台灣在不同南島語族遷徙理論中，地位有極大的差異，其中一個原因是考古 學和語言學證據分別適用於不同的人類活動面向，語言擴散指涉到文化的影響，
例如族群間的語言採借與改變，而人類基因的擴散則涉及族群人口的大量流動或 族群通婚(Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, and Piazza, 1994)。所以探討南島文化的傳播與南 島語族人的傳播路徑會有相似但不完全相同的結果 (陳柏楨, 1998)。由於樹皮布是 南島語族重要的文化成分之一 (Howard, 2006; Cameron, 2008)，所以追查構樹的傳 播能讓我們進一步了解南島語族文化擴張的過程。也因為探討的是文化的傳播，
所以我會以語言學證據為輔，體質人類學證據為主與構樹的傳播做比較。
35 發生的重要證據。而Diamond (2000)與 Moodley 等人 (2009) 所提到的第二次長期 停留，雖然因為近大洋洲取樣地點及數量等原因，並無法斷定近大洋洲與台灣或
36
完全排除慢船說發生的可能性。但是目前的證據明確指出，台灣在南島文化傳播 中的地位，可部分印證快車說中對於南島文化起源與傳播中的論述。
37
5 結論
1. 結合不同的分析資料，構樹族群間的基因交流程度相當低，顯示其傳播能力有 限，長距離天然傳播不易發生，所以結構中顯示的族群分布擴張與長距離傳播 可能都是人為因素的影響。
2. 東亞地區內構樹存有明顯的遺傳差異，且差異程度大致與距離相關，而大洋洲 中夏威夷群島的構樹因為多次人為傳播而呈現複雜的結構。
3. 遠大洋洲地區構樹的遺傳變異顯示至少有兩次構樹傳入，其中一次侷限於夏威 夷，另一次的影響廣布遠大洋洲，其中影響範圍較廣的事件與台灣東部及南部 高度相關。
4. 越南的構樹雖然無法完全排除與大洋洲構樹族群間的關係，但相對於台灣或是 中國大陸，關係比較不重要。
5. 菲律賓、近大洋洲、留尼旺群島出現的構樹應該是近代商業繁殖傳播的結果，
而且來源可能是中國或是大陸東南亞。
6. 構樹的傳播大致能與快車說推定的南島語族拓殖路線相互對照，但是快車說所 提及在島嶼東南亞的傳播與在近大洋洲的停留，還需要更多證據才能確定。
38
ARBOGAST,B. S., and G. J. KENAGY. 2001. Comparative phylogeography as an integrative approach to historical biogeography. Journal of Biogeography 28:
819-825.
ARNASON,E., and S. PALSSON. 1996. Mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA sequence variation of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua, from Norway. Molecular Ecology 5:
715-724.
AUSTIN,C. C. 1999. Lizards took express train to Polynesia. Nature 397: 113-114.
Baguinon, N. T., M. O. Quimado, and G. J. Francisco. 2005. Country report on forest invasive species in the Philippines. In P. McKenzie, C. Brown, S. Jianghua, and W.
Jian [eds.], The unwelcome guests: Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference. 108-113. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
39
Nations: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.
BELLWOOD,P., J. J. FOX, and D. TRYON. 1995. The Austronesians in history: Common origins and diverse transformations. In P. Bellwood, J. J. Fox, and D. Tryon [eds.], The Austronesians: historical and comparative perspectives, 1-16.
Australian National University Press, Canberra.
BELLWOOD,P. S. 1978. Man's conquest of the Pacific: the prehistory of Southeast Asia and Oceania. Collins, Auckland.
BLUST,R. 1988. The Austronesian homeland: a linguistic perspective. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
BLUST,R. 1996. Austronesian culture history: the window of language. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 86: 28-35.
BLUST, R. 1999. Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics. Symposium Series of the Institute of Linguistics Academica Sinica 1: 31-94.
BOSU,P. P., and M. M. APETORGBOR. 2010. Bronssonetia papyrifera in Ghana. Its invasiveness, Impact and control attempts. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Ghana.
CAMERON,J. 2006. The archaeological evidence for bark-cloth in Southeast Asia. In M.
C. Howard [ed.], The archaeological evidence for bark-cloth in Southeast Asia., 65-74. White Lotus, Bangkok.
CAMERON,J. 2008. Trans-oceanic transfer of bark-cloth technology from South
China¡VSoutheast Asia to Mesoamerica? In S. O'Connor, G. Clark, and F. Leach [eds.], Islands of inquiry: Colonization, Seafairing and the Arceaeology of Martine Landscape 203-210. ANU E Press, Canberra.
CASTELLOE,J., and A. R. TEMPLETON. 1994. Root probabilities for intraspecific gene
40
trees under neutral coalescent theory. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 3:
102-113.
CAVALLI-SFORZA,L. L., P. MENOZZI, and A. PIAZZA. 1994. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Prress, New Jersey.
CHEN,Y., M. M. SHI, B. AI, J. M. GU, and X. Y. CHEN. 2008. Genetic variation in island and mainland populations of Ficus pumila (Moraceae) in eastern Zhejiang of China. Symbiosis 45: 37-44.
CHENG,Y., S. HWANG, and T. LIN. 2005. Potential refugia in Taiwan revealed by the phylogeographical study of Castanopsis carlesii Hayata (Fagaceae). Molecular Ecology 14: 2075-2085.
CHOU,Y. W., P. I. THOMAS, X. J. GE, B. A. LEPAGE, and C. N. WANG. 2011. Refugia and phylogeography of Taiwania in East Asia. Journal of Biogeography 38:
1992-2005.
CLEMENT,C. R. 1999. 1492 and the loss of Amazonian crop genetic resources. I. The relation between domestication and human population decline. Economic Botany 53: 188-202.
CLEMENT,M., D. POSADA, and K. A. CRANDALL. 2000. TCS: a computer program to estimate gene genealogies. Molecular Ecology 9: 1657-1659.
DIAMOND,J. M. 1988. Express train to Polynesia. Nature 336: 307-308.
DIAMOND,J. M. 1998. Guns, Germs and Steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years. Vintage, London.
DIAMOND,J. M. 2000. Taiwan's gift to the world. Nature 403: 709-710.
DOYLE,J., and J. DOYLE. 1987. A rapid DNA isolation procedure for small quantities of fresh leaf tissue. Phytochemical Bulletin 19: 11-15.
DUPANLOUP,I., S. SCHNEIDER, and L. EXCOFFIER. 2002. A simulated annealing
41
approach to define the genetic structure of populations. Molecular Ecology 11:
2571-2581.
EDGAR,R. C. 2004. MUSCLE: multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput. Nucleic Acids Research 32: 1792.
EYRE-WALKER,A., R. L. GAUT, H. HILTON, D. L. FELDMAN, and B. S. GAUT. 1998.
Investigation of the bottleneck leading to the domestication of maize.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95: 4441-4446.
FLINT,J., A. V. S. HILL, D. K. BOWDEN, S. J. OPPENHEIMER, P. R. SILL, S. W.
SERJEANTSON, J. BANAKOIRI, et al. 1986. High-frequencies of alpha-thalassemia are the result of natural-selection by malaria. Nature 321: 744-750.
FLORECE,L., and J. COLLADILLA. 2008. Spatial distribution and dominance of paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) in the vicinities of Mt. Makiling, Philippines.
Journal of Environmental Science and Management 9: 55-59.
GIBBONS,A. 2001. The peopling of the Pacific. Science 291: 1735-1737.
GREEN,R. C. 1991. Near and remote Oceania: disestablishing "Melanesia" culture history. Polynesian Society, Auckland.
HOWARD,M. C. 2006. Bark-cloth in South East Asia. White Lotus Co, Bangkok.
HUANG,S. S. F., S. Y. HWANG, and T. P. LIN. 2002. Spatial pattern of chloroplast DNA variation of Cyclobalanopsis glauca in Taiwan and east Asia. Molecular Ecology 11: 2349-2358.
HUDSON,R. R., M. SLATKIN, and W. P. MADDISON. 1992. Estimation of levels of gene flow from DNA-sequence data. Genetics 132: 583-589.
HURLES,M. E., E. MATISOO-SMITH, R. D. GRAY, and D. PENNY. 2003. Untangling
Oceanic settlement: the edge of the knowable. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18:
42
531-540.
HWANG,S., T. LIN, C. MA, and C. LIN. 2003. Postglacial population growth of Cunninghamia konishii (Cupressaceae) inferred from phylogeographical and mismatch analysis of chloroplast DNA variation. Molecular Ecology 12:
2689-2695.
KAYSER,M. 2010. The Human Genetic History of Oceania: Near and Remote Views of Dispersal. Current Biology 20: 194-201.
KAYSER,M., Y. CHOI, M. VAN OVEN, S. MONA, S. BRAUER, R. J. TRENT, D. SUARKIA, et al. 2008. The impact of the Austronesian expansion: Evidence from mtDNA and Y chromosome diversity in the Admiralty Islands of Melanesia. Molecular Biology and Evolution 25: 1362-1374.
KIRCH,P. 2010. Peopling of the Pacific: a holistic anthropological perspective. Annual Review of Anthropology 39: 18.
KIRCH,P. V. 2002. On the Road of the Winds: an Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact. University of California Press, Berkeley.
KUO,D., C. LIN, K. HO, Y. CHENG, S. HWANG, and T. LIN. 2010. Two genetic
divergence centers revealed by chloroplastic DNA variation in populations of Cinnamomum kanehirae Hay. Conservation Genetics 11: 803-812.
LAJBNER,Z., O. LINHART, and P. KOTLIK. 2011. Human-aided dispersal has altered but not erased the phylogeography of the tench. Evolutionary Applications 4:
545-561.
LARSON,G., T. CUCCHI, M. FUJITA, E. MATISOO-SMITH, J. ROBINS, A. ANDERSON, B.
ROLETT, et al. 2007. Phylogeny and ancient DNA of Sus provides insights into neolithic expansion in island southeast Asia and Oceania. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104: 4834-4839.
43
LEE,T., J. B. BURCH, T. COOTE, B. FONTAINE, O. GARGOMINY, P. PEARCE-KELLY, and D.
O. FOIGHIL. 2007. Prehistoric inter-archipelago trading of Polynesian tree snails leaves a conservation legacy. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 274: 2907-2914.
LIAO,J.-C. 1996. Flora of Taiwan Vol.2, Flora of Taiwan, 140-143. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Taipei.
LIAO,L. C., and J. Y. HSIAO. 1998. Relationship between population genetic structure and riparian habitat as revealed by RAPD analysis of the rheophyte Acorus gramineus Soland. (Araceae) in Taiwan. Molecular Ecology 7: 1275-1281.
LIBRADO,P., and J. ROZAS. 2009. DnaSP v5: a software for comprehensive analysis of DNA polymorphism data. Bioinformatics 25: 1451-1452.
LIU,G., H. SHU, and J. ZHANG. 2007. Niche of Broussonetia papyrifera population and main associated species naturally revegetabled in mine spoil Nanjing Mufu mountains. Research of Soil and Water Conservation 4: 184-185.
LIU,Z. J., and J. F. CORDES. 2004. DNA marker technologies and their applications in aquaculture genetics. Aquaculture 238: 1-37.
LONDO,J. P., Y. C. CHIANG, K. H. HUNG, T. Y. CHIANG, and B. A. SCHAAL. 2006.
Phylogeography of Asian wild rice, Oryza rufipogon, reveals multiple
independent domestications of cultivated rice, Oryza sativa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103: 9578-9583.
LUM,J. K., and R. L. CANN. 2000. mtDNA lineage analyses: origins and migrations of Micronesians and Polynesians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113:
151-168.
MANNI,F., E. GUERARD, and E. HEYER. 2004. Geographic patterns of (genetic, morphologic, linguistic) variation: How barriers can be detected by using
44
Monmonier's algorithm. Human Biology 76: 173-190.
MATISOO-SMITH,E. 1994. The human colonisation of Polynesia. A novel approach:
genetic analyses of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans). Journal of the Polynesian Society 103: 75-87.
MATISOO-SMITH,E. 2007. The peopling of Oceania. Cambridge University Press, New York.
MATISOO-SMITH,E. 2009. The commensal model for human settlement of the Pacific 10 years on-what can we say and where to now? The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 4: 151-163.
MATISOO-SMITH,E., and J. H. ROBINS. 2004. Origins and dispersals of Pacific peoples:
Evidence from mtDNA phylogenies of the Pacific rat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101: 9167-9172.
MATISOO-SMITH,E., and J. ROBINS. 2009. Mitochondrial DNA evidence for the spread of Pacific rats through Oceania. Biological Invasions 11: 1521-1527.
MATISOO-SMITH,E., R. M. ROBERTS, G. J. IRWIN, J. S. ALLEN, D. PENNY, and D. M.
LAMBERT. 1998. Patterns of prehistoric human mobility in Polynesia indicated by mtDNA from the Pacific rat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95: 15145-15150.
MATTHEWS,P. J. 1996. Ethnobotany, and the origins of Broussonetia papyrifera in Polynesia: an essay on tapa prehistory. In D. J. M., G. J. Irwin, B. F. Leach, A.
Pawley, and D. Brown [eds.], Oceanic culture history. Essays in honour of Roger Green, 117-132, New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication, Dunedin.
MAXWELL,R. J. 2003. Textiles of Southeast Asia: tradition, trade and transformation.Oxford University Press, Australia.
45
MOODLEY,Y., B. LINZ, Y. YAMAOKA, H. M. WINDSOR, S. BREUREC, J. Y. WU, A.
MAADY, et al. 2009. The peopling of the Pacific from a bacterial perspective.
Science 323: 527-530.
NEI,M. 1987. Molecular evolutionary genetics. Columbia Univversity Prress, New York.
NEICH,R., and M. PENDERGRAST. 1997. Pacific tapa. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
NEWTON‐FISHER,N. E. 2003. The home range of the Sonso community of chimpanzees from the Budongo Forest, Uganda. African Journal of Ecology 41: 150-156.
OPPENHEIMER,S., and M. RICHARDS. 2002. Fast trains, slow boats, and the ancestry of the Polynesian islanders. Science Progress 84: 157-181.
OPPENHEIMER,S. J., and M. RICHARDS. 2001. Polynesian origins. Slow boat to Melanesia? Nature 410: 166-167.
PAWLEY,A., and M. ROSS. 1993. Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history.
Annual Review of Anthropology 22: 425-459.
POREBSKI,S., L. G. BAILEY, and B. R. BAUM. 1997. Modification of a CTAB DNA extraction protocol for plants containing high polysaccharide and polyphenol components. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter 15: 8-15.
POSADA,D., and K. A. CRANDALL. 2001. Intraspecific gene genealogies: trees grafting into networks. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16: 37-45.
POSADA,D., K. A. CRANDALL, and A. R. TEMPLETON. 2000. GeoDis: a program for the cladistic nested analysis of the geographical distribution of genetic haplotypes.
Molecular Ecology 9: 487-488.
PREBBLE,M. 2008. No fruit on that beautiful shore: What plants were introduced to the subtropical Polynesian islands prior to European contact? In S. O. Connor, G.
46
Clark, and F. Leach [eds.], Islands of Inquiry: Colonization, Seafairing and the Archaeology of Maritine Landscapes. ANU E Press, The Australian National University, Camberra.
ROZEN, S.and H. SKALETSKY. 2000. Primer3 on the WWW for general users and for biologist programmers. Bioinformatics Methods and Protocols 132: 365-386.
SALAMINI,F., H. OZKAN, A. BRANDOLINI, R. SCHAFER-PREGL, and W. MARTIN. 2002.
Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East. Nature Reviews Genetics 3: 429-441.
SCHLOTTERER,C. 2004. The evolution of molecular markers - just a matter of fashion?
Nature Reviews Genetics 5: 63-69.
SEELENFREUND,D., R. PINA, K. Y. HO, S. LOBOS, X. MONCADA, and A. SEELENFREUND. 2011. Molecular analysis of Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent. (Magnoliophyta:
Urticales) from the Pacific, based on ribosomal sequences of nuclear DNA. New Zealand Journal of Botany 49: 413-420.
SEELENFREUND,D., A. CLARKE, N. OYANEDEL, R. PINA, S. LOBOS, E. MATISOO-SMITH, and A. SEELENFREUND. 2010. Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) as a commensal model for human mobility in Oceania: anthropological, botanical and genetic considerations. New Zealand Journal of Botany 48: 231-247.
SHAW,J., E. B. LICKEY, E. E. SCHILLING, and R. L. SMALL. 2007. Comparison of whole chloroplast genome sequences to choose noncoding regions for phylogenetic studies in angiosperms: The tortoise and the hare III. American Journal of Botany 94: 275-288.
SHEIL,D. 1994. Naturalized and invasive plant species in the evergreen forests of the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 32: 66-71.
SLATKIN,M. 1985. Gene flow in natural populations. Annual review of ecology and
47
systematics 16: 393-430.
TAMURA,K., D. PETERSON, N. PETERSON, G. STECHER, M. NEI, and S. KUMAR. 2011.
MEGA5: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Using Maximum Likelihood, Evolutionary Distance, and Maximum Parsimony Methods.
Molecular Biology and Evolution 28: 2731-2739.
TEMPLETON,A. R. 2004. Statistical phylogeography: methods of evaluating and minimizing inference errors. Molecular Ecology 13: 789-809.
TEMPLETON,A. R. 2010. Coherent and incoherent inference in phylogeography and human evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107: 6376.
TREJAUT,J. A., T. KIVISILD, J. H. LOO, C. L. LEE, C. L. HE, C. J. HSU, Z. Y. LEE, et al.
2005. Traces of archaic mitochondrial lineages persist in austronesian-speaking Formosan populations. PLoS Biology 3: 1838-1838.
TRYON, D. 1995. Proto-Austronesian and the major Austronesian subgroups. In P.
Bellwood, J. J. Fox, and D. Tryon [eds.], The Austronesians: historical and comparative perspectives, 17-38. Australian National University, Canberra.
WANG,J., P. GAO, M. KANG, A. LOWE, and H. HUANG. 2009. Refugia within refugia:
the case study of a canopy tree (Eurycorymbus cavaleriei) in subtropical China.
Journal of Biogeography 36: 2156-2164.
WHISTLER,W. A., and C. R. ELEVITCH. 2006. Broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry), ver. 2.1. In C. R. Elevitch [ed.], Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry.
Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Holualoa.
WRIGHT,S. 1978. Evolution and Genetics of Population. University of Chicago press, Chicago.
YANG,M. C., C. A. CHEN, H. L. HSIEH, and C. P. CHEN. 2007. Population subdivision of the tri-spine horseshoe crab, Tachypleus tridentatus, in Taiwan Strait. Zoological
48
Science 24: 219-224.
YANG,Y. J., Y. S. LIN, J. L. WU, and C. F. HUI. 1994. Variation in mitochondrial-DNA and population-structure of the Taipei treefrog Rhacophorus taipeianus in Taiwan. Molecular Ecology 3: 219-228.
ZENG,J., Y. P. ZOU, J. Y. BAI, and H. S. ZHENG. 2003. RAPD analysis of genetic variation in natural populations of Betula alnoides from Guangxi, China.
Euphytica 134: 33-41.
ZEREGA,N. J. C., W. L. CLEMENT, S. L. DATWYLER, and G. D. WEIBLEN. 2005.
Biogeography and divergence times in the mulberry family (Moraceae).
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37: 402-416.
ZHENG,H. C., B. K. HUANG., L. P. QIN, and Q. Y. ZHANG. 2002. Biological character and resources distribution of Broussonetia. Chinese Wild Plant Resources 6: 3.
ZHOU, Z, and M. G. GILBERT. 2003. Moraceae. In Z. Y. Wu, P. H. Raven, and D. Y.
Hong [eds.], Flora of China, Vol. 5. Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing and St. Louis.
49
表 1、PCR 引子表
分子標記 引子 引子序列 來源
ITS ITS4 ITS5B
5’GCTTA AACTC AGCGG GTACG 3’
5’TCGCG AGAAG TCCAC TGAA 3’
ndhF-rpl32 rpl32-R ndhF
ndhF-rpl32 Denature Denature
50
表 3、構樹各地區族群個體數 (N) 、ITS 片段核苷酸歧異度 (nucleotide diversity: π)、基因歧異度 (haplotype diversity: h )以及族群個 體中性檢測 (Tajima’s D test)
地理區 個體(N) 核苷酸歧異度(π) 基因歧異度(h) Tajima’s D
台灣 197 0.00062 0.35573 -0.32173
中國 234 0.0008 0.42348 -0.6489
福建 14 0.00027 0.15385 -1.14915
廣東 123 0.00061 0.34684 -0.08198
廣西 17 0.00138 0.61579 0.93886
雲南 68 0.00138 0.42362 0.0834
四川 4 0.00088 0.5 0.0834
上海 4 0 0 ~
北京 3 0 0 ~
海南 1 ~ ~ ~
日本 3 0 0 ~
越南 41 0.00069 0.37317 -0.29025
菲律賓 12 0.00093 0.5303 0.48516
印尼 16 0 0 ~
大洋洲 62 0.00182 0.5542 -0.67449
近大洋洲 2 0.00174 1 ~
遠大洋洲 60 0.00175 0.52373 1.12099
留尼旺 2 0 0 ~
Total 567 0.00134 0.61551 -0.67449
51
表 4、構樹各地區族群個體數 (N) 、葉綠體 ndhF-rpl32 片段核苷酸歧異度 (nucleotide diversity: π)、基因歧異度 (haplotype diversity: h ) 以及族群個體中性檢測 (Tajima’s D test)，*表示 P<0.005
地理區 個體(N) 核苷酸歧異度(π) 基因歧異度(h) Tajima’s D
台灣 169 0.00264 0.81866 -0.42358
中國 206 0.0022 0.85544 -1.10547
福建 14 0.00152 0.70513 1.33302
廣東 115 0.00208 0.74003 0.47284
廣西 17 0.00232 0.86275 0.16514
雲南 48 0.00184 0.79255 0.84213
四川 3 0.00057 0.66667 ~
上海 4 0 0 ~
北京 4 0.0017 0.5 -0.78012
海南 1 ~ ~ ~
日本 3 0 0 ~
越南 46 0.00122 0.70808 0.6437
菲律賓 14 0.00089 0.61538 0.36212
印尼 16 0 0 ~
大洋洲 58 0.00381 0.53297 2.5323*
近大洋洲 2 0 0 ~
遠大洋洲 56 0.0037 0.49935 -1.10547
留尼旺 2 0 0 ~
Total 514 0.00318 0.92017 -1.14614
52
表 5 東亞與大洋洲構樹 ITS 片段兩兩族群間遺傳分化與基因交流指數。對角線下方為 Fst值，對角線上方為 Nm值。
Mn
台灣 福建 廣東 廣西 雲南 四川 北京 上海 日本 越南 菲律賓 印尼 近大洋洲 遠大洋洲 留尼旺 台灣 0.00 1.61 1.07 0.42 1.00 -1.55 1.12 1.12 1.12 0.12 0.31 1.12 0.11 0.35 0.04 福建 0.13 0.00 6.08 0.53 1.33 0.11 0.27 0.00 0.08 0.37 0.02 廣東 0.19 0.04 0.00 1.22 1.14 2.49 1.03 1.03 1.03 0.23 0.31 1.03 0.11 0.51 0.05 廣西 0.38 0.32 0.17 0.46 0.53 0.32 0.32 0.32 1.55 0.26 0.32 0.13 0.70 0.08 雲南 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.35 0.00 1.95 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.14 1.40 0.91 0.12 0.37 0.10
四川 -0.19 0.00 0.09 0.32 0.11 0.00 0.15 0.40 0.14 0.41 0.06 北京 0.18 0.00 0.20 0.44 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.21 0.05 0.29 0.00 Fst 上海 0.18 0.00 0.20 0.44 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.21 0.05 0.14 0.00
日本 0.18 0.00 0.20 0.44 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.21 0.05 0.29 0.00 越南 0.67 0.69 0.53 0.14 0.64 0.62 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.00 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.38 0.03 菲律賓 0.45 0.48 0.44 0.49 0.15 0.38 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.69 0.00 0.21 0.11 0.26 0.44 印尼 0.18 0.00 0.20 0.44 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.55 0.00 0.05 0.29 0.00 近大洋洲 0.70 0.76 0.70 0.66 0.67 0.65 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.80 0.70 0.82 0.00 0.72 0.03 遠大洋洲 0.42 0.40 0.33 0.26 0.40 0.38 0.47 0.65 0.47 0.40 0.49 0.47 0.26 0.00 0.10 留尼旺 0.85 0.93 0.85 0.77 0.72 0.80 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.36 1.00 0.90 0.72 0.00
53
表 6 東亞與大洋洲構樹葉綠體 ndhF-rpl32 片段兩兩族群間遺傳分化與基因交流指數。對角線下方為 Fst值，對角線上方為 Nm值。
Nm
台灣 福建 廣東 廣西 雲南 四川 北京 上海 日本 越南 菲律賓 印尼 近大洋洲 遠大洋洲 留尼旺 台灣 0.00 1.24 1.07 1.07 0.85 0.33 0.85 0.45 0.21 0.85 0.73 0.46 0.27 1.77 0.27 福建 0.29 0.00 1.65 1.65 1.16 0.26 0.73 0.80 0.13 1.32 1.07 0.12 0.19 0.69 0.19 廣東 0.32 0.23 0.00 7.24 4.49 1.11 0.61 0.56 0.21 3.53 1.59 0.14 0.88 0.73 0.88 廣西 0.32 0.23 0.06 0.00 4.81 0.75 0.64 0.51 0.29 6.55 1.87 0.16 0.61 0.82 0.61 雲南 0.37 0.30 0.10 0.09 0.00 0.83 0.51 0.36 0.15 14.59 1.31 0.12 0.63 0.60 0.63 四川 0.61 0.65 0.31 0.40 0.38 0.00 0.19 0.06 0.03 0.45 0.24 0.03 0.30
北京 0.37 0.41 0.45 0.44 0.49 0.72 0.00 0.25 0.11 0.49 0.42 0.13 0.14 0.57 0.14 Fst 上海 0.53 0.39 0.47 0.50 0.58 0.90 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.00 日本 0.70 0.79 0.70 0.63 0.76 0.94 0.82 1.00 0.00 0.11 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00 越南 0.37 0.27 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.53 0.51 0.63 0.81 0.00 1.38 0.09 0.31 0.59 0.31 菲律賓 0.41 0.32 0.24 0.21 0.28 0.67 0.55 0.72 0.86 0.27 0.00 0.06 0.15 0.54 0.15 印尼 0.52 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.81 0.95 0.80 1.00 1.00 0.85 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.82 0.00 近大洋洲 0.65 0.72 0.36 0.45 0.44 0.00 0.78 1.00 1.00 0.61 0.77 1.00 0.00 0.26
遠大洋洲 0.22 0.42 0.41 0.38 0.45 0.63 0.47 0.59 0.57 0.46 0.48 0.38 0.66 0.00 0.26 留尼旺 0.65 0.72 0.36 0.45 0.44 0.00 0.78 1.00 1.00 0.61 0.77 1.00 0.00 0.66 0.00
54
表 7 構樹 ITS 片段的 Nested Clade Analysis (NCA)的推論順序及結果表。Clade 名稱如圖 4，推論依據 Temploton (2004)。
1-step clade Total Cladogram Clade 1-1
1-2-11-17-4 NO Χ 2=10.0807
Restricted gene flow with isolation by distance (restricted dispersal by distance in non-sexual species).
Clade 2-1 1-2-11-12 NO Χ 2=920.876*
Contiguous range expansion.
Clade 1-2 1-2-11-12 NO Χ 2=957.3979*
Contiguous range expansion.
Clade 1-3 1-2-3-4 NO Χ 2=80.3174*
Restricted gene flow with isolation by distance (restricted dispersal by distance in non-sexual species).
55
表 8 構樹葉綠體 ndhF-rpl32 片段的 Nested Clade Analysis (NCA)的推論順序及結果表。Clade 名稱如圖 5。
表 8 構樹葉綠體 ndhF-rpl32 片段的 Nested Clade Analysis (NCA)的推論順序及結果表。Clade 名稱如圖 5。