教育夥伴中的共修: 以學校本位課程為導向之專業英文課程發展與評量 (II) (III)

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行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫成果報告

教育夥伴中的共修: 以學校本位課程為導向之專業英文課程發展與評量 (II) (III)

研究成果報告(精簡版)

計畫類別：個別型

計畫編號： NSC 100-2410-H-011-024-

執行期間： 100 年 08 月 01 日至 101 年 07 月 31 日執行單位：國立臺灣科技大學應用外語系

計畫主持人：駱藝瑄

計畫參與人員：大專生-兼任助理人員：沈玳玫大專生-兼任助理人員：葉旂妍

報告附件：出席國際會議研究心得報告及發表論文

公開資訊：本計畫可公開查詢

中華民國 101 年 11 月 22 日

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中文摘要：理論上，儘管專業英文的實施對象不單僅為大專院校或職場上的學習者，應可包含中等學校的學生 (Dudley-Evans &

St. John, 1998)。但在實務運用上，國內外絕大多數的研究皆以大專生及職場人員為研究對象，以中學學生為研究的專業英語教學研究，相當不足。

長久以來，國內高職英語教師普遍面臨該教授實用且具功能性的專業英文亦或是強調學生升學考試的英文基礎能力的困擾；加上高職英文教育長久以來不受重視，造成英語教師在教學上倍感無力，學生學習興趣低落，英語學習成效不彰，

高職英語教師實施專業英文的意願更為降低。

為具體回應上述二大議題，本二年研究計畫案的目的試圖透過技專院校應用外語系與高職觀光科建立教育夥伴關係 (school-university partnership)，落實以學校本位課程為導向之專業英文教學，建構適合台灣高職學生的專業英語課程發展與評量模式。

中文關鍵詞：專業英文，高職英文，學校本位課程，教育夥伴，教師專業成展，言談分析，活動理論

英文摘要： Grounded in the principles, processes and practices of a school-based curriculum which includes (1) situation analysis, (2) goal formation, (3) program building, (4) interpretation and implementation, and (5) monitoring, assessment and reconstruction, this proposed two year research project (08/01/2011-

07/31/2013) intends to fulfill three major purposes.

First, it aims to continue and complete an on-going research project (08/01/2010-07/71/2011； NSC No.:

99-2410-H-011-032) which aims to construct an ESP model through a school-university partnership for VHS students of tourism in order to promote their English proficiency in general and ESP knowledge and skills in particular. Secondary, it expects to enhance the professional development of the prospective EFL teachers in the TESOL-track through engaging them in the development of school-based curriculum and in the early field experiences provided by the school-

university partnership. Third, this three-year study intends to explore the complex interactions and

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interrelationships within, between, and among the school-based curriculum development, ESP

teaching/learning, prospective EFL teacher

development and school-university partnership.

The expected outcomes of study include a model of school-based ESP curriculum and development in VHS, which will contribute to the current ESP literature that lacks case studies on secondary school learners.

The early field experience gained from this study will bridge the gap between educational theory and practice for TESOL-track programs in university.

Finally, this study will enhance our understanding of the fundamental essence of sociocultural learning through co-learning in a school-university

partnership.

英文關鍵詞： English for Specific Purposes (ESP), vocational high school English (VHS), VHS English education, School- based curriculum, school-university partnership, teacher professional development, discourse analysis, Activity Theory

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行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫 ▉ 成果報告

□期中進度報告

Co-Learning in School-University Partnership:

Towards a Model of School-Based

ESP Curriculum Development and Assessment (II) (III)

教育夥伴中的共修:

以學校本位課程為導向之專業英文課程發展與評量 (II) (III)

計畫類別：█ 個別型計畫 □ 整合型計畫

計畫編號：NSC

100 － 2410 － H －011 －024 －

執行期間： 100 年 8 月 1 日至 101 年 7 月 31 日

計畫主持人：駱藝瑄

計畫參與人員：

古郁楓、楊進興、Emily Hirsch

黃孟熙、林于暄、李韻蘋、薛羽晴、李巧惠、沈怡燁

成果報告類型(依經費核定清單規定繳交)：█精簡報告 □完整報告

本成果報告包括以下應繳交之附件：

▉出席國際學術會議心得報告

執行單位：國立台灣科技大學

中華民國 101 年 10 月 30 日

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Co-Learning in a School-University Partnership:

Towards a Model of School-Based ESP Curriculum Development and Assessment (II)(III)

¹

Abstract

Research on English for specific purposes (ESP) has been drawing a great deal of attention in English language education over the past two decades. However, most ESP programs have been designed for language learners at the university or language learners in the workplace. Few case studies have been implemented for learners in secondary schools. Is there a place for ESP education for vocational high school (VHS) learners? If so, what approach can be employed to facilitate ESP learning in the current VHS system in Taiwan?

This two-year, school-university partnership had two major purposes: to create a different model of ESP teaching and learning for VHS students of tourism and to provide a series of early field experiences for TESOL-track prospective teachers to enhance their professional development in ELT teaching and learning in general and ESP knowledge and experience in particular.

Grounded in the principles of the school-based model for ESP curriculum and development, this two-year project went through the first run of the school-based curriculum development ( situation analysis, goal formation, program building, program implementation, and assessment and

evaluation stages) in preparation for the second year of the project (reconstruction of the model based on monitoring, feedback, and assessment).

The study demonstrated that through a school-university partnership, TESOL-track college students could gain their early field experiences within a real classroom context, where they observed how a subject teacher, a VHS English teacher, and a native English-speaking teacher orchestrated and integrated content specialist knowledge into English teaching and learning. Their professional development was further extended and deepened when they facilitated VHS students’ learning in giving an on-the-spot English tour. This level of professional development would not have been feasible without a school-university partnership that was closely tied to the needs of the community in which the school and university were situated.

The results provide a potential model for subject teachers, VHS English teachers, and community professionals to work on ESP related courses for VHS students. Different

school-university partnerships can also be inspired by the principles, processes, and strategies employed in the school-based ESP curriculum development.

Keywords: English for Specific Purposes (ESP), vocational high school (VHS) English, VHS English education, school-based curriculum, school-university partnership, teacher professional development

1 Instead of merely presenting the outcomes of this year’s project (August 2011 to July 2012, the second year of a two-year research project), this paper integrates the results of the first year in order to give a holistic account of this

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Introduction

The study of English for specific purposes (ESP) has been drawing a great deal of attention in English language education over the past two decades (e.g., Hutchinson & Waters, 1987;

Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1997; Orr, 2002; Basturkmen, 2006; Harding, 2007). One of the variable characteristics of ESP, based on Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) definition, is that

“ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a

professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school level” (p.

5). However, most ESP programs, both internationally and domestically, are designed mostly, if not exclusively, for language learners at the university or language learners in the workplace, as demonstrated in the 12 ESP cases in Orr (2002). In Taiwan, for example, most ESP studies are conducted in university settings (e.g., Hung, 2007; Huang & Li, 2008; Tsai & Li, 2003; Xu, 2008).

One question worth noting is what prevents ESP programs from being implemented at the

secondary school level, particularly for learners at vocational high schools (VHSs) where the main educational goal is to help prepare students for the workplace after they graduate? To be more specific, is there a place for ESP in the current VHS educational system in Taiwan, which is examination-oriented? If there is, in what way(s) can an ESP program for VHS students be effectively designed, implemented, and assessed?

In response to these questions, a school-based curriculum development (Brady, 1995) was proposed. This proposed curriculum was designed, implemented, and assessed through a school-university partnership. A school-based curriculum development (SBCD) approach ( Skilbeck, 1990; Print, 1998) consists of 5 phases: (1) situation analysis, (2) goal formation, (3) program building, (4) interpretation and implementation, and (5) monitoring, feedback,

assessment, and reconstruction.

This study aimed to create an alternative avenue for ESP in VHSs in Taiwan, employing a school-university partnership. School-university partnerships are widely used in initial teacher education programs to provide pre-service teachers²

Developed through a school-university partnership and grounded in the principles, processes and practices of a school-based curriculum (situation analysis, goal formation, program building, interpretation/implementation, and assessment and reconstruction), this two-year research project had two goals: 1) to construct an ESP model to enhance VHS students’ overall English

proficiency and their ESP learning and 2) to facilitate prospective teachers’ professional

development by providing them with a variety of off-campus field experiences. The outcomes of the study can help respond to the dilemma confronting VHS English education in Taiwan and fill the gap of the current ESP literature that lacks case studies on secondary school learners, as well as shorten the distance between educational theory and practice.

with early field experiences (McLaughlin, 1998) in order to bridge the gap between educational theory and practice (Tsui et al., 2009).

However, early field experiences are not without challenges. Potential challenges include (1) unquestioned familiarity, conflicting purposes, oversimplification of apprenticeships, isolation and silence, and inconsistency and ineffectiveness (Feimann-Nemser & Buchmann, 1985).

2 In this paper, the terms, pre-service teachers, prospective teachers and teacher-learners are used interchangeably.

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Research Questions

1. What is the overall English proficiency of VHS students and how can improvement in English proficiency and ESP oral competence be assessed?

2. In what way(s) can prospective teachers’ engagement in the co-construction of the

school-university partnership and the school-based ESP curriculum development facilitate their professional development?

Literature Review

This study proposed developing a school-based ESP curriculum through a school-university partnership to address a core concern which, , like two sides of one coin, is bilateral. It is

concerned with the ESP learning of VHS students on the one hand and the professional development of prospective EFL teachers on the other. This is to say, using a school-based

curriculum developed through a school-university partnership, can VHS students’ overall English proficiency and their ESP learning be enhanced and, at the same time, can prospective teachers’

professional development be facilitated by their engagement in enhancing VHS students’ ESP learning?

With the bilateral concern being specifically spelled out, Figure 1 lays out the essential elements manifested in the framework of this study. Important studies and theories underpinning this research project including the roles of ESP practitioners, school-based curriculum

development (SBCD), and the school-university partnership are reviewed and presented as follows.

Figure 1. Framework of the Proposed Research Project

School-Based Curriculum Development

A School-University Partnership Teacher

Development

VHS Students’

ESP Learning

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The Roles of the ESP Practitioner

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) see the ESP practitioner as having five key roles (p.

13-17), explained below.

As teacher. In an ESP teaching situation, the students may know more about the content than

the teacher. This situation gives the ESP teacher the opportunity to draw on students’ knowledge of the content in order to facilitate effective communication in class. The teacher often needs to

“negotiate” (p. 14) with the students on how to best explore certain practices to complete their objectives. ESP teachers sometimes also need to offer one-on-one advice to students. In addition, ESP teachers need to be flexible, to be willing to listen to learners, and to show their interest in the disciplines or professional activities their students are engaged in.

As course designer and materials provider. It is very unlikely that ESP practitioners will use

a particular textbook without the need for supplementary materials. In some situations, no suitable published material exists for certain identified needs. Thus, ESP practitioners often to have design the course they teach and also provide the materials for it. The ability to be a “materials writer”

has become a desirable characteristic of the ESP teacher. This role can be daunting to someone who is new to ESP, as it requires assessment of the effectiveness of the teaching material.

As collaborator. Subject-specific work is often best approached through collaboration with

subject specialists. For an ESP teacher, working with a subject specialist may involve simply course syllabus in an academic context or finding out the tasks that the students have to carry out in a given situation. It can also involve more specific collaboration, so that there is some

integration between specialist studies or activities and the target language. The fullest

collaboration occurs when a subject specialist and a language teacher team-teach ESP classes.

As evaluator. The ESP practitioner is often engaged in various types of assessment, including

testing students and evaluating courses and teaching materials. The ESP practitioner also needs to be able to design achievement tests to assess how much learners have gained from an ESP course.

Evaluation forms the basis of needs analysis and can be used to adapt program design and syllabus.

As researcher. Research has been particularly strong in investigating the genres, the language,

and the skills involved in ESP. ESP teachers need to be aware of and incorporate the findings of research when carrying out a needs analysis, designing a course, or writing teaching materials.

School-Based Curriculum Development (SBCD)

Bezzina (1991) defines SBCD as “a process in which some or all of the members of a school community plan, implement and/or evaluate an aspect or aspects of the curriculum offering of the school. This may involve adapting an existing curriculum, adopting it unchanged or creating a new curriculum. SBCD is a collaborative effort” (p. 40). Perceived advantages, according to Bezzina (1991) include an ability to better respond to class needs/situation and a better awareness of curriculum among staff. Time, on the other hand, as perceived as a barrier.

Brady (1995) discusses different meanings attached to SBCD. He sees the SBCD approach as the opposite to a top-down imposed curriculum. However, he particularly points out that

“school-based” is not equal to “school-limited.” Instead, SBCD forces teachers to “reappraise the context within which objectives or learning experiences are determined….Curriculum objectives have to be rewritten to meet local variations. They are no longer issued as standard for every school…. Instead, curriculum development begins with a critical examination of the situation (p.

37).

The principles, processes, and practices of SBCD have been widely discussed by various

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scholars (e.g., Skilbeck, 1990; Brady, 1992; Print, 1998). Based on the definition of Murray Print (1998), the nature of school-based curriculum design is “the development of a curriculum or any aspect of it, by one or more teachers in a school to meet the perceived needs of a school

population, that is, an on-site resolution…of problems experienced with the existing curriculum.

This resolution is carried out by teachers with or without outside advice, as they are considered to be those educators most aware of students needs ( p. 20-21). To expand the benefits attached to SBCD and to overcome the perceived time barrier, this project employs school-university

partnership to reduce the demands on time and to provide (re)sources for curriculum development and implementation.

Skilbeck’s school-based curriculum development model (1990, see Figure 2) has been widely discussed and applied over the past three decades for curriculum development. However, few ESP curricula are developed using this model. This research project applied this model to develop curricula for ESP teaching and learning for vocational high school (VHS) students and to promote the professional development of pre-service teachers.

Situation Analysis

Goal Formation

Program Building

Interpretation &

Implementation

Monitoring, Feedback, Assessment & Reconstruction

Figure 2 School-based Curriculum Development Model, modified from Skilbeck,

1990, cited in Print, 1998)

This model is further elaborated by presenting the features of the curriculum process (see Table 1).

Monitoring, Feedback &

Assessment

& Reconstruction

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Tab le 1

Major Components of the School-Based Curriculum Development Model 1. Situational analysis

Review of the change situation Analysis of factors which constitute the situation externally

a. cultural and social changes and expectorations b. educational-system requirements and challenges c. the changing nature of the subject matter to be taught;

d. the potential contribution of teacher-support systems, e.g. teacher training colleges, research institutes

e. flow of resources into the school internally

a. pupils: aptitudes, abilities and defined educational needs;

b. teachers: values, attitudes, skills knowledge, experience, strengths and weaknesses, roles;

c. school ethos and political structure

d. material resources including plant, equipment, and potential for enhancing these

2. Goal Formulation

a. the statement of goals embraces teacher pupil actions b. goals that derive from the situation analyzed

3. Program Building

a. design of teaching-learning activities: content, structure and method, scope, sequence b. means-materials, e.g. specification of kits, resource units, text materials etc.;

c. design of appropriate institutional settings, e.g. laboratories, field work, workshop;

d. personnel deployment and role definition, e.g. curriculum change as social change;

e. timetables and provisioning

4. Interpretation and Implementation

a. problems of instilling the curriculum change

b. analysis of relevant research and theory on innovation, and imaginative forecasting

5. Monitoring, Feedback, Assessment, Reconstruction (MFAR)

a. design of monitoring and communication systems;

b. preparation of assessment schedules;

c. problems of ‘continuous’ assessment;

d. reconstruction/ ensuring continuity of the process.

Source: Adapted from kibeck, 1990, cited in Print, 1998, p. 79-80

School-University Partnership

This study proposed using a school-university partnership as a way for prospective teachers to design and implement ESP learning condition for high school students of tourism. This approach has been widely practiced over the past two decades in education as a means of enhancing the quality of initial teacher education (Tsui et al, 2009). “School-university partnerships hold significant potential to enhance teachers’ professional development and thereby foster student learning” (Bartholomew and Sandholtz, 2009, p. 155). Examining over 400 journal articles or book chapters written during the period of 1988 to 2007, Edwards et al. (2009) outline four key elements to explain the relationships between schools and universities in their partnerships (pp.

10-14): collaboration, complementarity, equivalence, and community.

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Collaboration. Collaboration is the essence of school-university partnerships. In this context,

there is a distinction between cooperative and collaborative partnerships. In the former, both parties maintain their authority while working together to reach a common goal. In the latter, shared authority is enjoyed by two parties. To collaborate involves a larger agenda of change for each partner.

Complementarity. Schools and universities are significantly different cultural entities. In a

complementary partnership, the school and university are deemed to have separate and

complementary responsibilities without any attempt to bring these two parties into dialogue. Each believes that it has unique attributes for reaching the desired goals and that they could not have been achieved by the partners separately.

Equivalence. Drawing from Wilkin (1990), Edwards et al. (2009) made a distinction between a

“relationship of complementarity” and a “relationship of equivalence” (p. 12). In the former, responsibilities are distributed between the partners; in the latter, the partners share responsibilities in all areas. However, Edwards also recognizes that a partnership of equals is not easy to achieve immediately.

Community. A shift in the view of school-university partnerships as communities of practice

(Lave & Wenger, 1991) demonstrates our current understanding of learning as a social process and the essential features of a social learning system as involving mutual engagement in a joint

enterprise and participation in the negotiation of the meanings of a shared repertoire.

In summary, the research literature also suggests that there are profound differences in purposes, organization, and culture between schools and universities which inevitably create tension in school-university partnership (Tsui & Law, 2008; Tsui, et al., 2009; Perry & Stewart, 2005; Bartholomew & Sandholtz, 2009). Bartholomew and Sandholtz’s (2009) case study examined how differing views on the teacher’s role in school reform affected the work of a school-university partnership. The school district and the university had a history of partnerships and shared common general goals. Yet, as the partnership progressed, conflicting perspectives about teaching and the purpose of professional development became evident. Tsui et al. (2009) perceived learning in school-university partnership as boundary-crossing that involves conflicts and tensions. Perry and Stewart’s (2005) study provided insights into effective partnerships in interdisciplinary team teaching. Their study concluded that achieving an equal awareness of obstacles and problems in the categories “experience” and “personality and working style” and mismatches in “beliefs about learning” present the most challenges.

Methods

The major participants from the school were one subject teacher, one English teacher, and thirty VHS students of tourism. The major participants from the university were six TESOL-track college students and one instructor. One native-English-speaking teacher and one local English tour guide were also involved. The study took place in the VHS classroom and at a local temple called the Tien-Hou Temple, the oldest temple in Taiwan.

The primary data collection methods and procedures were pre- and post- General English Proficiency tests (GEPT), questionnaires, and interviews in the middle and at the end of the project with the VHS participants and six TESOL-track college students in the first and second years of the project. Statistical data were analyzed using SPSS software. Qualitative data were analyzed using content analysis and Hutchinson and Waters’ (1987) ESP curriculum design model (input, content focus, language focus, and tasks).

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Regarding the participants’ language proficiencies, the two aspects of oral English proficiency, listening and speaking (rather than reading and writing) were the language skills most frequently used and practiced throughout the project. Both the listening and speaking proficiencies were accessed through a Basic GEPT (General English Proficiency Test). The Basic GEPT was chosen because it is the most used English proficiency test in this high school and the VHS student-participants were most familiar with it. In addition, the Basic level (rather than other levels) of the GEPT was chosen because achieving the Basic English proficiency level has been the minimum for the Tourism department in this high school.

Based on the results of the pre-program test, the overall English oral proficiency of the participants on the GEPT ranged from 56 to 112 (of 120) points, with an average score of 85.47. With the passing score being 80, 22 participants³ (of 30) passed the listening part of the Basic GEPT. The overall English speaking proficiency score ranged from 30 to 90, with an average score of 54. With the passing score being 80, only 2 participants⁴

The participants’ listening proficiency was much better than their speaking proficiency, as their average listening proficiency (85.47 of 120) was above the passing score (80 points) while their speaking proficiency was much lower (54 of 120) than the passing score (80 points).

( of 30) passed the speaking part of the test (see Table 2).

To understand how the participants’ improvement in ESP oral competence was evaluated and assessed through their performances at different stages of the project, immediately after the VHS participants had learned the English words for important concepts, functions, and terms related to the Tien Hou Temple, the participants were required to write scripts for an oral presentation (in groups of 3-4 people) and give an oral tour using Power Point slides as their background; the participants were later asked to work individually, in pairs, or in groups of three to give their presentation in their groups without reading their written scripts, and finally, the participants were observed and videotaped giving their oral English tour

“on-the-spot,” at the Tien Hou Temple.

The School-Based ESP Curriculum Development

Based on the major components of the school-based curriculum, an ESP curriculum was co-developed and implemented by the school (the Vocational high school) and the university involved in the study.

Stage of Situation Analysis

Knowledge about ESP teaching and learning gained through conducting situation analysis including two parts: external situation analysis and internal situation analysis.

External situation analysis. This ESP program took place in a school-university partnership

funded by the county government of Penghu, an off-shore island of Taiwan. With recent interest in Penghu as a tourist destination, the county has been striving to attract more tourists, both domestic and international. Training tour guides with English competence for explaining the features and uniqueness of popular tourist spots is critical for boosting tourism.

Internal situation analysis. The university involved in this project is the only institution in

the county that offers a major in English. In addition to equipping English major students with

3 One participant did not participate in the pre-project listening test.

4 Two participants did not participate in the pre-project speaking test.

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essential abilities in the four skills, the Department of Applied Foreign Languages aims to train ESP professionals for the tourism industry and TESOL. Likewise, the VHS involved in this study has the only Tourism Management Department on the island, a department dedicated to enhancing the knowledge and skills VHS students need for working in the county’s tourism industry. The funding of the school-university partnership by the county indicates that the mission and

development of these educational institutions are deeply rooted in the needs of the local culture, industry, and economy and that, as a result, all the parties involved can benefit from this

collaboration.

Through the school-university partnership, the project can make good use of the natural and human resources both provided by the community, the school, and the university.

Stage of Goal Formation

According to the result of the situation analysis, the ultimate goal for the two-year project was two-sided. That is, on the one hand, the VHS participants were expected to give an English tour right at a local tourist spot and to gain experience in integrating Chinese knowledge about a tourist spot into an on-the-spot English tour. On the other hand, the college participants were expected to enhance their ESP teaching and learning knowledge and experience through playing various roles and engaging in a series of ESP teaching and learning activities.

In addition, the school-university partnership intended to enhance the interactions,

connections, and incorporations within, between, and across different communities involved in the project. To be more specific, the subject teacher and the VHS English teacher opened their

classroom to each other, the prospective teachers could learn from the in-service teachers, the VHS learners and prospective teachers could benefit from each other through their co-learning and development, and finally, both the school and university could interact with the local community (the foreign native English teacher and the local English tour guide).

Stage of Program Building

In order to help the VHS participants achieve the ultimate goal, various sub-goals were formulated: (1) to introduce local culture through a Power Point presentation, (2) to gain

knowledge of the Tien-Hou Temple in Chinese, (3) to learn about the Tien-Hou Temple in English, (4) to write scripts for an English tour of the Tien-Hou Temple, (5) to practice giving an English tour, (6) to give a videotaped English tour at the tourist spot, and finally (7) to obtain comments on the edited video clip of the English tour.

Likewise, several sub-goals parallel to those of the VHS participants were also formulated to facilitate TESOL-track college students in playing different roles and engaging in different

activities of ESP teaching and learning : (1) to become familiar with the learning context and the participants, (2) to gain content specialist knowledge of Tien-Hou Temple in Chinese, (3) to gain knowledge about the Tien-Hou Temple in English, (3) to help revise or edit VHS students’ written scripts of an English tour of the Tien-Hou Temple, (4) to support and guide VHS students’

practices/rehearsals in giving an English tour, (5) to direct VHS participants’ English tour at the tourist spot, and finally (6) to edit the video clip of the English tour.

To achieve the two-sided goals for the two major groups of participants involved in the study, a six-stage program (in addition to the pre-stage) was implemented as delineated in the

interpretation and implementation stage below.

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Stage of Interpretation and Implementation

In the pre-stage (September-October 2011), all the participants attended a course entitled

“Tour Guiding and Interpretation Activities” offered by the Department of Tourism of the local vocational high school which participated in the school-university partnership. During this stage, the VHS students learned to introduce their own hometown through giving a PowerPoint slide presentation. The college participants took the opportunity to learn to know the local culture and the participants, the learning context in the high school, and the important elements to take into account when giving a tour.

In the first stage (November 2011), all the participants, including the local high school English teacher, the VHS students and TESOL-track college students attended a three-week class (2 hours each week) on the Tien-Hou Temple. The participants learned about the historical background, the architectural features, and the critical people and events associated with this historical monument. These three weekly lectures were given by a subject teacher, Teacher Gu, who was also the lecturer for the course “Tour Guiding and Interpretation Activities”.

In the second stage (December 2011), another three lessons were offered (over three weeks) by the local English teacher, Teacher Emma, who had attended the course offered by Teacher Gu.

She integrated Teacher Gu’s course with her English lessons on theTien-Hou Temple. In other words, the unit on the Tien-Hou Temple was first given in Chinese by Teacher Gu, the subject teacher, and then by Teacher Emma in English.

In the third stage (March-April 2012), first, both Teacher Emma and the college participants attended an English tour at the Tien-Hou Temple given by a local professional English Tour Guide, Mr. Chang, who has had much experience in giving English tours to foreign tourists. He also took questions from Teacher Emma and the college participants after he gave the tour. Afterwards, the VHS students wrote English scripts for their English tour with the instruction and guidance of a native-English-speaking teacher, Teacher Emily. The college participants helped the VHS participants draw on their knowledge of the Tien-Hou Temple in Chinese, and express themselves in English. They offered to help the VHS students who did not know how to get started and also when they did not have the right words or expressions for the written scripts. They also helped VHS students answer questions raised by Teacher Emily when she did not understand the written scripts.

In the fourth stage (May 2012), the VHS students first rehearsed giving their English tour to their group leaders (the college participants), and then to the whole class. Teacher Emma pointed out the strengths and weaknesses of each script to model effective strategies for giving English tours. The VHS participants then rehearsed their tours outside their classroom with the guidance and direction of the college participants. In this way, they learned how to move based on their scripts and to talk to the camcorder.

In the fifth stage (June 2012), the VHS participants gave their on-the-spot English tour at the Tien-Hou Temple with the group leader (the college participant) as their director and

cameraperson. The college participants then edited the tours (with an introduction by the group members), added English subtitles and background music, and refined/finalized the video clips that were uploaded on YouTube for a larger audience.

In the sixth stage (June 2012), the subject teacher, Teacher Gu, the VHS English teacher, Teacher Emma, the native-English-speaking teacher, Teacher Emily, and the local professional tour guide, Mr. Chang, as well as the Chairperson of the school’s Department of Tourism were invited to watch, comment, and evaluate the English tours through the video clips. The best tour guide group and the best tour guides were chosen based on the results of the evaluations.

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After the first run of ESP teaching and learning, the TESOL-track college participants were expected to apply the knowledge and experience gained from the first year of the project to the second year with another group of VHS participants.

Stage of Monitoring, Feedback, Assessment, Reconstruction (MFAR)

The MFAR stage was carried out in a multi-dimensional manner, involving on-site

monitoring, formal and informal feedback, on-going assessment, and intentional reconstruction.

On-site monitoring. During the two-year project implementation, the monitoring was

mainly conducted by the research project’s principle investigator through on-site observation and taking field notes, based on which she was able to monitor the process of implementation, assessment, and evaluation leading to the reconstruction of the program in the second year.

Formal and informal feedback. Formal feedback was given mainly through regular meetings

conducted prior to and after the project implementation. Prior to the implementation, the

investigator explained the goals and action plans to be designed, developed, and carried out. After the implementation, meetings were called so that all the members involved could provide their feedback. Informally, the prospective teachers were required to write their reflection papers right after the implementation. The investigator also provided feedback on their reflection papers individually or collaboratively. Comments and feedback gathered from the information

conversations or the interviews with the participants of the VHS school and the local community were shared with the prospective teachers and VHS students.

On-going assessment. The overall English proficiency and the ESP competence of the VHS

students were assessed through standardized tests (GEPT tests) and task-based assessments

(requiring them to give an on-site English tour). The on-goingness of the assessment resided in the on-site observation and constant interactions between the instructors and the VHS students as well as the VHS students and the prospective teachers. The overall professional development of the prospective teachers was assessed through their self-reported papers, on-going and on-site observations in class, and the focus group and individual interviews with them.

Intentional reconstruction. Based on the results of the multi-dimensional assessment and

evaluation, there major aspects of the program were reconstructed for the second year of the project. First, unlike the first year, in which the project was implemented in the regular semester, the second year program was carried out during the winter break because incorporating the first-year ESP program with the regular curricula took time away from the curriculum originally planned for the course. It also brought a certain degree of challenge for course evaluation. As a result, participants for the second year were recruited on a voluntary basis. Second, unlike the first year program in which the VHS English teacher integrated the information about the Tien-Hou Temple into her English classes, the prospective teachers played the role of the VHS English teacher in the second year. In other words, rather than assisting the VHS English teacher and assisting in the learning of the VHS students through playing the roles of learners, collaborators, and evaluators, the prospective teachers were now in the position of designing, implementing, and evaluating the expected outcomes. Thirdly, unlike the first year in which the prospective teachers were the ones who needed to take full responsibility for designing, filming, and editing the final video clips of the English tours, in the second year both the VHS students and the prospective teachers designed and edited the video clips of their learning outcomes.

In summary, the ESP teaching and learning knowledge and experience created by the school-university partnership and the school-based ESP curriculum was abundant and valuable.

The prospective teachers learned to understand the importance of situation analysis; the elements

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to be considered and included during goal formation and program building; the benefits and challenges involved in monitoring, feedback, and assessment; and the measures to be taken for program reconstruction. Not only did different parties benefit from the partnership, the model of school-based curriculum created a variety of teaching and learning experiences for both the VHS students and the prospective teachers, which generated new knowledge and understanding for improving teaching and learning in general and ESP teaching and learning in particular.

Findings

1. What are the overall English proficiency and the ESP oral competence of the VHS student-participants and how can the improvement of them be assessed?

To access the improvement of participants’ English proficiency in listening and speaking, the GEPT was administered again at the end of the project and a paired t-test was conducted to determine the effectiveness of the project. In terms of participants’ listening proficiency, the mean of the pre-test was 85.47 ( of 120) and the mean of the post-test was 90.20 ( of 120). The results show a significant difference between the pre- and post- listening test scores (***p<.001). In terms of participants’ speaking proficiency, the mean of the pre-test was 54.00 ( of 120) and the mean of the post-test was 69.67 ( of 120). The results reveal? a significant difference between the pre- and post- scores on the speaking test (**p<.01). Table 2 presents the results of the paired-t tests of mean scores on listening and speaking proficiency in the pre- and post-project tests.

Tab le 2

Paired t-Test of Mean Scores on Listening and Speaking Proficiency in the Pre-test and Post-test

N=30 Pre-test Post-test

t-value Sig.

M SD M SD

Listening 85.47 21.946 90.20 15.945 -3.199

.003**

Speaking 54.00 20.611 69.67 16.914 -5.123

.000***

P*< .05; P** <.01; P*** <.001

The observational notes show that as time progressed, not only did the participants make improvements in the accuracy, fluency, intonation, and pronunciation of their English oral production, they also demonstrated greater ease in their facial expressions, body language, and interactions with their target audience.

The video clips of their learning outcomes were also evaluated by the subject teacher, the VHS English teacher, the native-English-speaking teacher, and their local tour guide. The results of their evaluation show that the participants were able to incorporate the contents of the temple culture introduced by the subject teacher with the English language introduced by the VHS English teacher and to apply the oral strategies introduced and practiced with the native-English-speaking teachers. Most importantly, the local English tour guide also indicated that their performance contained all the essential elements and oral competences required of an English tour guide.

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2. In what way(s) can the prospective teachers’ engagement in the co-construction of a school-university partnership and school-based ESP curriculum development facilitate their professional development?

Through playing different roles in various activities of ESP teaching and learning, the prospective teachers (the TESOL-track college participants) enhanced their professional development in different aspects. Based on the results of on-site observations, reflection papers, and the interviews with the college participants, being learners, collaborators, teachers, evaluators, program developers and implementers enhanced their professional development, briefly summarized below.

The prospective teachers were learners. They learned to know the VHS participants and

the learning/teaching context through engaging in their classroom learning. They gained the specialized content knowledge from sitting in the class with Teacher Gu’s class. They

observed how Teacher Emma integrated specialized content knowledge into English teaching and learning, how she interacted with the VHS participants using English that made sense to them. They learned on the spot from Mr. Chang how to give an English tour and they

interacted with the tourists not only in English but also using specialized content knowledge about temple culture. They learned how a foreign tourist would expect to see and hear about a local temple through the guidance and direction of Teacher Emily. All together, these

experiences enhanced their knowledge and experience in ESP teaching and learning.

The prospective teachers were collaborators. They collaborated with Teacher Emma in

giving a warm-up activity to open up an English lesson and one to review the lesson covered the previous week; they collaborated with Teacher Emily on how to help VHS students make sense of their written scripts. They also collaborated with each other to understand what they needed to accomplish for each class with group members who were responsible for different tasks.

They were teachers. With the knowledge gained from Teacher Gu and Teacher Emma,

and the experience from observing the local professional tour guide, Mr. Chang,and working with the native-English-speaking teacher, Teacher Emily, they were able to teach the VHS participants how to open up a tour to attract tourists, what strategies could be used to deliver an English tour, and what genre (conversation vs. direct speech) could be used when giving an on-the-spot tour. They gave key words, sentence patterns, and other suggestions when helping VHS students with their written scripts. Finally, they showed VHS participants how to use body language, move according to the sequence of the tour, and talk to the camera naturally.

They were evaluators and researchers. They evaluated VHS students’ learning outcome

by designing tasks that required the students to use the knowledge and vocabulary learned from Teacher Gu and Teacher Emma. Through VHS participants’ response to these tasks, they evaluated how much VHS participants had learned from the lessons with Teacher Gu and, more importantly, from Teacher Emma. They also evaluated the written scripts before sending themto Teacher Emily for further comments and final proofreading. During the process of videotaping, the college participants also evaluated how well the VHS participants had done and decided whether they needed to redo the videos. Finally, through their own editing, the prospective teachers also learned how to evaluate the quality of the final product—the edited video clip. The tasks given to the VHS participants gave the prospective teachers

opportunities for professional development in terms of assessment and evaluation.

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They were program designers and implementers and materials providers. In addition to

being learners, collaborators, teachers, evaluators and researchers in the first year, the

prospective teachers were also the program designers, implementers, and materials providers in the second year, during the winter break. They decided what was to be learned, how the materials would be taught, who would provide assistance, and how the learning outcomes would be monitored, produced, and assessed. During the five-day intensive program (from 8 am to 4 pm, except for the first day, which was from 1 to 4 pm), the prospective teachers were also the implementers; they carried out the program they had designed themselves with the feedback provided by the instructor and the VHS students. As one of the prospective teachers indicated in the interview, “I would not have been able to know what to do in the second year without the engagement in the first year. Likewise, without the experience of and the

engagement in the second year, the ESP learning and teaching would not have been

complete.” Through being a learner, a collaborator, a teacher, and an evaluator in the first year, the prospective teachers equipped themselves with the knowledge and experience of teaching and learning in general and ESP teaching and learning in particular to be able to play the roles of program developers and implementers in the second year.

They were cultural brokers. Throughout the two-year project, the prospective teachers

constantly had to play the role of cultural broker between the VHS students and the subject teacher and between themselves and the VHS English teacher and the native-English-speaking teacher. They particularly had to play the role during the stage of writing scripts for giving an on-the-spot oral English tour. The prospective teachers, as cultural brokers, had to ensure that what was intended to be interpreted in the tour was being understood by the potential audience played by the native-English-speaking teacher. The prospective teachers also had to make sure that the VHS students were able to address the concerns and issues of their potential audience.

Discussion

The results of the study are discussed from three aspects: co-learning in a

school-university partnership, school-based ESP curriculum development, and the roles of ESP practitioners.

Co-learning in a School-University Partnership

The findings show that the prospective teachers’ professional development had a great and direct impact on the VHS participants’ ESP learning. In other words, the greater the professional development of the prospective teachers, the better the learning outcomes of the VHS participants are expected to be. By the same token, the better the learning outcomes, the greater the professional development that was required of the prospective teachers.

The school-university partnership (Bartholomew and Sandholtz, 2009) brought positive learning outcomes for both VHS students and prospective teachers, outcomes that cannot be achieved by either of them working alone. The questionnaire responses and the interviews with both the VHS participants and the prospective teachers confirmed the claims made in the ESP literature (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Dudley-Evans and St. Johns, 1997; Or, 2002;

Basturkmen, 2006) and professional development (Johnson, Tsui and Law, 2007). When being interviewed, the VHS participants indicated that they would not have come to this level of achievement without the help, support, guidance, and teaching of their group leaders, the TESOL-track college participants in the project. Likewise, the prospective teachers indicated

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that they would not have reached this level of understanding about ESP teaching and learning without engaging in the activities of teaching/learning and interactions with the VHS

participants. The prospective teachers would not have had the opportunities to play various roles (e.g., learners, collaborators, teachers and evaluators) actively without engaging in the real classroom learning experience and fulfilling the real-context learning tasks.

On the other hand, the VHS participants’ general English listening and oral proficiency and their ESP oral competence improved thanks to the partnership in which the VHS subject teacher, the VHS English teacher, the prospective teacher participants, and the principle investigator from the college worked together towards the expected outcomes. While the prospective teachers devoted their time and effort assisting in the learning of the VHS students through a variety of ESP teaching and learning activities, their professional development was also enhanced because they had many opportunities to observe how the desired content of a subject area was incorporated with the learning of English. They learned the critical elements involved in giving an on-the- spot English tour through the native-English-speaking teacher and the local tour guide at the workplace. They also provided both on-site and on-line (email or cell phone) assistance to VHS students.

In sum, without the co-participation of either side of the partnership, it would have been challenging to complete the program. The expected outcomes of the co-learning would not have been possible.

ESP Teaching and Learning through the School-based Curriculum Development

The school-based curriculum offered a generative structure for all the parties involved to conduct situational analysis (both internal and external), to form feasible goals, to build up reasonable programs, and to engage in monitoring, giving feedback, and most of all, in reconstruction. When ESP teaching and learning was ingrained and developed in this generative structure, positive learning outcomes for all parties were achieved and can be examined by the four aspects of the ESP design model proposed by Hutchinson and Waters (1987): input, content focus, language focus, and tasks.

The sources of the input for the VHS students were multiple and rich. To master the

specialized content knowledge about the Tien Hou Temple, the VHS students received input not only from their subject teacher, but also from a vocational high school English teacher who knew the content knowledge well and knew the English level of the VHS participants well. Also, the VHS students gained input from a native-English-speaking teacher who could provide them with comments from a potential tourist’s perspective. In addition, they also gained comments from a local professional tour guide. Altogether, the rich and multiple sources of input contributed to the positive learning experience and outcome.

The content of the English tour was relevant to the VHS students’ learning and living context as well as part of their coursework. The only difference between their program and their regular course was that students were required to give a tour in English. In addition, the tour was a part of the local culture that the VHS participants had grown up with. Through this project, the VHS students had an opportunity to integrate what they had learned in their coursework and their professional knowledge and experiences into their ESP learning by giving an English tour.

The focus of the English they learned was useful and purposeful. Instead of introducing difficult terms, slogans, and words to explain the Tien-Hou temple and the temple culture, the major focus of the English teaching and learning was how to communicate with foreign tourists who visited the Tien Hou Temple and wanted to know more about our temple culture. These

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principles, ingrained in usefulness and purposefulness, were applied not only by Teacher Emma, the VHS English teacher, but also by Teacher Emily, a native-English-speaking teacher. Their way of teaching influenced how the prospective teachers supported the VHS students in completing their written scripts.

ESP teaching and learning tasks were given along the way to facilitate the learning processes and to achieve the expected learning outcomes. These tasks, for example, ranged from giving expressions to explain key words, to answering questions raised by the instructors in English, and to writing English scripts with the support of the prospective teachers. Without the tasks along the way, the ESP learning would have been too daunting and challenging for the VHS students to achieve the expected outcomes.

What makes the school-based curriculum development unique from the conceptualization of other types of ESP teaching and learning is the emphasis on “reconstruction” of the

program, which provides alternatives for ESP teaching and learning as well as the professional development of the prospective teachers. To be more specific, from the perspective of ESP learning, without the stage of reconstruction, it would not be feasible to compare the

effectiveness of ESP teaching and learning carried out in a regular semester and in summer or winter breaks. Without the stage of reconstruction, the prospective teachers would not be able to engage in different types of professional development, to play different roles.

The Roles of ESP Practitioners

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) see the ESP practitioner as having five key roles (p.

13-17): teachers, collaborators, course designers or materials providers, evaluators, and researchers. Throughout the two-year program, the prospective teachers had many opportunities to be teachers, collaborators, evaluators, and researchers, and to be course designers and materials providers in the second year. It would have been particularly challenging for the prospective teachers to play the role of program developers and implementers and materials providers in the second year without having been engaged

intensively in playing the role of the learner, the collaborator, the teacher, and the evaluator in the first year.

What is worth our attention is that the prospective teachers indicated that they spent a lot of time being learners, learning by observing and apprenticing with all the parties involved, and that this time was essential for their being program developers and implementers in the second year. Besides the five key roles laid out by Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998), the prospective teachers also played the role of cultural brokers, brokering the needs and wants of the subject teacher, the VHS English teacher, the native-English-speaking teacher, and the local tour guide in the classroom and with the potential audience at the workplace (Lo, 2012a, 2012 b; Lo & Hirsch, 2012).

In summary, relevant discussions provided by Johnson (2006, 2010) and Johnson and

Golombek (2011) may summarize succinctly the three aspects discussed above. They believe that

what teachers learn to teach has much to do with how teachers learn to teach. This shift of the

epistemological perspectives on human learning foregrounds the fundamentally social nature of teacher learning and the activities of teaching. Hence, learning to teach from a sociocultural perspective, as Johnson sees it, is based on the premise that knowing, thinking, and understanding come from participating in the social practices of learning and teaching in specific classroom and school situations. The context for learning and professional development of the six TESOL-track college students went beyond the wall of the classroom and school setting to the shared

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community in which both the VHS students and college students were situated.

The prospective teachers’ ESP professional development (including ELT learning and teaching) were documented and understood as growing out of participating in the social practices with the VHS participants in both classrooms (with the specialist teacher and VHS English teacher) and workplaces (in the Tien Hou Temple with the native-English-speaking teacher/tourist and local tour guide). The results of the study confirm the claim in the literature that what teachers learn to know and how they use that knowledge are highly interactive and involve knowledge of self, setting, students, curriculum, community, and workplace.

Summary and Conclusion

This two-year school-university partnership had two major purposes: one, it was intended to create a different model of ESP teaching and learning for VHS students of tourism. Two, it aimed to provide a series of early field experiences for TESOL-track prospective teachers to enhance their professional development in ELT teaching and learning in general and ESP knowledge and experience in particular. Grounded in the principles of the school-based model for ESP curriculum and development, this two-year project went through the first run of the school-based curriculum development (the stages of situation analysis, goal formation,

program building, program implementation, and assessment and evaluation) in preparation for the second run of project reconstruction and implementation in the second year.

The first run of the program implementation shows that through the school-based ESP curriculum and development, the VHS students’ general English proficiency, particularly in listening and speaking, increased. Further data analysis shows that the school-university partnership, which drew significant stakeholders (a subject teacher, a VHS English teacher, a native English speaking teacher, a local professional tour guide) along with the help, guidance, and support of their group leaders (the six TESOL-track college students) brought rich and resourceful input, relevant and interesting content, functional and purposeful language, and stimulating and meaningful tasks, which resulted in fulfilling the expected learning outcome and high learning satisfaction.

The results of the study demonstrate that through a school-university partnership, TESOL-track college students gained their early field experiences beyond their college classroom. Within the real classroom context, they observed how a subject teacher, a VHS English teacher and a native English speaking teacher orchestrated the content specialist knowledge, English teaching and learning, and English tour to foreign tourists. Their professional development was further extended and deepened when they were required to guide the VHS students to give an on-the-spot English tour. This level of professional development would not have been feasible without a school-university partnership that was closely tied to the needs of the community in which the school and university were situated.

The results of the study can serve as a potential model for subject teachers, VHS English teachers, and community professionals to work on ESP related courses for VHS students.

Different school-university partnerships can also be inspired by the principles, processes, and strategies employed in the school-based ESP curriculum development. Multiple roles along with diversified ESP knowledge and experience can be played out through the co-construction of school-university partnerships and school-based curriculum development.

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