第四章 綜合討論
第五節 結論
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
49
第五節 結論
本研究改善了過去研究限制，實驗一中，收集膚電反應，檢驗自身學習、觀 察他人學習與觀察電腦學習，以及透過同理心問卷探討同理心對於觀察學習的調 節作用；實驗二中，直接操弄同理程度高低，探討同理心對於觀察學習的影響。
結果顯示，同理心的確會影響觀察學習機制，但對於正向學習與負向學習影響不 同。正向學習部分，學習趨向優勢選項，不受同理心的調節作用，觀察學習表現 好；負向學習部分，學習避開劣勢選項，同理程度越高，負向學習表現越好，膚 電反應亦會隨著同理程度增加而變大。FRN 結果顯示，觀察學習可能受到不同 系統的影響，同理程度高時，降低回饋系統活動，提高其他系統活動，因此決策 表現不受影響，此假設有待後續研究驗證。綜合實驗一與實驗二結果，本研究顯 示，觀察學習的負向學習會受到同理心調節，若能在觀察學習時，提供額外的情 緒訊息，提高對於他人的同理，能提高觀察學習的表現。本研究的貢獻在於，觀 察學習並不必然比自身學習差，藉由提高同理他人的程度，可以幫助觀察學習的 進行。
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
50
參考文獻
翁開誠. (1986). 同理心-多向度測量與相關研究. 台北: 大洋出版社.
Abler, B., Walter, H., Erk, S., Kammerer, H., & Spitzer, M. (2006). Prediction error as a linear function of reward probability is coded in human nucleus accumbens.
NeuroImage, 31, 790-795.
Bates, A. T., Patel, T. P., & Liddle, P. F. (2005). External behavior monitoring mirrors internal behavior monitoring error-related negativity for observed errors.
Journal of Psychophysiology, 19, 281-288.
Batson, C. D., Early, S., & Salvarani, G. (1997). Perspective taking: Imagining how another feels versus imaging how you would feel. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 751-758.
Batson, C. D. (2009). These things called empathy: Eight related but distinct
phenomena. In J. Decety & W. Ickes (Eds.), The social neuroscience of empathy (pp. 3-16). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bayer, H. M., & Glimcher, P. W. (2005). Midbrain dopamine neurons encode a quantitative reward prediction error signal. Neuron, 47, 129-141.
Bellebaum, C., Kobza, S., Thiele, S., & Daum, I. (2010). It was not my fault:
Event-related brain potentials in active and observational learning from feedback. Cerebral Cortex, 20, 2874-2883.
Bellebaum, C., Jokisch, D., Gizewski, E. R., Forsting, M., & Daum, I. (2012). The neural coding of expected and unexpected monetary performance outcomes:
Dissociations between active and observational learning. Behavioural Brain Research, 227, 241-251.
Bernoulli, D. (1954/1738). Exposition of a new theory on the measurement of risk.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
51
[Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis]. Econometrica, 22, 23-36.
Biele, G., Rieskamp, J., & Gonzalez, R. (2009). Computational models for the
combination of advice and individual learning. Cognitive Science, 33, 206-242.
Biele, G., Rieskamp, J., Krugel, L. K., & Heekeren, H. R. (2011). The neural basis of following advice. PLoS Biol, 9, e1001089.
Burke, C. J., Tobler, P. N., Baddeley, M., & Schultz, W. (2010). Neural mechanisms of observational learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 14431-14436.
Chang, S. W. C., Winecoff, A. A., & Platt, M. L. (2011). Vicarious reinforcement in rhesus macaques (macaca mulatta). Frontiers in Neuroscience, 5, 27.
Chiao, J. Y., & Mathur, V. A. (2010). Intergroup empathy: How does race affect empathic neural responses? Current Biology, 20, R478-R480.
Cikara, M., Bruneau, E. G., & Saxe, R. R. (2011). Us and them. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 149-153.
Cooper, J. C., Dunne, S., Furey, T., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2012). Human dorsal striatum encodes prediction errors during observational learning of instrumental actions.
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 106-118.
Davis, M. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy.
JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85.
Daw, N. D., O'Doherty, J. P., Dayan, P., Seymour, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2006). Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans. Nature, 441, 876-879.
Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Filion, D. L. (2007). The electrodermal system. In J. T.
Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary & G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (3 ed., pp. 159-181). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dickerson, K. C., Li, J., & Delgado, M. R. (2011). Parallel contributions of distinct
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
52
human memory systems during probabilistic learning. NeuroImage, 55, 266-276.
Dinstein, I., Hasson, U., Rubin, N., & Heeger, D. J. (2007). Brain areas selective for both observed and executed movements. Journal of Neurophysiology, 98, 1415-1427.
Doll, B. B., Jacobs, W. J., Sanfey, A. G., & Frank, M. J. (2009). Instructional control of reinforcement learning: A behavioral and neurocomputational investigation.
Brain Research, 1299, 74-94.
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255-278.
Frank, M. J., Seeberger, L. C., & O'Reilly, R. C. (2004). By carrot or by stick: Cognitive reinforcement learning in parkinsonism. Science, 306, 1940-1943.
Frank, M. J., Moustafa, A. A., Haughey, H. M., Curran, T., & Hutchison, K. E. (2007).
Genetic triple dissociation reveals multiple roles for dopamine in reinforcement learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 16311-16316.
Frith, C. D., & Singer, T. (2008). The role of social cognition in decision making.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 363, 3875-3886.
Fukushima, H., & Hiraki, K. (2006). Perceiving an opponent's loss: Gender-related differences in the medial-frontal negativity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1, 149-157.
Fukushima, H., & Hiraki, K. (2009). Whose loss is it? Human electrophysiological correlates of non-self reward processing. Social Neuroscience, 4, 261-275.
Goldman, A. (2006). Simulating minds: The philosophy, psychology, and neuronscience of mindreading. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Haruno, M., Kuroda, T., Doya, K., Toyama, K., Kimura, M., Samejima, K., . . . Kawato, M.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
53
(2004). A neural correlate of reward-based behavioral learning in caudate nucleus: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of a stochastic decision task. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 1660-1665.
Hein, G., & Singer, T. (2008). I feel how you feel but not always: The empathic brain and its modulation. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18, 153-158.
Hein, G., Lamm, C., Brodbeck, C., & Singer, T. (2011). Skin conductance response to the pain of others predicts later costly helping. PLoS ONE, 6, e22759.
Hertwig, R., Barron, G., Weber, E. U., & Erev, I. (2004). Decisions from experience and the effect of rare events in risky choice. Psychological Science, 15, 534-539.
Holroyd, C. B., & Coles, M. G. H. (2002). The neural basis of human error processing:
Reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity.
Psychological Review, 109, 679-709.
Holroyd, C. B., Nieuwenhuis, S., Yeung, N., & Cohen, J. D. (2003). Errors in reward prediction are reflected in the event-related brain potential. NeuroReport, 14, 2481-2484.
Hurlemann, R., Patin, A., Onur, O. A., Cohen, M. X., Baumgartner, T., Metzler, S., . . . Kendrick, K. M. (2010). Oxytocin enhances amygdala-dependent, socially reinforced learning and emotional empathy in humans. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 4999-5007.
Itagaki, S., & Katayama, J. (2008). Self-relevant criteria determine the evaluation of outcomes induced by others. NeuroReport, 19, 383-387.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
Knight, F. H. (1921). Risk, uncertainty, and profit. New York: Sentry Press.
Kobza, S., Thoma, P., Daum, I., & Bellebaum, C. (2011). The feedback-related
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
54
negativity is modulated by feedback probability in observational learning.
Behavioural Brain Research, 225, 396-404.
Lamm, C., Porges, E. C., Cacioppo, J. T., & Decety, J. (2008). Perspective taking is associated with specific facial responses during empathy for pain. Brain Research, 1227, 153-161.
Liljeholm, M., & O Doherty, J. P. (2012). Contributions of the striatum to learning, motivation, and performance: An associative account. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 467-475.
Liljeholm, M., Molloy, C. J., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2012). Dissociable brain systems mediate vicarious learning of stimulus–response and action–outcome contingencies. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 9878-9886.
Markman, A. B., & Medin, D. L. (2002). Decision making. In D. L. Medin & H. Pashler (Eds.), Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology: Vol.2. Memory and cognitive process (3 ed., pp. 413-467).
McClure, S. M., Berns, G. S., & Montague, P. R. (2003). Temporal prediction errors in a passive learning task activate human striatum. Neuron, 38, 339-346.
Miltner, W. H. R., Braun, C. H., & Coles, M. G. H. (1997). Event-related brain potentials following incorrect feedback in a time-estimation task: Evidence for a “generic”
neural system for error detection. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 788-798.
Miltner, W. H. R., Brauer, J., Hecht, H., Trippe, R., & Coles, M. G. H. (2004). Parallel brain activity for self-generated and observed errors. In M. Ullsperger & M.
Falkenstein (Eds.), Errors, conflicts, and the brain : Current opinions on
performance monitoring (pp. 124-129). Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences.
Naqvi, N. H., & Bechara, A. (2006). Skin conductance: A psychophysiological approach
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
55
to the study of decision making. In C. Senior, T. Russell & M. S. Gazzaniga (Eds.), Methods in mind (pp. 103-122). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Newman-Norlund, R. D., Ganesh, S., Schie, H. T. v., De Bruijn, E. R. A., & Bekkering, H.
(2009). Self-identification and empathy modulate error-related brain activity during the observation of penalty shots between friend and foe. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4, 10-22.
Nicolle, A., Symmonds, M., & Dolan, R. J. (2011). Optimistic biases in observational learning of value. Cognition, 119, 394-402.
O'Doherty, J. P., Dayan, P., Friston, K., Critchley, H., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Temporal difference models and reward-related learning in the human brain. Neuron, 38, 329-337.
O'Doherty, J. P., Dayan, P., Schultz, J., Deichmann, R., Friston, K., & Dolan, R. J. (2004).
Dissociable roles of ventral and dorsal striatum in instrumental conditioning.
Science, 304, 452-454.
Oliveira, F. T. P., McDonald, J. J., & Goodman, D. (2007). Performance monitoring in the anterior cingulate is not all error related: Expectancy deviation and the representation of action-outcome associations. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 19, 1994-2004.
Olsson, A., & Phelps, E. A. (2004). Learned fear of "unseen" faces after pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear. Psychological Science, 15, 822-828.
Olsson, A., Nearing, K. I., & Phelps, E. A. (2007). Learning fears by observing others:
The neural systems of social fear transmission. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2, 3-11.
Poldrack, R., Clark, J., PareÂ-Blagoev, E., Shohamy, D., Moyano, J. C., Myers, C., &
Gluck, M. (2001). Interactive memory systems in the human brain. synthesis, 52,
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
56
297-314.
Quartz, S. R. (2009). Reason, emotion and decision-making: Risk and reward computation with feeling. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 209-215.
Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 169-192.
Rizzolatti, G., & Sinigaglia, C. (2010). The functional role of the parieto-frontal mirror circuit: Interpretations and misinterpretations. Nature Review Neuroscience, 11, 264-274.
Salzman, C. D., & Fusi, S. (2010). Emotion, cognition, and mental state representation in amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Annual review of neuroscience, 33, 173.
Sanfey, A. G., & Chang, L. J. (2008). Multiple systems in decision making. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1128, 53-62.
Scheffers, M. K., & Coles, M. G. H. (2000). Performance monitoring in a confusing world: Error-related brain activity, judgments of response accuracy, and types of errors. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance;
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26, 141.
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275, 1593-1599.
Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Aharon-Peretz, J., & Perry, D. (2009). Two systems for empathy:
A double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions. Brain, 132, 617-627.
Shane, M. S., Stevens, M., Harenski, C. L., & Kiehl, K. A. (2008). Neural correlates of the processing of another's mistakes: A possible underpinning for social and observational learning. NeuroImage, 42, 450-459.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
57
Shohamy, D., Myers, C. E., Grossman, S., Sage, J., Gluck, M. A., & Poldrack, R. A.
(2004). Cortico-striatal contributions to feedback-based learning: Converging data from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Brain, 127, 851-859.
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2004).
Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain.
Science, 303, 1157-1162.
Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (1998). Reinforcement learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Suzuki, S., Harasawa, N., Ueno, K., Gardner, Justin L., Ichinohe, N., Haruno, M., . . . Nakahara, H. (2012). Learning to simulate others' decisions. Neuron, 74, 1125-1137.
Torriero, S., Oliveri, M., Koch, G., Caltagirone, C., & Petrosini, L. (2007). The what and how of observational learning. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19,
1656-1663.
Tricomi, E. M., Delgado, M. R., & Fiez, J. A. (2004). Modulation of caudate activity by action contingency. Neuron, 41, 281-292.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5, 297-323.
van Schie, H. T., Mars, R. B., Coles, M. G. H., & Bekkering, H. (2004). Modulation of activity in medial frontal and motor cortices during error observation. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 549-554.
Von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of games and economic behavior.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Walsh, M. M., & Anderson, J. R. (2011). Modulation of the feedback-related
negativity by instruction and experience. Proceedings of the National Academy
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
58
of Sciences, 108, 19048-19053.
Walsh, M. M., & Anderson, J. R. (2012). Learning from experience: Event-related potential correlates of reward processing, neural adaptation, and behavioral choice. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36, 1870-1884.
Walter, H. (2012). Social cognitive neuroscience of empathy: Concepts, circuits, and genes. Emotion Review, 4, 9-17.
Weber, E. U., & Johnson, E. J. (2009a). Decisions under uncertainty: Psychological, economic, and neuroeconomic explanations of risk preference. In P. W. Glimcher, C. F. Camerer, E. Fehr & R. A. Poldrack (Eds.), Neuroeconomics: Decision making and the brain (pp. 127-144): Academic Press.
Weber, E. U., & Johnson, E. J. (2009b). Mindful judgment and decision making.
Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 53-85.
Wicker, B., Keysers, C., Plailly, J., Royet, J.-P., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (2003). Both of us disgusted in my insula: The common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron, 40, 655-664.
Yacubian, J., Gläscher, J., Schroeder, K., Sommer, T., Braus, D. F., & Büchel, C. (2006).
Dissociable systems for gain- and loss-related value predictions and errors of prediction in the human brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 9530-9537.
Yechiam, E., Busemeyer, J. R., Stout, J. C., & Bechara, A. (2005). Using cognitive models to map relations between neuropsychological disorders and human decision-making deficits. Psychological Science, 16, 973-978.
Yeung, N., & Sanfey, A. G. (2004). Independent coding of reward magnitude and valence in the human brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 6258-6264.
Yu, R., & Zhou, X. (2006). Brain responses to outcomes of one's own and other's performance in a gambling task. NeuroReport, 17, 1747-1751.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
59
附錄
附錄一 ：實驗一指導語。
附錄二 ：人際反應量表中文版。
附錄三 ：實驗二指導語。
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
60
附錄一 實驗一指導語 一. 決策遊戲的規則如下：
1) 遊戲中，會看到四個符號（如：A、B、C、D），分別有不同的獲勝機 率，獲勝機率高的符號，有較多次的加分和較少次減分；獲勝機率低的 符號則相反，有較少次的加分與較多次的減分。
2) 分為兩種階段：訓練階段與測驗階段。
a) 訓練階段：以兩個符號進行配對，總共兩組（如：AB、CD）。每 次出現一組符號配對，選擇其中一個符號後，會根據對應的機率，
呈現結果，可能為加分或減分。符號的結果為機率性，符號間為獨 立，不會互相影響。例如：當一個符號的結果為加分時，不代表另 一個符號為減分，也可能為加分或減分。
b) 測驗階段：也會以兩個符號進行配對，但會出現全部的配對組合，
總共六組（如：AB、AC、AD、BC、BD、CD）。每次出現一組符 號配對，選擇其中一個符號後，不會呈現結果，但實際上會有加分 或減分，會影響到積分。
3) 測驗階段中，若出現未曾看過的組合時，請根據在訓練階段中對於符號 的經驗，選擇一個比較可能加分的符號。
4) 一場遊戲中，兩階段會穿插進行，各經歷三次，但符號和對應的機率不 會改變，順序如下：訓練→測驗→訓練→測驗→訓練→測驗。
二. 希望您在訓練階段中，能盡量學習各符號對應的機率，以在測驗階段中，當 面臨各種配對組合時，能有較好的表現。
三. 本實驗總共會進行三場遊戲，每場遊戲都會使用不同的四個符號，三場遊戲 的差異在於訓練階段以不同的方式進行學習，測驗階段的進行方式則是相同 的。
四. 三場遊戲的學習方式如下：
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
61
1) 自身學習情境（Self）
a) 訓練階段：符號配對出現後，可任意選擇一個符號，但需在 2 秒內 進行選擇，才會看到結果；若超過時間，則會出現「No Response」。
因符號的結果是自己所選擇的，故會影響到自己的積分。請專心選 擇，若超過時間，會減少積分以示懲罰。
b) 測驗階段：符號配對出現後，任意選擇其中一個符號，符號的結果 不會呈現，但實際上會有加分或減分，會影響到積分。
2) 觀察他人情境（Someone）
a) 訓練階段：無法任意選擇符號，將會觀察到先前參加者的選擇過程。
符號配對出現後，請等待對方選擇一個符號，之後，請在 2 秒內選 擇相同的符號，才會看到結果；選擇錯誤時，會出現「Wrong Response」；若超過時間，則會出現「No Response」。因符號的結 果是先前參加者所選擇的，故只會影響對方的積分，不會影響到自 己的積分。請專心選擇，若超過時間或選擇錯誤，會減少積分以示 懲罰。
b) 測驗階段：符號配對出現後，任意選擇其中一個符號，符號的結果 不會呈現，但實際上會有加分或減分，會影響到積分。
3) 觀察電腦情境（Computer）
a) 無法任意選擇符號，電腦將會隨機為您選擇一個符號。符號配對出 現後，請等待電腦選擇一個符號，之後，請在 2 秒內選擇相同的符 號，才會看到結果；選擇錯誤時，會出現「Wrong Response」；若 超過時間，則會出現「No Response」。因符號的結果是電腦幫您選 擇的，故不會影響到自己的積分。請專心選擇，若超過時間或選擇 錯誤，會減少積分以示懲罰。
b) 測驗階段：符號配對出現後，任意選擇其中一個符號，符號的結果