUof how grammar is organized. hengchi Universal grammar must minimally provide the following:. Con. The set of constraints out of which grammars are constructed. Gen. A function defining for each possible input i, the range of candidate linguistic analyzes available to i. Eval. A function that comparatively evaluate sets of forms with respect to a given constraint Γ, a ranking of Con. The following schema sketches the way input-output pairing is accomplished using these notions. Suppose we have a grammarΓ m, the mth ranking of Con, and an input ini — a lexical entry, if we are looking at word phonology..

(19) 8. (6). Schema for an OT grammar Gen (ini) = {cand1, cand2, …} Eval (Γm , {cand1, cand2, …} ) → (candk). This grammar pairs input ini with output candk. The function Gen emits a set of candidate analyzes consistent with a given input. Gen consists of a very broad principle of linguistic forms, essentially limited to those that define the representational primitives and their most basic modes of combinations. Eval deals with a system of ranked constraintsΓ: a formal construction on Con that. 政治大 set in terms of their relative harmony, or degree of success with respect to the 立. yields the grammar of an individual language. It rates the members of the candidate. language‘s ranking Γ of constraints. It imposes an order on the various candidates,. ‧ 國. 學. and a maximally harmonic candidate is optimal. Such a candidate best-satisfies or. ‧. minimally violates the grammar‘s constraint ranking. It is output associated by the. sit. y. Nat. grammar with the specific input ini. The various non-optimal candidates have no. io. er. grammatical status; no direct inferences about plausible patterns of variation or historical changes can be drawn from their ordering. The constraint ranking for the. al. n. v i n C hfrom that of Mandarin Mandarin core lexicon is different onomatopoeia so that they engchi U have various phonological structures. 2.1.2. Constraint family in OT Before coming to the discussion of actual constraints and their ranking in a specific situation, let us first find out in a general way about the five major forces embodied by constraints. a.. Faithfulness Constraint. It requires that outputs preserve the properties of their basic forms, requiring some kind of similarity between output and its input.. b.. Markedness Constraint. It is a general denominator for grammatical factors that exert pressure toward unmarked types of structure. The markedness constraint.

(20) 9. requires that the output forms meet some criterion of structural well-formedeness. c.. Generalized Alignment Constraint. It was developed in the analysis of relation between syntactic constituents and prosodic phrases (McCarthy & Prince 1993b; Kager 1999). Generalized Alignment Constraint serves the match between the edge of various linguistic constituents in prosodic category and grammatical category.. d.. Anchoring Constraint (McCarthy & Prince 1993a, 1995a, b). It is member of the. 政治大 The anchoring constraint serves to ensure that a certain edge of the reduplicant 立. Faithfulness constraint family and be taken as positional faithfulness constraint.. will correspond to a certain edge of the base.. ‧ 國. 學. e.. Adjacency Constraint. Kitto & de Lacy (1999) proposed the BE-ADJACENCY. ‧. constraint and tried to account for the tendency of copied epenthetic segments to. sit. y. Nat. be near the segment form which they have copied their features. ADJACENCYBR. io. er. requires the same of reduplicant segments. Thus, there potentially is a family of ADJACENCY constraints which are restricted to an output relation only, as any. al. n. v i n ADJACENCY requirement inCthe input-output (IO)U h e n g c h i domain would be nonsensical.. 2.1.3 Cophonology. The cophonology approach, developed in Orgun (1996) and Anttila (1997), and much subsequent work, holds that within a single language there can be co-existing distinct phonological systems, indexed to such components of language as register, lexical class, morphological category, and most conspicuously in the context of this thesis, individual morphological construction. The cophonology approach‘s diversity is captured by associating morphological constructions or lexical classes with different phonological grammars, i.e., constraint rankings. All constraints within a given cophonology are fully general (e.g., MAX, the ban on deletion, or *COMP-ONSET, the.

(21) 10. ban on complex onset); and morphonological differentiation of phonological patterns results from different ranking of the constraints across cophonologies. In Mandarin onomatopoeia, several morphological constructions can occur and the same input form can generate various output forms. This phenomenon can be explained by a cophonology approach since there are many phonological grammar/constraint rankings in the generation of Mandarin onomatopoeia. 2.1.4 The emergence of the unmarked Under the OT rubric of the emergence of the unmarked (McCarthy and Prince, 1994a),. 政治大 while permitting the corresponding marked structure to occur elsewhere in the 立. which provides a way to allow only unmarked structures in a domain like reduplicant. fixed, default segment, decreases phonological markedness.. 學. ‧ 國. language. The idea is that non-copying of a base segment, with substitution of some. ‧. If a given markedness constraint M crucially dominates an appropriate faithfulness. sit. y. Nat. constraint F (and no constraint dominating M somehow vitiates its force), then no. io. er. M-offending structure will appear in a surface form, even at the expense of imperfectly reproducing some underlying forms. If we rank constraints in the other. al. n. v i n C h so that the M-offending way and faithfulness takes precedence, structure can be found engchi U in surface forms. Differences in ranking give differences in activity of markedness. constraints, so it is possible to say that every constraint is present in the grammar of every language, though if a constraint is crucially dominated, its activity may be limited or non-existent. The limited but nonetheless visible activity of dominated markedness constraints is essential to the theory of fixed segmentism (Alderete et al. 1999).. 2.2. Mandarin Chinese reduplication and Mandarin onomatopoeia A typical word in Chinese, including Mandarin, is not made of component parts but is.

(22) 11. a single morpheme. Therefore, Chinese has been referred as an isolating language because of its general less complexity in word formation. Due to this simplicity in Mandarin word structure, the reduplication process, which is regarded as a kind of affixation, morphologically turns out to be a copy operation of the original morpheme as a whole. Similarly, from a phonological view point, segmental content is copied from the base form as well. The purpose of reduplication, a common phenomenon in Mandarin Chinese, is to give a more vivid meaning to the original adjective (Chao, 1968) or else modify its degree. 政治大 reduplication, such as with Mandarin adjectives. On the other hand, they also reduce 立 of intensity or reduction. Mandarin lexicons increase the degree of intensity by. the degree of intensity by reduplication, such as with Mandarin verbs. Examples of. ‧ 國. 學. reduplication in the Mandarin core lexicons, such as for total reduplication are given. Reduplication of nouns (kinship terms). y. Nat. ge-ge. 哥哥. ‗elder brother‘. ye-ye. 爺爺. ‗paternal grandpa‘. al. n. (8). io. 爸爸. Ch. ma-ma. 媽媽. di-di. 弟弟. iv. n 奶奶 U engchi nai-nai. ‗mother‘. sit. ‗father‘. ba-ba. er. (7). ‧. below (Chen, 2007).. Reduplication of measure words. jian-jian yifu. 件件衣服. ‗every dress‘. zuo-zuo shan. 座座山. ‗every mountain‘. zhang-zhang zhi. 張張紙. ‗every sheet of paper‘. ke-ke shu. 棵棵樹. ‗every tree‘. ‗younger brother‘ ‗paternal grandma‘.

(23) 12. (9). Reduplication of verbs. shou-shou. 說說. ‗say a little‘. zou-zou. 走走. ‗walk a little‘. piping-piping. 批評批評. ‗criticize a little‘. zhuyi-zhuyi. 注意注意. ‗pay a little attention‘. (10). Reduplication of adjectives. hong de. 紅的. ‗red‘. chengshi. 誠實. ‗honest‘ cheng-cheng-shi-shi. hong-hong de. 立. 紅紅的. 誠誠實實政治大. ‗very red‘ ‗very honest‘. To take the reduplication of Mandarin adjectives as an example, it may occur as. ‧ 國. 學. disyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic compounds— may seen to be highly diverse.. ‧. The generalization for Mandarin disyllabic reduplication made by Lien (1989) and. sit. y. Nat. Tang (1988) is that co-ordinate compounds are the most productive types. However,. io. er. Chiang (1992) pointed out that there are more Mandarin words than co-ordinated compounds can be productively reduplicated to the same extent. Chiang also claimed. al. n. v i n C h reduplication as U that all affixes in Mandarin adjective suffixes which are attached to engchi. the prosodic base, in contrary to the traditional assumption that affixes can be taken as infixes and prefixes under the model of prosodic morphology. The previous researches on Mandarin onomatopoeia focused on rhetoric, lexical category and syntactic structure, such as Wang (1985) who studied Mandarin onomatopoeia in a rhetorical degree and did not take it as a lexical category. Only recently have some researchers, such as Zhu (1995) and Li (2007), mentioned the phonological character of Mandarin onomatopoeia. Zhu noticed the large numbers of /l/ as onset in Mandarin onomatopoeia and other Chinese dialects. Except for the traditional statement, Li proposed statistics for Mandarin onomatopoeia. She provided.

(24) 13. the information that there are many stops in Mandarin onomatopoeia as well as numerous laterals shown as onset in the even syllable. However, there needs to be an analysis to explain these special phonological structures. Chiang(1992) proposed that onomatopoeia sometimes violate phonological structure of the language in which they occur due to their special function as sound-imitating icons, hence they belong to the peripheral rather than core phonology. The formation of Mandarin onomatopoeia is identical to that of the Mandarin core lexicons. Nevertheless, Mandarin onomatopoeias involve fixed material at the segment level.. 政治大 onomatopoetic words. That process is assumed to be Melodic Overwriting here 立 As s consequence, a replacement process is required to generate well-formed. (McCarthy and Prince, 1990). When Melodic Overwriting happens, the. ‧ 國. 學. Recoverability Principle and the Strong Domain Hypothesis also work in the. 2.3. Reduplication in Optimality Theory. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Grammar rather than Mandarin-specific rules.. ‧. reduplication process as well so that Mandarin onomatopoeia follows Universal. n. v i n C hof view, reduplication From a purely morphological point is simply a kind of engchi U affixation, both in its morpho-syntactic contribution (it forms morphological categories, such as plural), and in its linear position with respect to the stem (preceding it, as a prefix, or following it, as a suffix). But from a phonological viewpoint, the special property of reduplication is that the reduplication affix is not fully specified for segment content. Its segment content is copied from the stem that undergoes reduplication. Reduplication is therefore by its very nature a phenomenon involving the phonological identity between the reduplicant and the base to which it adjoins. The Correspondence Theory of reduplication, which was put forward by McCarthy.

(25) 14. and Prince (McCarthy & Prince 1994a, b, 1995a,b), claims that reduplication patterns arise from the interaction of three constraint types. a.. Well-formedness constraints, encoding markednss principles. b.. Faithfulness constraints, requiring lexical forms and surface forms to be identical. c.. Base-reduplicant-identity constraints, requiring identity between the reduplicant and its base.. In ranking these three types of constraints, Correspondence Theory aims to explain the broad typological difference and similarities among patterns of reduplication in. 政治大 Correspondence Theory tries to manifest the interaction of well-formedness, 立 world languages, as well as the specific patterns of individual languages.. faithfulness and base-reduplicant identity underlying the patterns of reduplication in. ‧ 國. 學. some languages.. ‧. This model, as depicted in Figure (1), has an input and output level. The input of the. sit. y. Nat. reduplication consists of a segmentally empty reduplicative affix, which is. io. er. abbreviated as Af RED or RED, plus the stem to which the affix adjoins. Input faithfulness constraints require that the input specifications of the stem be preserved. al. n. v i n in the output— the ‗base‘ of theC base-reduplicant combination. Base-reduplicant hengchi U. identity constraints require that both parts of this output base-reduplicant combination be identical in some respect. (11). The Basic Model Input:. /Af RED +Stem/ IO-Faithfulness. Output:. R. B. Not shown in this model are that two remaining constraint types which come into play in reduplication. Well-formedness constraints require that the output (base reduplicant) meet certain unmarked structures. Alignment constraints require that base and.

(26) 15. reduplicant be ‗glued‘ together along the edge of specific prosodic constituents. In this thesis there are two general categories of constraints— Faithfulness and Markedness constraints. There are three sub-categories of Faithfulness constraints. The first one is the Maxmality (MAX) constraint, which asks that the content of every input must correspond to the content of every output without deletion. The second one is the Dependency (DEP) constraint, which requires that the content of every input must correspond to the content of every output without insertion. The third one is the Identity (IDENT) constraint, which asks that every feature or value in content of the. 政治大. input and of the output must be identical without change (Prince & Smolemsky 1995, 1999).. 立. In this thesis I will analyze Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia first, and then discuss. ‧ 國. 學. Mandarin trisyllabic onomatopoeia, and then Mandarin quadrisyllabic onomatopoeia.. ‧. The reduplication data of Mandarin disyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic. sit. y. Nat. onomatopoeia are collected from Li‘s research (2007) and The Online Mandarin. io. er. Dictionary of the Ministry of Education. The selected Mandarin onomatopoeia will be serach on Google for their official and non-official use in Modern Mandarin-speaking. al. n. v i n world and the numbers of resultsCare shown in tables in h e n g c h i Ulater chapters. Those. Mandarin onomatopoeias are as welll taken as items for analysis and discussed under OT grammar..

(27) 16. CHAPTER 3 MANDARIN DISYLLABIC AND TRISYLLABIC ONOMATOPOEIA 3.1 Mandarin Disyllabic Onomatopoeia 3.1.1 Some background information Mandarin onomatopoeia can be separated into four categories— monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic patterns. According to Li (2007: 114-115), the disyllabic ones are the largest group1. The reason for this disyllabic tendency is that the basic prosodic unit (i.e., foot) in Modern Chinese is formatted by two. 政治大. syllables (Feng 2005: 61). Wang (2008:124) and Duanmu (2000, 2007) also take the. 立. disyllable as the basic metrical unit in Modern Chinese. When the disyllable is the. ‧ 國. 學. most unmarked choice in Mandarin lexicon, this preference is also found in peripheral lexicons such as onomatopoeia.. ‧. The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 3.1.2 overviews Mandarin. y. Nat. io. sit. disyllabic onomatopoeia and manifests its phonological character. Section 3.1.3 will. n. al. er. show the category information of Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia. Section 3.1.4. i n U. v. will propose an OT analysis of Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia with monosyllabic. Ch. engchi. input. Then, Section 3.1.5 begins an analysis of how disyllabic inputs generate Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia. Finally, Section 3.1.6 gives a summary.. 3.1.2 The description of reduplication data of Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia There are two major patterns in Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia— AA and AB styles. 3.1.2.1 AA Mandarin onomatopoeia Half of disyllabic Mandarin onomatopoeia is AA patterns. Li (2007: 117) and Ma 1. In Li‘s investigation, disyllabic onomatopoeias comprise nearly 40% of all Mandarin onomatopoeia while monosyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic ones comprise under 20% each, respectively..

(28) 17. (2002:244) both state that the AA pattern is the duplicating way Mandarin monosyllabic onomatopoeia to express the richer sound. AA pattern Mandarin onomatopoeia will state its general use on Google and its historical source in this table. (12). AA Mandarin Onomatopoeia. AA. Input. bobo(啵啵/. bo About 488,000 results, sound of bubbles popping/knocking/pecking woods. 剝剝) About. from Tang Dynasty (A.D. naboboshengjiuxiangduishuimianchuiqifachudeshengyi. 529,000 results. 618-907).. n。‗That sounf just like the water blowed on the surface‘. baba(叭叭). ba About 661,000 results. damalushang changtingdao labadebabasheng。. ‧ 國. results. 立. 政治大 honk of automobiles. 學. About 929,000. English Gloss. ‗Sounds of honks are usually heard on the road‘ sound of flapping. About 5,000,000. results. houmenchuanlai papadepaimensheng。. io. y. sit. ‗There is sound of knocking on the back door‘. al. pengpeng(. peng About 1,850,000. 砰砰) About. results, from Western Jin. 3,900,000 results. Dynasty (A.D 265-317).. ‗Several gun shots can be heard again‘. pupu(噗噗). pu About 2,270,000. sound of air going out. About 2,810,000. results, from Ming Dynasty. paiqiguan paiqishifachude pupusheng。. results. (AD 1368-1644). ‗The sound of exhaust pipe‘. mimi(咪咪). mi. meow. n. bang. er. results. ‧. pa About 2,210,000. Nat. papa(啪啪). v i n C hyoutingdaopengpenghaojishengqiangsheng。 engchi U. xiaomaomimijiao。‗Little kitty meowing‘. About 14,000,000 results. miemie(咩. mie About 2,040,000. baa.

(29) 18. results. xiaoyangmiemiedejiao。‗Lambs are baaing‘. miaomiao(. miao About 1,730,000. meow. 喵喵) About. results. maomi duizhe jingzi miaomiaojiao。. 咩) About 3,940,000 results. ‗Kitty meows at the mirror‘. 7,320,000 results. moumou(. mou About 129,000. moo. 哞哞) About. results, from Tang Dynasty. langanlideniu duiwomoumoujiao。. 515,000 results. (A.D 618-907.).. ‗Cows in fence moo at me‘. dingding(. ding About 1,520,000. sound of a little bell ringing. 叮叮) About. results, from Tang Dynasty. 政治大 diancheqidongshi lingdangfachudedingdingsheng。. 3,080,000 results. (A.D 618-907.).. ‗The sound of tram‘s bell‘. dongdong(. dong About 1,550,000. sound of knocking/drumming. 咚咚) About. results, fromYuan Dynasty. tingdaodongdongdegusheng。. 5,490,000 results. ( A.D 1271-1368).. ‗The sounds of drumming are heard‘. dudu(嘟嘟). du About 1,750,000. honk/ Sound of monotone. About 8,680,000. results,, fromYuan Dynasty. results. ( A.D 1271-1368).. 立. n. er. io. sit. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. al. laidiandalingbuzhishichuantongdedudusheng。. v i n C h‗The telephone backUtone is more than the old engchi monotone‘. dada(答答). da About 11,200,000. sound of water dropping/ticking. About 8,870,000. results, fromYuan Dynasty. tingdaodadadeluoyusheng。 ‗I heard the sound of. results. ( A.D 1271-1368.). rainning‘. dede(得得). dede From Song dynasty sound of clip-clop. About 407,000. ( A.D 960-1279.). ‗He heard the clip-clop sounds from his back‘. results. lingling(鈴. tatingdaobeihouxiangqidededematisheng。. ling About 218,000. sound of a phone ringing.

(30) 19. shoujikaishilinglingxiang。‗The cell phone start ringing‘. 鈴) About. results, from Han Dynasty. 3,070,000 results. (206 BC-AD 195). longlong(. long About 12,300. sound of thunder or very loud sound. 隆隆). results, from Han Dynasty. xiatiandewuhouleishenglonglong，bujiuhoujiuhuixiayu。. (206 BC-AD 195). ‗There are sounds of thundering at the summer aftertoon. About. 874,000 results. and it will raining afterwards‘ langlang(琅. langlang From Han. sound of reading books/ metals or rocks crashing. 琅). Dynasty (206 BC-AD 195). togetther. About. 政治大 sounds of studying come from classroom in the. zaoshangdejiaoshichuanlailanglangdedushusheng。‗The. 286,000 results. 立. ‧ 國. 學. morning‘. zhi About 2,150,000. sound of bird/squeak. 吱). results. xiaoniaozaishushangzhizhidejiao。‗A bird sounds on the tree‘. io. sit. results. y. Nat. 18,300,000. al. zhazha FromJin. 喳). Dynasty (A.D 1115– 1234). About. n. zhazha(喳. twitter. er. About. ‧. zhizhi(吱. v i n C hxiaoniaozhaichuangwaizhazhadejiao。 engchi U. ‗The bird twittering out of the window‘. 6,120,000 results. gugu(咕咕). gu. About 13,400,000. results, from Ming Dynasty. duziedeshihouhuifachugugusheng。. results. (AD 1368-1644). ‗When feeling hungry I will hear my stomach rumbling‘. guagua(呱. gua. croak/sound of crying/ laughing. 呱). results, from Han Dynasty. qingwazaichitangliguaguajiao。. (206 BC-AD 195). ‗Frogs croaking in the pond‘. About. 7,170,000 results. jiujiu(啾啾) jiu. About 2,060,000. About 330,000. About 658,000. sound of bird sounding/stomach rumbling. chirp.

(31) 20. About 1,020,000. results, from Han Dynasty. xiaoniaojiujiudejiaoshenghenqingcui。. results. (206 BC-AD 195). ‗Chirps from birds are very liightful‘. jianjian(濺. jianjian From Nan. sound of brook. 濺). Dynasty (AD 420-581). jianjiandeshuishengtinglaihenqingliang。. About. ‗The sounds of brook cooling people‘. 52,600 results. koukou(叩. kou About 1,730,000. sound of knocking. 叩). results. takoukoudeqiaomen，danwurenhuiying。 ‗He knocked. About. on the door with the sound but nobody responsed‘. 1,490,000. hong About 4,870,000. 轟轟). results, from Song dynasty. paoshenghonghongdexiangqilaile。. About 1,510,000. ( A.D 960-1279.). ‗There are sound of artillery occurs‘. huohuo (霍. huohuo From Nan. sound of sharp knives. 霍) About. Dynasty (AD 420-581). hurantingjianhuohuosheng，. ‧ 國. ‧ sit. io. n. al. y. Nat. 284,000 results. er. results. 立. 學. honghong(. 政治大 sound of thunder/very loud sound. results. yuanlaishiyourenzaimoudao。 ‗Suddenly I hear the. v i n C hsound of rubbing and e n g c h i U there is someone sharpping his knife‘. chichi(嗤. chi About 398,000. sound of tittering. 嗤) About. results, from Qing Dynasty. tingjiantachichidexiaosheng。‗I heard his laughing‘. 715,000 results. ( A.D 1644-1911.). chanchan(. chanchan From Wei. sound of brook. 潺潺) About. Dynasty (AD 220-265). tazuozhelingtingxiaoxichanchandeliushuisheng。. 8,280,000 results. ‗He sit by brook and listen to the sound of water flowing‘.

(32) 21. shasha(沙. shasha FromYuan. very low sound such as wind blowing leaves. 沙) About. Dynasty ( A.D 1271-1368.). fengchuiguolinzi，shuyefachuleshashasheng。‗A breeze blow over the woods and there are sound of leaves. 3,310,000 results. occur‘ caocao(嘈. caocao From Nan. many sounds occur at the same time. 嘈) About. Dynasty (AD 420-581). lengqifachudecaocaoshengjiaorenxinfan。 ‗The sounds of air conditioning are annoying‘. 180,000 results. congcong(. congcong From Tang. sound of water flowing. 淙淙) About. Dynasty (A.D 618-907.).. tazhuanxintingzhecongcongliushuisheng。. 政治大 ‗He listen to the sound of water flowing very carefully‘. 立. 264,000 results. neigh／sound of (air) leaking. About 411,000. results, from Tang Dynasty. louqideqiqiufachulesisisheng。. results. (A.D 618-907.).. ‗The punctured ballon has the sound ofbleaking air‘. sese(瑟瑟). sese From Wei Dynasty. sound of wind blowing. About 608,000. (AD 220-265). tingdaofengshengsese，zhidaoqiutianyijinglailin。 ‗I heard the sound of wind and knew autum already. n. al. er. io. sit. Nat. results. y. ‧. ‧ 國. si About 1,830,000. 學. sisi(嘶嘶). C hcame‘ engchi. i n U. v. sasa(颯颯). sasa From Warring. sound of blast. About 279,000. States Period (475 BC -. kuangfengzaishulinlisasazuoxiang。. results. 221 BC). ‗The blast blow over the woods and had loud sound‘. susu(簌簌). susu From Ming. very low sound. About 433,000. Dynasty (AD 1368-1644). shuyepiaodongfachuleqingweidesususheng。 ‗Leaves floating in the wind and have very low sound‘. results. wengweng(. weng About 87,200. buzz/ sound in very low tone. 嗡嗡) About. results, from Qing Dynasty. mifengpaichishihuifachuwengwengsheng。.

(33) 22. 1,330,000 results. ( A.D 1644-1911.). ‗When bees flapping there will be buzzing‘. wangwang(. wang About 1,960,000. barking. 汪汪) About. results, fromYuan Dynasty. nazhiheigouwangwangdejiaoleqilai。. 20,600,000. (A.D 1271-1368. ‗That black dod start barking‘. results. The Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeias follow a certain pattern of reduplication.. However, Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeias can be separated into two different groups by their input structure, and it is the most special character can be found in AA. 政治大 input A and others have disyllabic sources. Monosyllabic and dyllabic input of AA 立 Mandarin onomatopoeia. Some AA onomatopoeia derives from the monosyllabic. ‧ 國. evidence in the note part after this thesis.. 學. Mandarin onomatopoeia which hold ancient example in this table will illustrate its. ‧ sit. y. Nat. 3.1.2.2 AB Mandarin onomatopoeia. io. er. There are nearly 50% AB patterns in Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia2 ( Li,. al. 2007:114). Compared with AA Mandarin onomatopoeia, AB ones are combination of. n. v i n C(Li, two different sounds very closely there is no stop between two syllables h e2007), ngchi U and it can be taken as a union of two sounds (Ma, 2002:238). The data of AB. Mandarin onomatopoeia are given below. AB pattern Mandarin onomatopoeia will state its general use on google and its historical source in this table.. (13). AB Mandarin Onomatopoeia. AB. Input. English Gloss. pipa. pa About 4,530,000. sound of snap or crack. 2. In Li‘s investigation, AB Mandarin onomatopoeia comprises 53% of the disyllabic category..

(34) 23. (劈啪) About. dang tuoxia maoyi shi huifachu xiaoxiaode pipasheng。. results. ‗When taking off sweater we can hear low cracks.‘. 327,000 results. pala. pa About 4,530,000. sound of something falling hardly. (啪啦) About. results. chuanghu diao zai dishang pala yisheng。 ‗Window falls on the floor with a snap.‘. 1,590,000 results. pulu. pu About 4,580,000. bloop bloop. (噗嚕) About. results, from Song. shuimian de paopao fachu pulusheng。. 38,900 results. dynasty ( A.D. ‗The bubble of water surface bubbling.‘. 立. 960-1279.). 政治大. sound of things crashing together. (乒乓). results, from Qing. zadongxishi de pingpangsheng。. Dynasty ( A.D. ‗Crashing things with loud sound‘. About. ‧. 8,460,000 results. ‧ 國. pang About 196,000. 學. pingpang. 剝)About 200,000. results, from Ming. results. Dynasty (AD. n. al. sound of firing/knocking/cracking. er. bo About 545,000. io. bibo(嗶. sit. y. Nat. 1644-1911.). wanzhengchengxianqipaopodiaodebibosheng。. v i n C h‗It shows the cracking e n g c h i U sound of bubbles compeletely‘. 1368-1644). bada (巴答). bada. batayisheng jingjia dogei laduanle。. About. ‗ The glasses snapped‘. 15,900,000 results. pada (啪答). pada. sound of thing falling yijia patayisheng diaoxialai。. About. ‗Hanger fell with a sound‘. 4,970,000 results. paca. snap. paca. sound of shooting picture.

(35) 24. (啪擦). anyixia kuaimen jiu paca yisheng。. About. ‗Press the shutter there is a sound‘. 6,750,000 results. tittering. Dynasty ( A.D. ta renbuzhu puchiyisheng xiaochulai。. 4,030,000 results. 1644-1911.). ‗She can‘t help but tittered‘. putong. putong From Yuan. sound of thing fall on the floor or in the water. Dynasty (A.D. putongyisheng diaojin hezhongyang。. 6,540,000 results. 1271-1368). ‗Fell into river with a sound‘. dingling. ding About 1,500,000. 政治大 sound of a bell ringing. results, from Tang. fengling beifeng chuide dingling xiang。. Dynasty (A.D 618-907.).. ‗Wind chimes ringing because of wind flows‘. du About 1,760,000. phone back tone/ sound of monotone. results, from Qing. dengduifang jie dianhuaqian de dulusheng lingrenbunai。. Dynasty ( A.D. ‗It makes people inpatient listen to the phone back tone. 立. About. 1,200,000 results. About. 1,990,000 results. Nat. (嘟嚕). io. al. n. 1644-1911.). danglang. dang About. (噹啷). 11,200,000 results. About. ‧. dulu. y. (叮鈴). About. sit. (撲通). About. ‧ 國. (噗哧). 學. puchi From Qing. when calling someone‘. er. puchi. v i n C hsound of somethingUmetal falling engchi danglingyisheng，dishang chuanlai qingcuide jinshusheng。. 3,230,000 results. ‗There is sound sharp and loud by metal things fell‘ donglong. dong About 1,510,000 sound of things rolling/drumming. (咚隆). results, from Song. chao fanmaiji yian，yiguan kele donglong diaoxia。. dynasty ( A.D. ‗When press the buttom of vending machine there is coke. 960-1279.). falling with rolling sound‘. da About 10,500,000. sound of water dropping/ticking. About. 1,520,000 results. dida.

(36) 25. (滴答). About. didayisheng，zhizhenchaoxiayimiaoyidong。 ‗The second. results. hand move forward with the sound of ticking‘. 3,490,000 results. shuizhu huanhuan luoxia，dida xiangleyisheng。 ‗Drops of water flow with little sound‘ tida (踢達). About. da About 10,500,000. sound of walking. results. menwai chuanlai gaogenxie de tida sheng。 ‗There is sound of someone walking on heels from. 15,000,000 results. outside of door‘ dingdang. dang About. (叮噹). 11,200,000 results, from. 政治大 maomi bozishang de lingdang dingdang zuoxiang。 ‗The. Yuan Dynasty (A.D. bell on cat ringing‘. sound of bell ringing. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 1271-1368). (叮咚). results, from Qing. menling haizai dingdong xiang。. Dynasty ( A.D. ‗The door bell ringing now‘. io. y. al. n. 1644-1911.). sit. 3,970,000 results. er. About. jili (嘰哩). Ch. ji About 754,000 results screeching. engchi. i n U. v. chehou chuanlai yizhen jianrui de jilisheng。 ‗There is a. About. sound of screeching comes from the back of car‘. 212,000 results. jizha. ‧. dong About 1,510,000 sound of doorbell ringing. Nat. dingdong. jiza From Yuan. sound of talking/tweeting. Dynasty (A.D. banzhe niaoerde jizhasheng。. 204,000 results. 1271-1368). ‗Accomapmied with the tweeting of the birds‘. xili. xi About 1,060,000. sound of a little raining. results, from Nan. mianmichixude xiaoyuxilisheng。. (嘰喳). (淅瀝). About. About.

(37) 26. 1,160,000 results. Dynasty (AD 420-581). ‗The sound of little raining continually and densely‘. shuala. shua About. sound of something passing by very fast. 13,100,000 results, from. shualayisheng，chuanghubeidakaile。 ‗With a very loud. Qing Dynasty ( A.D. and fast sound, the window is opened‘. (刷啦). About. 20,800,000 results. 1644-1911.). gulu (咕嚕). About. gu About 1,210,000. sound of drinking/stomach rumbling. results. ta heshuishi fachulegulusheng。 ‗When he drinking water. 政治大 duzieshi duzigulujiao henzhengchang。 ‗When people there are sound of swallow occur‘. 5,280,000 results. 立. sound of loud noice. results, from Qing. galayisheng，loutai daoxialaile。. ‗The building fell with very loud sound‘. Nat. y. Dynasty ( A.D. sit. 512,000 results. ‧ 國. About. ga About 1,380,000. ‧. (嘎啦). 學. gala. hungry it is very normal that their stomach growling‘. (喀吱). kәzi. al. n. kazhi About. er. io. 1644-1911.). i n U. sound of squeezing. v. C hmubanyumuban jiechushi suofachudekazhisheng。 engchi. ‗The. squeezed sound occurs when two boards put together‘. 602,000 results. kengqiang. qiang About 588,000. sound of metal things crashing together. (鏗鏘). results, from Western Jin. bangqiudajishi huifachu kengqiangqingcuideshengyin。. Dynasty (A.D 265-317).. ‗When playing baseball there are sounds of bat hit on. About. 5,420,000 results. ball‘ gudu (咕嘟). About. 781,000 results. gudu From Qing. sound of drinking fast/sound of boiling water. Dynasty ( A.D. talike guduyisheng tunxia zuilidecha。. 1644-1911.). ‗He gulp down the tea right away with sound‘.

(38) 27. guji (咕唧). guzi. sound of water flow by squeeze tazai jishuiwadi zouzhe，jiaodixia gujidixiang。. About. ‗He walk on the water-filled depression in the ground. 115,000 results. with the sound of water squeezed‘ gudong From Qing. sound of one thing falling. Dynasty ( A.D. gudongyisheng congchuangshang dielexialai。. 1,670,000 results. 1644-1911.). ‗Fell form the bed with sound‘. kuanglang. kuang. (匡啷). 40,800 results. About. About. ‗The lampshade on the celine fell by accident with loud sound‘. gazi. io. (喀擦). y caiguobanbodejiabanshi，gazhishengqingqiaoermo。. al. n. 995,000 results. kaca. sound of squeeze to break. sit. About. kaca. ‗When waik on an old deck, we can hear the sound of. C hsqueezed boards‘ engchi. sound of press camera shutter. honglong. hong About 5,810,000 thundering. (轟隆). results. About. honglongyisheng，yizhenmenlei。‗It thundered loud with a thunderclap‘. 9,040,000 results. (嘩啦). v. sound of shutter get attention from others‘. 1,590,000 results. huala. i n U. xiangjikuaimen dekacasheng yinqi bieren dezhuyi。 ‗The. About. About. ‧. (嘎吱). kuanglangyisheng。. Nat. gazhi. 立. 政治大 tianhuaban dedengzhao wuyujing diaoluo， sound of breaking. 學. 119,000 results. About. er. (咕咚). ‧ 國. gudong. hua About 1,390,000. sound of water or fragile item falling/collasping. results. hualayisheng shuiguan liuchu shuilai。.

(39) 28. ‗Water flow from the tube with sounds‘. 937,000 results. boli hualayisheng suile。 ‗The glass shattered to pieces with loud sound‘ haqiu (哈啾). xaziow. sound of sneezing taganmaole，haqiusheng henda。. About. ‗He got cold and sneezed very loud‘. 134,000 results. In Table (13) we can see that the formation of AB Mandarin onomatopoeia is. 政治大 part in Mandarin Chinese, onomatopoeia has their special structure and generation 立. identical to that of Mandarin adjective derivation (Chiang). However, as a peripheral. ‧ 國. 學. than core ones, such as the fixed material in the generation process and the vowel reduplication which will be discussed in section 3.1.4. Monosyllabic and dyllabic. ‧. input of AA Mandarin onomatopoeia which hold ancient example in this table will. al. 3.1.3 Categories of Disyllabic Mandarin Onomatopoeia. er. io. sit. y. Nat. illustrate its evidence in the note part after the analysis.. n. v i n C honomatopoeia intoUtwo categories. One has I will separate disyllabic Mandarin engchi monosyllabic input, and the other has disyllabic input. Mandarin Disyllabic. onomatopoeia which has a monosyllabic input can be further divided into three groups, one kind of AA Mandarin onomatopoeia and two kinds of AB Mandarin onomatopoeia. Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia with disyllabic input can be described as four groups, one kind of AA Mandarin onomatopoeia and three kinds of AB Mandarin onomatopoeia. The first group under Monosyllabic Input is AA, in which A is the input and undergoes the Total Reduplication then generates AA. Following ones are two kinds of AB. While one is Consonant + /l/ group such as ‗pala‘, ‗dingling‘ (sound of a bell.

(40) 29. ringing), the other one is Same Onset Collocation group such as ‗dida‘, ‗pingpang‘ (sound of small and hollow things crashing). When Mandarin Disyllabic onomatopoeia‘s input is disyllabic ones, there is one category called Original Disyllable AA, which is Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia at the very beginning rather than undergoes any kinds of reduplication. For instance, ‗shasha‘, ‗congcong‘ (sound of water flowing) are the typical Original Disyllable AA. Moreover, there are one AB subcategories which are combination of two sounds such as ‗hajiu‘, ‗gudu‘ and ‗guji‘.. (14). 政治大 Disyllabic Mandarin Onomatopoeia Categories 立 1.. Total Reduplication:. Disyllabic Input 1.. Original Disyllable : shashaa→shasha3 (Sound of wind blowing). ‧. gu→gugu. 學. AA. ‧ 國. Monosyllabic Input. y 2.. io. pa → pala AB. Ch. v ni. gudu. e n g c h i U(Sound of drinking). (Sound of something falling) 3.. Sound combination: gudu →. n. al. sit. Consonant+/l/ :. er. 2.. Nat. (Sound of bird song). Same Onset Collocation:. guci → guji. da → dida. (Sound of whispering). (Sound of water dropping). 3.1.4 Analysis of Monosyllabic Input Disyllabic Mandarin onomatopoeias which are generated from monosyllabic input undergo Total Reduplication or Partial Reduplication. The most important constraint 3. If disyllabic Mandarin onomatopoeia cannot express the onomatopoeia content in one single syllable it will be taken as Original Disyllable AA..

(41) 30. families to be used when analyzing the data of the reduplications are General Alignment Constraints, Anchoring constraints and Adjacency Constraints. Therefore I set the constraints in the General Alignment Constraints, Anchoring constraints and Adjacency Constraints families.. 3.1.4.1. Generalized alignment constraint The edge-based theory of the syntax-phonology interface was adopted into OT by McCarthy and Prince (1993a), who claim that the prosody-morphology interface. 政治大 Alignment constraints not only serve to match the edges of morphological and 立 should be defined exclusively in terms of alignment constraints.. prosodic categories, but also the edges of phonological constituents like syllable, foot,. ‧ 國. 學. prosodic word. Alignment has a very general format in order to fulfill all the diverse. ‧. functions which McCarthy and Prince (1993a) named ‗Generalized Alignment‘. This. sit. y. Nat. constraint format has following characteristics. In the first place, is categories may. io. er. appear in alignment constraints. Next, is the choice of the edges. The third one is the order in which the categories appear in the constraint. The fourth one is how to. al. n. v i n evaluate violation of alignment C constraints. Due to theU h e n g c h i need to predict the right form of quadrisyllabic Mandarin onomatopoeia, we set two alignment constraints below. (15) ALIGN (RED, PRWD)-LEFT (McCarthy, John & Alan Prince, 1993a) Assign one violation mark for every syllable intervening between the left edge of the reduplicant and the left edge of the prosodic word. (16). ALIGN (RED, PRWD)-RIGHT (McCarthy, John & Alan Prince, 1993a). Assign one violation mark for every syllable intervening between the right edge of the reduplicant and the right edge of the prosodic word. The Alignment constraint will rule out candidates which undergo certain direction of reduplication..

(42) 31. 3.1.4.2.. Anchoring constraint. The Anchoring constraints ask for the correspondence between certain edge of base and reduplicant. The domain of Anchoring constraint in this section is segment size, however the size of domain will change because of the size of the posodic word. (17). ANCHORBR-LEFT (SEG). (McCarthy & Prince 1993a, 1995a, b). Assign one violation mark for every segment at the left edge of the base that does not correspond to the segment at the left edge of the reduplicant. (18). ANCHORBR-RIGHT (SEG). (McCarthy & Prince 1993a, 1995a, b). 政治大 not correspond to the segment at the right edge of the reduplicant. 立. Assign one violation mark for every segment at the right edge of the base that does. When generating Mandarin disyllabic onomatopoeia by partial reduplication, the edge. ‧ 國. 學. size of the reduplicant is segment-sized, so that the optimal Mandarin disyllabic. Adjacnecy constraint. y. Nat. 3.1.4.3.. ‧. onomatopoeia can be chosen.. er. io. sit. Marantz claimed Marantz‘s generalization (1982) and noted several tendencies of reduplication. Except for the statement of directionality, the second component is. al. n. v i n C h Generalization:U locality, and gives rise to the Locality Reduplications tend to be engchi. adjacent to their correspondence. To this tendency, Lunden (2004) proposed the AdjacencyBR constraint family. These constraints motivate and predict locality generalization. Due to the need to predict the right form of quadrisyllabic Mandarin onomatopoeia, we give two adjacency constraints below. (19). ADJACENCYBR-BY-σ (Lunden, 2004). Assign one violation mark for every syllable in the reduplicant that is not next to its correspondent base. (20). ADJACENCYBR-BY-SEGMENT (Lunden, 2004). Assign one violation mark for every segment in the reduplicant that is not next to its.

(43) 32. correspondent base.. 3.1.4.4 Total Reduplication of AA As AA Mandarin onomatopoeia, its monosyllabic input is a successful monosyllabic Mandarin onomatopoeia. When the monosyllabic input undergoes total reduplication then the disyllabic output will be generated. And the reduplicant size is syllable-sized, I will assume that ANCHORBR-L(SEG) and ANCHORBR-R(SEG)are the undominated constraints and ADJACENCY-BY-SEG will be dominated constraint.. ‘gugu’. 立. ANCHORBR-L(SEG). ANCHORBR-R(SEG). 學. ‧ 國. a. →gugu4 b.  gugu. guu. *W. L. sit. d.. ‧. gigu. * *. Nat. c.. AD-BY-SEG. y. /RED-gu/. *W. L. io. al. er. (21). 政治大. n. v i n CBRh-R(SEG) and AD-BUY-SEG constraints is not enough By ANCHORBR-L(SEG), ANCHOR engchi for AA patterns generation. Optimal candidate in tableau (21) is ‗gugu‘, however, the constraint ranking in this tableau cannot rule out the non-optimal candidate such as ‗gugu.‘ because of it not violate any constraint in tableau (21). The unmarked reduplication direction is right-wards. Alignment constraint will be given in tableau (22) and rule out candidates which align reduplicant to the left side of prosodic word. Alignment constraints such as ALIGN(R, PRWD)-RT and ALIGN(R, PRWD)-LT which bear reduplicant will align to certain side of prosodic word and rule out candidate b. in. 4. In all tableaux, the reduplicant is under-lined..

(44) 33. tableau (21). Syllable structures with complex onsets such as ‗gguu‘or ‗ggu‘ are not allowed in Modern Mandarin and will be ruled out by the undominated constraint *COMPLEX-ONSET (Assign one violation mark for every tautosyllabic cluster in onset position) in Modern Mandarin phonotatics, and therefore they are not included in the tableau discussions.. ‘gugu’ (revised version). Total. /RED-. ALIGN(R,. reduplication. gu/. PRWD)-R. →. a.. gugu. 立. b.. ‧ 國. (22). gigu. *W. ALIGN(R,. AD-B. SEG). PRWD)-L. Y-SEG. 政 -L( 治) 大 -R( R. SEG. R. * L. *. L. * L. *W. guu. *W. *. ‧. d.. *W. ANCHORB. 學. c.. gugu. ANCHORB. L. sit. y. Nat. al. er. io. Candidate b. ‗gugu.‘ violates the dominant constraint ALIGN(R, PRWD)-R since the. v. n. reduplicant ‗ku‘ is aligned to the left edge of the prosodic word and hence can be. Ch. engchi. i n U. ruled out. Candidate c. ‗gigu‘ which has the reduplicant syllable is aligned to the left edge of the prosodic word and right edge of reduplicant segment cannot correspondent to right edge of base segment. Hence candidate c. violates the dominant constraints ALIGN(R, PRWD)-R and ANCHORBR-R(SEG) , which can all be ruled out. Candidate e. is ruled out because of the non- correspondence of left base segment and left reduplicant segment. Candidate a. ‗gugu‘ violates only low-ranking constraint ALIGN(R, PRWD)-L and AD-BY- SEG so it is the optimal candidate. The constraint ranking of Total Reduplication AA is— ALIGN(R, PRWD)-R, ANCHORBR-L(SEG), ANCHORBR-R(SEG), >> ALIGN(R, PRWD)-L, AD-BY-SEG..

(45) 34. 3.1.4.5 Ranking argument and Hasse diagram of AA Mandarin onomatopoeia ALIGN(R, PRWD)-R>> ALIGN(R, PRWD)-L ANCHORBR-L(SEG), >> ALIGN(R, PRWD)-L ANCHORBR-R(SEG) >> ALIGN(R, PRWD)-L ALIGN(R, PRWD)-R >> AD-BY-SEG. (23) Hasse diagram of AA Mandarin onomatopoeia. ALIGN(R, PRWD)-R. 立. 治政 A B -L( )大 NCHOR R. SEG. ANCHORBR-R(SEG). ‧. ‧ 國. 學. ALIGN(R, PRWD)-L. Nat. io. er. 3.1.4.6 AB Mandarin Onomatopoeia— Consonant + /l/. sit. y. AD-BY-SEG. In this section, I will take AB Mandarin onomatopoeia with Consonant+/l/ strucrue‘s. al. n. v i n C h onomatopoeia. The input as a grammatical monosyllabic second onset /l/ of the engchi U. syllable is a pre-linked onset. The reason why /l/ is the pre-linked segment is not only due to its unmarkedness, may also because the /l/ pre-linked segment can be traced back to ancient Chinese. The Emergence of the Unmarked (TETU) (McCarthy and Prince 1994a) is a common condition in the generation of languages in the world. In this analysis fixed segmentism occurs in the output rather than copying from the base segment to decrease phonological markedness is fall under the OT rubric of TETU. The constant occurrence of /l/ can be taken as a fixed segmentism in Consonant + /l/ group derivation since the /l/ is a coronal consonant. That the coronal consonant is a fixed.