1. Cleavage Division: No increase in total cell mass (every cell size ↓) , copy gene. Fig. 1.12

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Cell and Embryology

Developmental Biology

History and Basic Concepts

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Textbook: Wolpert L, Beddington R, Jessell T, Lawrence P, Meyerowitz E, Smith J. (2007) Principles of Development. 3th ed. London: Oxford university press.

Gilbert SF. (2003) Development Biology. 7th ed. Sunderland: Sinaure Associates Inc.

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Development is a fundamental part of biology

Developmental Biology deals with complex mechanisms and many layers of “biological information” superimposed one upon another.

Recent advances in cell biology, genetics and molecular biology has and will continue to further our understanding of development unlike any time in the past.

Embryogenesis(embryo formation) determines the overall body plan. (Fertilized egg embryo body plan organism)

O i ( f ti ) d t i b ti f th

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Organogenesis(organ formation) determines subsections of the body (examples: vertebrate limb, Drosophila eye).

Many genes, proteins, signal transduction pathways and cell behaviours are common to both processes.

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Model organisms in developmental biology

Although people are mostly interested in human development (for egocentric reasons), many aspects of development are conserved in distantly related species

conserved in distantly related species.

The major model organisms used to study the principles of development are...

– nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) – fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster ) – sea urchins

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– South African claw-toed FROG ( Xenopus laevis ) – chick

– mouse

– plant (Arabidopsis thaliana)

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2 Lizard Fig. 1.3

Drosophila

South African claw- toed FROG

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Released its tail in defense Useful model for regeneration

Important words to grow by A/P axis: anterior ~ head; posterior ~ tail.

D/V axis: dorsal ~ upper or back; ventral ~ lower or front.

P/D axis: proximal ~ near; distal ~ far.

Lateral: to the side.

haploid ~ 1 set (of chromosomes) . diploid ~ 2 sets (of chromosomes).

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Experimental Approaches

Anatomical/descriptive studiesp Experimental approaches Genetic studies

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Anatomical/Descriptive Studies Aristotle (epigenesis)

– 4^thcentury BC – Reproductive strategies – Cell division patternsp – Placental functions 1600s

– “ex ovo omnia” (Everything from an egg ) – First microscopy studies

• descriptions of chick development 1700s

– Epigenesis vs Preformation

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Epigenesis vs. Preformation

Anatomical/Descriptive Studies

• 1820s – Pander

– Describes 3 germ layers First indication of induction – First indication of induction – Epigenesis further substantiated

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Ernst von Baer Principles (~1820s)

1) General features of a large group (i.e.

vertebrates) appear earlier in development than specialized features of a smaller group.

All embryos look similar after gastrulation and then develop specialized features typical of class order Anatomical/Descriptive Studies

develop specialized features typical of class, order, and species. All vertebrates have the same early developmental structures - gill arches, notochords, and primitive kidneys.

2) Less general characters are developed from the more general until the most specialized appear.

All vertebrates initially have

th t f ki O l

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the same type of skin. Only later does the skin specialize to form scales, features, hair, and claws.

Limb development is the same in vertebrates and then becomes wing, leg,

arm, webbed foot…. More General

Duck

Chick

Less General

3) The embryo of a given species departs from the adult stages of lower animals rather than through them; therefore, the early embryo of higher animals is never like the lower adult animal but only its early embryo

Visceral cleft of embryonic birds or mammals do not resemble the gill slits of adult fish . Rather they resemble the visceral clefts of the embryonic fish and other embryonic vertebrates. These are later specialized to form the gills in fish and eustachian tubes in mammals

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Human embryos never pass through a stage equivalent to the adult fish or bird. Rather they initially share characteristics only with the embryo

and eustachian tubes in mammals

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von Baer’s Principles

Generalized features of broad groups of animals (phylum, class) form before more specialized features of specific groups (family, genus)

– Early - Brain, spinal cord, notochord, aortic archesy , p , , – Late - Limbs, hair.

Character development: Generalized Specific

Embryo of a species resembles embryo of other groups, not adult forms.

Early embryo of one group is never exactly like that of another, it only shares characteristics.

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y

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Epigenesis vs. preformation

A scientific approach to explaining development stated 5th century BC.

Aristotle addressed the development problem: two possibilities.

Epigenesis and preformation

17th century, development === Preformation

Preformationtheory suggests that all structures exist from the very beginning, they just get larger.

17th century Italian embryologist Marcello Malpighi, supported that the embryo was already present form the very beginning (Fig.

y, p

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1.4)

One preformation theory, the theory of the homunculus, suggested that a little human embryo was hidden in the head of every sperm. [Theory has fallen out of favor. X]

Marcello Malpighi

Preformation

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Fig. 1.4 Late 1700s

Wolff (1759)

Observations of chick embryo Structures entirely different in embryos vs adults: epigenesis

Top: chick early embryo, and at 2 days’ incubation. It suggested that everything

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gg y g

was already present from the very begin

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1672 Marcello Malpighi – First Microscopic Account Of Development

Preformation

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Began the great debate of epigenesis and preformation

Preformationtheory suggests that all structures exist from the very beginning, they just get larger.

17th t It li b l i t M ll t d th t th

17th century Italian embryologist Marcello,suggested that the embryo was already present form the very beginning (Fig.

1.4)

One preformation theory, the theory of the homunculus, suggested that a little human embryo was hidden in the head of every sperm. [Theory has fallen out of favor. X]

Fig. 1.518

Epigenesis(~upon formation) is a theory of development that states that new structures arise by progressing through a number of different stages.

Since an embryo grows to be an adult and that adult produces another embryo and so on indefinitely , according to the theory of

preformation, the very first embryo must have included within itself tiny copies of all the future embryos.

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Epigenesis(~upon formation) is a theory of development that states that new structures arise by progressing through a number of different stages. Originally proposed by Aristotle in 4th Century BC.

Epigenesis Vs. Preformation

Preformationtheory suggests that all structures exist from the very beginning, they just get larger. Prominent theory of the time. (Malpighi – supported by his observation that the un- incubated egg already had a great deal of structure)

The embryo was already formed, therefore it only had to grow One preformation theory suggested that a little human embryo was

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hidden in the head of every sperm (although not widely excepted).

Since an embryo grows to be an adult and that adult produces another embryo and so on indefinitely, according to the theory of preformation, the very first embryo must have included within itself tiny copies of all the future embryos. Difficult to explain interracial effects, etc.

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Experimental Approaches

What causes cell differentiation: cytoplasm or nucleus?y p

Defect experiments Isolation experiments Recombination experiments Transplantation experiments

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Wilhelm Roux-August Weisman (1883)

– Germ plasm theory: Autonomous specification

– Defect experiment:

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Hans Dreisch (1892): Isolation experiment

A i t l

Against only Autonomous specification

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Autonomous specification ???

Conditional specification Yes

Actually both autonomous and conditional specification are seen:

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Fate Maps

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transplant experiments:

– Embryonic induction

– Spemann (1924): Embryonic organizer

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Box 1A Basic stages of Xenopus laevis development

Animal pole: pigmented upper surface

Vegetal pole: lower region Animal half become

12 times

Yolk cell

G l

Animal half become anterior (head) Blastocoel: fluid filled cavity

Germ layers formation stage

Ectoderm-epidermis, nervous system Mesoderm muscle

Germ Layers

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Mesoderm- muscle, cartilage, bone internal organ (heart, blood kidney)

Endoderm- gut, lungs, liver

Mature egg

Laid clutch of eggs

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Cytoplasm rearrangement , first

cleavage 2-cell 8-cell

Early blastula late blastula

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Gastrulation

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Archenteron

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Early Xenopus development: fertilization

The unfertilized egg is a single large cell.gg g g

The animal pole, the upper part of the egg, has a pigmented surface.

The vegetal pole, lower region, contains the yolk.

After fertilization, the male nucleus (from sperm) and female nucleus (from egg) fuse to form one nucleus.

After fertilization, cleavage begins without growth (mitotic division only)

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only).

Xenopus blastulation

After ~12 cycles of division a layer of small cells is formed surrounding a fluid-filled cavity (the blastocoel) that sits on top of the large yolk cells.

Three germ layers are mesoderm, endoderm and ectoderm

The mesoderm is located at the "equator" and becomes muscle, cartilage, bone, heart, blood, kidney

The endoderm is above the mesoderm and below the ectoderm and becomes gut, lungs and liver

The ectoderm sits above the endoderm and becomes the epidermis and nervous system

In the blastula, these layers are all on the surface and they interact!

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In the blastula, these layers are all on the surface and they interact!

Xenopus gastrulation & neuralution

Gastrulation is an extensive rearrangement of embryonic cells. Mesoderm and endoderm move to the inside of the embryo to give the basic body

l plan.

For the most part, the inside of the frog is now inside and the "outside"

except for the skin is outside.

Notochord is a rod-like structure that runs from the head to the tail and lies beneath the nervous system.

Somites are segmented blocks of mesoderm which form on either side of the notochord. They become muscles, spinal column and dermis

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(skin).

Neuralution occurs when ectoderm above the notochord folds to form neural tube (becomes spinal cord & brain).

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Cell theory changed the conception of embryonic development and heredity

Organisms are composed of cells, the basic unit of life.

Develop between 1820-1880. All living organism consist of cells. One cell develop to mutilcellular interaction and form.

g p ,

Both animals and plants are multicellular composites that arise from a single cell, therefore development must be epigenetic and not preformational since a single cell (zygote; the fertilized egg) results in many different types of cells.

Only the germ cells (egg and sperm) pass characteristics on to the offspring.

Somatic cells are not directly involved in passing on traits to the next

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Somatic cells are not directly involved in passing on traits to the next generation and characteristics acquired during an animal's life are not passed onto the offspring.

Remember that “a hen is only an egg's way of making another egg.”

19th century German biologist August Weismann

Germ cells--- egg and sperm, are not influenced by the body that bears them.

Somatic cells(body cells)---form germ cell, can not transmitted to the germ cell.

Fig. 1.6

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Only mutations in Germ cell and transmit to offspring Somatic cell

Meiosis and fertilization

Meiosis is the reduction division that allows diploid precursor cells to generate haploid germ cells.

At fertilization, a diploid is reformed by joining two haploid germ cells

cells.

The diploid zygote contains equal numbers of chromosomes from each of two parents.

Observations of sea urchin eggs revealed that after fertilization the egg contains 2 nuclei which fuse to form a single nucleus The nucleus must then contain the "physical basis of heredity."

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Somatic cell ---- mitosis, one cell two cells, chromosome no change Germ cell---Meiosis, one cell four cells, chromosome n = n / 2

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Cell Theory (Late 19^thCentury by August Weismann)

Organisms are composed of cells, the basic unit of life.

Both animals and plants are multicellular composites that arise from a single cell, therefore, development must be epigenetic and not preformationalsince a single cell (the fertilized egg) results in many different types of cells.

Only the germ cells (egg and sperm) pass characteristics on to the offspring. (First distinction between somatic and germ cells) Somatic cells are not directly involved in passing on traits to the next

generation and characteristics acquired during an animal's life are not passed onto the offspring.

“ h i l ' f ki th ” (S l B tl )

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“a hen is only an egg's way of making another egg.” (Samuel Butler)

Mosaic and regulative methods of development

Mosaic development depends upon specific determinants in the one- celled zygote that are not divided equally between the daughter cells (asymmetric division). Fig.1.7 Weismann’s theory of nuclear determination

How cells become different from one another emerged.

determination.

Roux (1880's) destroyed one cell of a two-celled embryo (with a hot pin) to result in ~1/2 frog embryo. Based on a mosaic mechanism. To check Weismann’s theory.

Regulative development depends upon interactions between 'parts' of the developing embryo and can result in causing different tissues to form (even if parts of the original embryo are removed).

Drieschdestroyed one cell of a sea urchin embryo at the two cell stage

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and a normal appearing but smaller sea urchin larva resulted.

Mosaic and regulative methods of development

Fig.1.7 Weismann’s theory of nuclear determination

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The factors in the nucleus that were distributed asymmetrically to daughter cells during cleavage

Mosaic development depends upon specific determinants in the one-celled zygote that are not divided equally between the daughter cells (asymmetric division). Fig.1.7 Weismann’s theory How cells become different from one another emerged.

of nuclear determination.

Roux (1880's) destroyed one cell of a two-celled embryo (with a hot pin) to result in ~1/2 frog embryo. Based on a mosaic

mechanism. To check Weismann’s theory. Fig 1.8

Driesch destroyed one cell of a sea urchin embryo at the two cell stage and a normal appearing but smaller sea urchin larva resulted.

Regulative development depends upon interactions between 'parts'

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Regulative development depends upon interactions between parts of the developing embryo and can result in causing different tissues to form (even if parts of the original embryo are removed).

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Fig.1.8 Roux’s experiment to check Weismann’s theory

Damage area

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No develop Development of the frog is based on a mosaic mechanism

Mosaic development depends upon specific determinants in the one-celled zygote that are not divided equally between the daughter cells (asymmetric division). Fig.1.7 Weismann’s theory of nuclear determination

How cells become different from one another emerged.

of nuclear determination.

Roux (1880's) destroyed one cell of a two-celled embryo (with a hot pin) to result in ~1/2 frog embryo. Based on a mosaic

mechanism. To check Weismann’s theory.

Driesch destroyed one cell of a sea urchin embryo at the two cell stage and a normal appearing but smaller sea urchin larva resulted.

Regulative development depends upon interactions between 'parts' of the de eloping embr o and can res lt in ca sing different

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of the developing embryo and can result in causing different tissues to form (even if parts of the original embryo are removed).

Fig.1.9 Driesch’s experiment on sea urchin embryo, which first demonstrated the phenomenon of regulation

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small

Mosaic development ???????????????

Figure 3.15. Driesch's demonstration of regulative development. (A) An intact 4-cell sea urchin embryo generates a Drastically different results from the predictions of Weismann or Roux Regulative Development

y g

normal pluteus larva. (B) When one removes the 4-cell embryo from its fertilization envelope and isolates each of the four cells, each cell can form a smaller, but normal, pluteus larva. (All larvae are drawn to the same scale.) N t th t th f l d i d i

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Note that the four larvae derived in this way are not identical, despite their ability to generate all the necessary cell types. Such variations are also seen in adult sea urchins formed in this way.

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Mosaic versus regulative methods of development

Mosaic development depends upon specific determinants in the one-celled zygote that are not divided between the daughter cells (asymmetric division). Lack cell types if regions of embryo are removed (Autonomous specification).

Regulativedevelopment depends upon interactions between 'parts' of the developing embryo and can result in causing different tissues to form (even if parts of the original embryo are removed) (Conditional specification).

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Regulatory development: induction

Induction is a type of regulatory development via cell-cell interaction or communication.

This is a process where one tissue directs the development of This is a process where one tissue directs the development of

another tissue.

A classical experiment: Spemann & Mangold (1924) - graft of the blastopore lip of one newt onto another.

Note: The blastopore is the opening formed in early gastrulation through which cells migrate inside.

The Spemann Organizer can induce the formation of an ectopic axis (twinned embryo)

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axis (twinned embryo)

Fig.1.9 The importance of induction and cell-cell interaction in development was proved dramatically in 1924 Spemann and his assistant Hilde Mangold.

organizer organizer

Organizer: controlling the organization of a completer embryonic body

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1935 Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine

The same embryo grow the same organism?

regulative development;

cell fate determined late

mosaic development;

more mosaic than regulative

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development;

cell fate determined early

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One fertilized egg split into two different phenotype

Genetic vs. Embryology

G t h t

Fig. 1.10 Genotype vs. phenotype

Genotype Phenotype Environment factor

regulated

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Phenotype: visible appearance, internal structure, biochemistry….

Five processes of development

1. Cleavage Division: No increase in total cell mass (every cell size

↓) , copy gene. Fig. 1.12

Xenopus eggs after four cell divisions 54

2. Pattern Formation: A/P and D/V axes: Coordinate system Fig. 1.13

2. Different germ layers Box 1B Five processes of development

g y

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3. Morphogenesis: take 3D form, neural crest migrates far. 1 egg→250 types Fig. 1.14

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4. Cell Differentiation: cells become structurally and functionally different.

5. Growth: cell multiplication (proliferation) increase in cell (proliferation), increase in cell size, deposit extracellular material (bone, shell) growth can be morphogenetic. Fig.

1.15

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2. Pattern Formation: A/P and D/V axes: Coordinate system Fig 1 13

1. Cleavage Division: No increase in total cell mass (every cell size ↓) , copy gene. Fig. 1.12

4. Cell Differentiation: cells become structurally and 3. Morphogenesis: take 3D form, neural crest migrates far. 1 egg→250 types Fig. 1.14

Fig. 1.13

2. Different germ layers Box 1B

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functionally different.

5. Growth: cell multiplication, increase in cell size, deposit extracellular material (bone, shell) growth can be

morphogenetic. Fig. 1.15

Five cell behaviours provide the link between gene action and development

• Gene expression results in cell behavior and development.

• Gene activity gives cell identity.

1. Cell-cell communication 2. Cell shape changes

3. Cell movement (adhesion molecular) 4. Cell proliferation

5. Cell death (apoptosis)

Fig. 1.16

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The behavior modulated by 1. gene—protein 2. cell-cell interaction 3. positional information

Genescontrol cell behavior by controlling which protein are made by a cell

Gene protein regulation function

Differential gene activity controls development

Fig. 1.17 Gene expression and protein synthesis 60

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Differential gene expression cell FATE specification, determination

development Regulative mosaic

Fig. 1.18 The distinction between cell fate, determination , and specification 61

(Idealized)

Differentiated differentiation

分化 Next step

Cell fate

“Cell fate” is what cells should become (not differentiation).

Specified cells keep their fate even when isolated. This is tested by transplantation (some cells change their fate).

Early embryonic cells are not narrowly determined, latter ones are.

DNA mRNA Protein

transcription & processing nuclear export, translation &

modification

Differential gene expression controls cell differentiation.

Common house-keeping genes do not cause cells to differ.

Developmentally specific transcription factors direct differential

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Developmentally specific transcription factors direct differential gene expression.

Start from asymmetrical division

The timing plays an important role of Differential gene activity controls development

Fig 1.19 Determination of the eye region with time in amphibian

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development

Inductive interaction

Inductive interaction is the process by which one group of cells change the fate of another group of cells.

How the gene expression in one cell affected another?

g p

The information to cause induction passes from cell to cell in the form of:

1. secreted diffusible molecule (signal transduction)

2. surface molecule receptor (competent) 3. gap junction (channel)

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Competence : the state of being able to respond to inductive signals due to the presence of receptor or transcription factors.

Fig. 1.20 An inducing signal can be transmitted from one cell to another

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Positional information directs pattern formation

Positional information directs pattern formation by giving positional values to cells. Fig. 1.21

This biological information must first be specified and then the value must be interpreted . (Nearest more directly)

Morphogen varies in concentration and directs different fates at different concentrations. Fig. 1.22

Source Sink [high] [low]

Threshold concentrations: Different fates, different levels (ranges) of morphogen.

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Cell fate dependent on:

1. asymmetrical division 2. Timing

3. Inductive information 4. Positional information

The French flag model on pattern formation Fig. 1.22

Fig. 1.21

Morphogen: A chemical whose concentration varies, and which is involved in pattern formation

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Pattern formation:

Concentration and threshold effect

Different order produced different pattern

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Fig. 1.23 Positional information could be used to generate an enormous variety of pattern

Development is progressive

1. Lineage dependent fate: Cytoplasmic localization and asymmetric cell division control the fate of resulting cells. Daughter cells become different and give different lineages. Fig. 1.25

One cell two different cell four………

It can produce many cell types

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Fig 1.26 Stem asymmetric cell division produced differentiate and renew

asymmetrical division

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2.Generative program rather than a descriptive program: Development depends upon a progressive series of instructions.

Descriptive program: DNA contain a full description of the organisms p p g p g to which it will giver rise; It is a “blueprint” for the organism. DNA Generative program: Descriptive program combine with cytoplasmic effect.

An embryo needs each action to be built upon the previous action and that on the one before

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that on the one before.

Development instructions are not a "blue print" but are a structural list of actions

3. Lateral Inhibition: Many structures are regularly spaced. Fig. 1.24

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Cells that form a structure stop neighbouring cells from doing the same (feathers, compound eye faucets).

Via inhibitory molecule acts the nearest cell, prevent development

4. The reliability of development is achieved by a variety of means

Redundancy: There are two or more ways of carrying out a

5. The complexity of embryonic development is due to the complexity of Redundancy : There are two or more ways of carrying out a particular process

Negative feedback

Many feedback system (positive or negative ) regulated the development

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cells themselves

i. Different gene and different timing

ii. More complex independent external signal

Summary

1. All the information for embryonic development is contained with the fertilized egg (diploid zygote).

2. Cytoplasmic constitute plays important role of the embryonic development.

3. Gene encode protein regulated embryonic development.

4. Major process involved in development are cell division, pattern formation, morphogenesis, celldifferentiation, cell migration, cell death and grow.

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5. Development is progressive.

6. Cell in early embryo usually have much greater potential for development.

7. Many gene are involved in controlling the complex interaction, and reliability is achieved in a variety was

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Udder

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Transgenic mice

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Transgenic mice

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Northern blotting (for m-RNA detection)

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Reverse transcriptase-polyermerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)

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Microarray-technique

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In situ hybridization

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1. Specific term: A/P, D/V 2. Epigenesis vs. preformation 3. Mosaic vs. regulative development 4. five steps of development 5. Cell fate

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