真菌學

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真菌學

黃尹則 Yin-Tse Huang 高雄醫學大學生物系 ythuangmyco@gmail.com

高中生物科學資優培育計畫

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今日行程

❖ 三堂40分鐘的正課、30分鐘的影片介紹、中間各10分鐘休息

❖ 課後10題的隨堂考試（上課都有說的觀念題、不需要背誦）

❖ 作業一：菇體繪製

❖ 作業二：孢子印製作

❖ 作業三：公園地衣調查

1. 三個作業請放在一個Word 檔，封面包含課程名稱、你的姓名、上課日期。

2. Word檔請以「學生姓名_真菌學」命名，如「黃尹則_真菌學.docx」

3. 請於2021年9月14日(星期二)下午5點前寄到 ythuangmyco@gmail.com. 信件 標題：中山高中資優課程_XXX作業。

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今日行程

❖ 課後10題的隨堂考試（上課都有說的觀念題、不需要背誦）✅

❖ 作業一：菇體繪製 ✅

❖ 作業二：孢子印製作 ✅

❖ 作業三：公園地衣調查 ✅

(4)

Who are the following fungi?

A B C D E

(5)

Largest living thing on Earth

(6)

Largest living thing on Earth

Armillaria ostoyae

9 km^2, >2400 years

(7)

What are fungi?

(8)

What are fungi?

1. Eukaryotes: they have a nucleus and organelles

(9)

What are fungi?

1. Eukaryotes: they have a nucleus and organelles

2. Heterotrophic: They obtain nutrients from other

organisms. (unlike plants, which are autotrophic)

(10)

What are fungi?

3. Absorptive nutrition: They secrete enzymes and digest food outside of their

bodies.

(11)

What are fungi?

4. Chitin cell walls: All true fungi have cell walls that contain chitin (but no cellulose); Chitin is also found in insect

exoskeletons.

(12)

What are fungi?

4. Chitin cell walls: All true fungi have cell walls that contain chitin (but no

cellulose); Chitin is also found in insect exoskeletons.

5. Indeterminate growth:

Theoretically, an “individual”

can live forever.

(13)

"Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution”

– Theodosius Dobzhansky

(14)

Fungi (Eumycota) Eukaryote

s

(15)

Fungi (Eumycota) Eukaryote

s

(16)

Fungi (Eumycota)

❖ (usually) multiple cells

❖ external nutrient

absorption

(17)

Animal

❖ (usually) multiple cells s

❖ internal nutrient absorption

(ingestion)

(18)

Plants

❖ (usually) multiple cells

❖ Autotrophy (photosynthesis)

(19)

❖ Many are single-celled

❖ Diverse lifestyles and trophic modes

“others

”

(20)

Fungal Diversity

• There are A LOT of fungal species.

Blackwell (2011) suggested 5.1 million species is a good estimate, , c.f. 8.7 M of animals and 391,000 of plants

• 100,000 known fungal species

• Describe 1200 species / year; > 3000 years to know all fungi on earth

(21)

“chytrids” (1,000 species)

“zygomycetes” (1,000 species)

Glomeromycota (160 species)

Ascomycota (65,000 species)

Basidiomycota (30,000 species)

Sexual spores on basidia Sexual spores on asci

Arbuscular mycorrhizae formed with plants

Sexual spores on suspensors Spores usually have flagella

• 100,000 known

fungal species

(22)

“chytrids” (1,000 species) Now Chytridiomycota Hibbett et al 2007

Blastocladiomycota T.Y.James et al 2006

“zygomycetes” (1,000 species) Now Mucoromycota

Zoopagomycota Spatafora et al (2016)

Glomeromycota (160 species)

(Now Glomeromycotina)

Spatafora et al (2016)

Ascomycota (65,000 species)

Basidiomycota (30,000 species)

Sexual spores on basidia Sexual spores on asci

Sexual spores on suspensors Spores usually have flagella

Microsporidia (1300 species) Hibbett et al 2007

Cryptomycota (706 species) Jones & Richards 2011

• 100,000 known fungal species

Arbuscular mycorrhizae formed with plants

(23)

What Fungi do?

• Pathogens - on plants but also animals, other fungi, etc. The most economically important fungi are pathogens of key food crops.

• Saprophytes - many fungi are decay specialists. Fungi are particularly good at decaying wood but some species can attack paint, bone, hair, and just about anything else.

• Symbionts - mutualistic relations with plants, animals, etc. (including:

mycorrhizas, endophytes, lichens, rumen fungi)

(24)

As pathogens

Coffee rust (Basidiomycota) Laurel wilt (Ascomycota)

Candidiasis (Ascomycota)

Strawberry rot (zygomycetes) White rust (chytrids) Chytridiomycosis (chytrids)

(25)

As saprophytes

Brown rot White rot (Basidiomycota)

Bread mold (zygomycetes)

Morels (Ascomycota)

• Fungi are efficient decomposers of organic material including cellulose and lignin

Chlorophyllum fairy ring (Basidiomycota)

(26)

As symbionts

• Some fungi share their enzymatic or physical services with other organisms

Lichen (mostly Ascomycota) Termite fungus growing Ambrosia symbiosis

(27)

Features of fungi (1)

❖ Many fungi are multicellular (a).

❖ Their bodies are made of microscopic filaments called hyphae. Cells (in some) are divided by a wall called a septum (plural: septa). Hyphae grow at their tips (apical growth). When many hyphae are massed together it is called a

mycelium (plural: mycelia).

❖ Coenocytic fungi (b) lack septa and have a continuous cytoplasmic mass with hundreds or thousands of nuclei.

Cell wall

Por Septume Nuclei

(a) Septate hypha

Cell wall

Nuclei

(b) Coenocytic hypha

(28)

Apical growth of fungi

(29)

Features of fungi (2)

• Sometimes fungi are

unicellular. Unicellular fungi without flagella are often called yeasts. Yeasts

reproduce by budding.

• One group of fungi, (the

“chytrids”) have motile, unicellular spores. These motile spores are called zoospores.

(30)

• Sometimes fungi are dimorphic. Dimorphic fungi can exist in a yeast phase and in a hyphal phase. Most animal pathogens do this (e.g. Candida).

• The switch between yeast and hyphae is triggered by changes in temp. and oxygen

Features of fungi (3)

(31)

• Most fungi reproduce by spores. Many fungi can produce two or more types. Spores can either be asexual (conidia) or sexual (e.g. ascospore, basidiospore, zygospore).

Orbilia - this cup fungus produces as sexual ascospores and asexual conidia. Either will germinate to trap

nematodes.

Features of fungi (4)

(32)

Reproduction of fungi

• Fungi propagate themselves by producing vast numbers of spores, either sexually or asexually

Lycoperdon sp.

Boletus sp.

(33)

Reproduction of fungi

• Spores can be disseminated long distances, via carrying by wind,

water, animal, or actively discharging by itself; they will germinate if they land in moist conditions with available food

Pilobolus sp.

Albugo sp.

(34)

Haploid (n) Heterokaryotic Diploid (2n)

Spore-producing structures Spores

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

GERMINATIO N

• Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles

(35)

Haploid (n) Heterokaryotic

Diploid (2n) PLASMOGAMY

(fusion of cytoplasm) Heterokaryotic stage

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATIO N

(36)

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATIO N

MEIOSIS

Spores (n)

(37)

Haploid (n) Heterokaryotic Diploid (2n)

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Mycelium

GERMINATIO N

• Haploid: Most fungi live haploid, producing spores asexually.

10 µm

Parent cell

Bud

(38)

Spore-producing structures Spore

s

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Myceliu m

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATIO N

• Heterokaryotic (dikaryotic): Contain more than one genetically different nuclei in a cell. This stage is short-lived in most fungi, but live long in

basidiomycetes.

(39)

(fusion of cytoplasm) Heterokaryoti c

stage Spore-producing

structures Spore

s

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Myceliu m

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATIO N

MEIOSIS

Spores (n)

• Diploid: Generate sexual spores, paired processes of karyogamy and meiosis produce genetic variation.

(40)

Spore-producing structures Spore

s

(n) ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Zygote (2n)

GERMINATIO N

MEIOSIS

Spores (n)

(41)

The origin of fungi

• Fungi are most closely related to unicellular protists called nucleariids 核形蟲

• Animals are most closely related to unicellular protists called

choanoflagellates 領鞭毛蟲

unicellular

(42)

Kew, 2018

(43)

Kew, 2018

• Most basal lineage to Fungi.

• Taxonomic placement unresolved.

• Unicellular

• Biotrophic intracellular parasites.

(44)

Cryptomycota (隱真菌門) Rozella and other members of the unicellular Cryptomycota have flagellated spores and lack chitin-rich cell walls. Rozella is an early diverging fungal lineage.

(Letcher et al. 2017) (Jones et al. 2011)

α-tubulin

nucleus chitin

(45)

Microsporidia (微孢子蟲) is recently classified as Fungi. Unicellular

eukaryotes that are all obligate intracellular parasites. Around 1,500 species in 18 genera have been reported to infect a wide range of

eukaryotes, including protists, insects, crustaceans, humans. Especially on immunocompromised. Obtaining ATP directly from their hosts.

Polar tube Xenoma

(46)

Kew, 2018

(47)

Kew, 2018

• Most water-inhabiting

• Zoospores with flagellum

• Saprophyte or parasitic on algae, oomycetes, and amphibians, etc.

• Diploid/haploid lifestyle (alternation)

chytrids (壺菌)

(48)

Diploid/haploid lifestyle of chytrids

multicellular haploid

gametophyte multicellular diploid

sporophyte

(49)

chytrids (壺菌) form spores in several ways. The name comes from “chytridion” meaning “little kettle.” Chytridiomycota

may have been the earliest fungi in terrestrial environments

(50)

(51)

Kew, 2018

(52)

Kew, 2018

• Production of zygotes.

• Mostly coenocytic hypha

• Typically asexual reproduction via sporangia.

• Loss of the flagellum and the rise of the terrestrial, filamentous fungi.

zygomycetes (接合菌)

(53)

Haploid (n)

Heterokaryotic (n + n) Diploid (2n)

PLASMOGAMY Mating

type (–)

Gametangia with haploid nuclei Mating

type (+)

Young

zygosporangium (heterokaryotic) New

mycelia SEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

KARYOGAM Y

Diploid nuclei

Zygo- sporangium

100 µm

Rhizopus

growing on bread

Sporangia

Dispersal and germination of spores

ASEXUA L

REPRO- DUCTION

Sporangium MEIOSIS

50 µm Mycelium

(54)

zygomycetes (接合菌) form their sexual spores by the fusion of two hyphae, (“zygo” = marriage). Representing an important group of fungi for ecological studies of host association and diversification of nutritional modes and cell

biology studies regarding the evolution of centrosomes, organelles associated

with hyphal growth and differentiation, and multicellularity.

(55)

glomeromycota (球囊菌) Now is Glomeromycotina in Mucoromycotina (‘zygomycetes’). Unclear whether they produce sexually or not. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) = obligate symbionts with plants. Associated with > 90%

terrestrial plants.

M N

M

(56)

Kew, 2018

(57)

Kew, 2018

• Ascomycota & Basidiomycota

• Accounting for 90% of known fungal species.

• Mostly septate hyphae.

• Dikaryotic nuclear phase in their life cycle.

Dikayra (雙核亞界)

(58)

Conidia; mating type (–)

Haploid (n)

Dikaryotic (n + n) Diploid (2n)

PLASMOGAMY

Ascus

(dikaryotic) Mycelia

(n)

Dikaryotic hyphae (n + n)

KARYOGAM

Y Diploid nucleus (zygote; 2n) Dispersal

Germination ASEXUA

L

REPRO- DUCTION

Hypha

Mating type (+)

Conidiophore

Mycelium

Germination Dispersal Ascocarp

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO Ascospores (n)N

Asci Eight

ascospores Four haploid

nuclei (n) MEIOSIS MITOSIS

MITOSIS

Ascomycota (子囊菌)

(59)

Ascomycota (子囊菌) form their sexual spores in sacks

called asci (ascus). “Asco” = bag or sack

(60)

PLASMOGAMY Mating

type (–)

Mating type (+) Haploid

mycelia

Dikaryotic mycelium

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTIO N

Dispersal and germination

Basidiospores (n) Basidium with four basidiospores

Basidium containing four haploid nuclei MEIOSIS

Gills lined with basidia

Basidiocarp (n + n)

Basidium

Basidia (n + n)

KARYOGAM Y

Haploid (n)

Dikaryotic (n + n) Diploid (2n)

1 µm Basidiospore Diploid nuclei

Basidiomycota (擔子菌)

MITOSIS

(61)

Basidiomycota (擔子菌) form their sexual spores on club-shaped

cells called basidia (basidium).

“Basidio” = pedestal

(62)

(63)

Two commonly found Fungi in yards

1. Mushroom macro-features 2. Lichen (Lichenized Fungi)

(64)

Mushrooms

(65)

Rusts (mostly)

Smuts (mostly)

Almost everything else

(most fleshy basidios including jelly fungi, mushrooms, etc.)

Phylum: Basidiomycota

(66)

Main features of a mushroom

(67)

Cap Gill

Annulus/partial veil Stipe/stalk/stem

Volva

Amanita bisporigera

White

Inhibits the RNA polymerase II, which suppresses RNA production and protein

synthesis. This causes cellular necrosis, and ultimately, liver or kidney failure. Dies in 4 days.

α-amanitin

(68)

gilled tubular (poroid)

corals, clavarioid

gasteroid toothed, hydnoid polypores

(69)

basidia

basidiospores

(70)

Spore print

- Spore color

- Spore observation

(71)

作業一：菇體繪製

1. 請於網路上找到「鵝膏」此屬的圖片 2. 繪製並標示菇體的鑑定特徵

3. 拍照or掃描，貼在Word檔上

範例圖片

(72)

作業二：孢子印製作

1. 請到超市、公園或是野外找到新鮮菇體 2. 柄切下來以後，將菌蓋放在A4紙上

3. 約 12hr 後，將菌蓋取起

4. 將孢子印拍照，並貼在Word檔上

(73)

LICHEN

S

(74)

fungus = mycobiont [‘obligate’ symbiont]

green algae/cyanobacteria

= photobiont

[‘facultative’ symbiont]

Lichen morphology: the thallus

(75)

Mycobiont 1 (or more) species of fungus

–

Protection against dessication, UV

radiation, herbivory, etc

Water Minerals

Photobiont

1 (or more) species of green algae (one brown algae)

and/or cyanobacteria –

Sugars produced from photosynthesis

+

The lichen symbiosis

‘Mutualistic’ symbiosis Latin name of the lichen

= name of the fungus

(76)

mycobion t

photobion t

Mycobiont & photobiont can be grown separately

in culture but their morphology

is different than when they are

together

difficult to grow them together

in culture!

Why consider lichens as an ‘organism’

?

(77)

James et al. 2006. Nature 443.

• Highly successful: at least 20’000 species estimated

• Most species belong to the Ascomycota

(a few are Basidiomycota)

• Do not share a common ancestor

• Few ‘lichenization’ and many ‘delichenizations’

events

• Non-lichenized fungi [Aspergillus, Penicillum]

evolved from lichen ancestors

A scomyco t a

Basid io myco t a

Mycobiont

(78)

• Lichens are the dominant growth form on 8% of the Earth‘s surface

• Stress, drought, and cold-tolerant lichens establish in otherwise

barren habitats

• Soil formation

• Nitrogen and Carbon fixation

• Water retention

Ecological roles

(79)

Lichens are everywhere!

bark (corticolous) or wood (lignicolous)

soil (terricolous)

rocks

(saxicolous)

‘artificial’ substrates

other lichens (lichenicolous)

leaves (foliicolous)

(80)

Identification: Growth forms

foliose (leaf-like) fruticose (shrub-like) crustose (crust-like)

complex thallus / squamulose (scaly)

• Morphological groups but not evolutionary groups

• Convergent evolution of characters:

very common in lichens

(81)

The thallus is closely attached to the

substrate and cannot be removed without breaking the substrate

Crustose lichens

(82)

Foliose lichens

• The thallus looks “leaf-like”

• An upper and lower surface can be distinguished (corticate or not)

• The thallus is loosely attached to the substrate along the lower surface

(83)

• The thallus looks “shrub-like” and the branches can be erect or pendulous

• The thallus is more or less loosely attached to the substrate, on one or few attachment points

Fruticose lichens

(84)

Secondary thallus

= podetia holding

reproductive structures

(fungus) and/or vegetative

propagules (algae+fungus)

Squamulose lichens / complex thallus

Primary thallus made of

overlapping scales

(85)

作業三：公園地衣調查

1.

調查至少五顆樹木個體，上面所共生的各種地衣的數量

2.

請拍下來你找到的各種類地衣的代表照片

3. 請將調查表格、調查圖表、地衣照片貼到Word檔

參考網址

(86)

今日行程

❖ 課後10題的隨堂考試（上課都有說的觀念題、不需要背誦）

❖ 作業一：菇體繪製

❖ 作業二：孢子印製作

❖ 作業三：公園地衣調查

(87)