• 沒有找到結果。

行動與無所不在學習之研究成果

第四章 研究結果與討論

第二節 行動與無所不在學習之研究成果

依據本研究量化統計結果發現,近年來行動與無所不在學習之相關研究 論文以涉及教學主題居多。然而,僅透過量化統計方式分析趨勢,並不足 以提供具體的研究方向與建議。因此,本研究將進一步針對有關教學主題 的 97 篇相關研究進行質性分析。此外,雖然本研究質性分析是以教學主題 的相關研究為主,但根據本研究量化分析結果發現,此 97 篇有關教學主題 的相關研究中,亦有 25 篇研究同時涉及學習主題。由此可知,教學與學習 主題之間存在許多關聯性值得更深入的探究。

另外,本研究進行質性資料分析時,將教學主題面向分為(1)教學策 略方法; (2)教學工具;(3)教材內容設計等三部分作為分析重點,藉由 分析相關研究之結論及後續建議,並且提出行動與無所不在學習未來發展 的重點和問題,提供後續研究者作為參考依據。以下分別論述本研究質性 分析結果與討論:

一、教學策略方法分析結果與討論

有關教學策略方法的部分,根據本研究量化統計的分析結果發現,近年 來相關研究以探討學習者情意面向和認知面向居多。而本研究進一步發 現,雖然相關研究探討教學策略與方法範圍極廣,亦有各種教學策略互相 搭配使用的案例,但其重點還是在(1)教學策略和各研究變項的顯著性和 影響; (2)教學策略應用於各學科的效果和問題此兩項為主。因此本研究 以下將針對此兩項重點進一步說明:

(一) 教學策略和各研究變項的顯著性和影響

表 4-15 教學策略與各研究變項的顯著性之相關研究

研究變項 有達顯著 未達顯著

認知 Hwang、Kuo、Yin、Chuang(2010)、Zhang 等人(2010)、Liu、Chu(2010)、Huang、

Chiu、Liu、Chen(2011)、Chang、Chen、Hsu(2011)、Hwang、Wu、Ke(2011)、

Chang、Tseng、Tseng(2011)、Sandberg、Maris、Geus(2011)、Yen、Lee(2011)、

Liu、Lin、Tsai、Paas(2012)、Ryu、Parsons(2012)、Wang、Shen、Novak、Pan(2009)、

Yen、Lee、Chen(2012)、Ellis、Weyers、Hughes(2012)、McPake、Plowman、Stephen

(2012)、Looi、Zhang、Chen、Seow、Chia、Norris、Soloway(2011)、Rodríguez、

Nussbaum、Dombrovskaia(2012)、Song、Wong、Looi(2012)

Babb、Ross

(2009)、

Kemp、

Bushnell

(2011)、

Buckner、Kim

(2012)

情意 Hwang、Yang、Tsai、Yang(2009)、Looi 等人(2009)、Akkerman、Admiraal、 Huizenga

(2009)、Babb、Ross(2009)、Hwang、Kuo、Yin、Chuang(2010)、Liu、Chu(2010)、

Huang、Chiu、Liu、Chen(2011)、Chang、Chen、Hsu(2011)、Hwang、Wu、Ke(2011)、

Chang、Tseng、Tseng(2011)、Sandberg、Maris、Geus(2011)、Yen、Lee(2011)、

Cheon、Lee、Crooks、Song(2012)、Ryu、Parsons(2012)、Corrigan(2012)、Bonanno、

Kommers(2008)、Wang、Shen、Novak、Pan(2009)、Shih、Chu、Hwang、Kinshuk

(2011)、Coulby、Hennessey、Davies、Fuller(2011)、Park、Nam、Cha(2012)、Turvey

(2012)、Ellis、Weyers、Hughes(2012)、Sung、Hou、Liu、Chang(2010)、Looi、

Zhang、Chen、Seow、Chia、Norris、Soloway(2011)、Uzunboylu、Ozdamli(2011)、

Tsai、Tsai、Hwang(2012)、Mintz、Aagaard(2012)、Song、Wong、Looi(2012)

Kim 等人

(2011)

技能 Chang、Chen、Hsu(2011)、Yen、Lee(2011)、Coulby、Hennessey、Davies、Fuller

(2011)、McPake、Plowman、Stephen(2012)、Kemp、Bushnell(2011)、Buckner、

Kim(2012)

首先,從表 4-15 中可以發現,近年來在教學策略主題下大部分的研究 者著重在認知和技能兩個面向。另外,無論是在認知、情意、技能等三個 研究變項中,有達顯著的比例占大多數,此結果顯示,行動與無所不在學 習普遍能夠在教學中發揮良好的效果。

1. 認知及情意變項以情境和互動式教學策略為主

從表 4-15 中可以發現,在認知和情意變項方面,大多數研究皆有達到

顯著,本研究進一步探討這些研究分別使用了那些教學策略。研究結果發

現,近年來在探究認知及情意變項的研究方面,以採用情境感知、合作學

習、問題解決、適性化學習、探索式學習居多。例如,Hwang、Kuo、Yin

及 Chuang(2010)的研究提出,透過情境感知的教學策略能夠增加學習者

學習的動機和教材之間的互動性,相對來說學生在理解知識的過程會感覺 更有效率,能在更短的時間吸收教材內容(H2-1(5)-C-1)、(H2-1(5)-C-2)、

(H2-1(5)-C-3)。而在未來建議的部分,Hwang、Kuo、Yin 及 Chuang(2010)

指出,由於在不同的學習情境下,學習者待解決的學習任務皆不同,因此 在使用情境感知的教學策略時,教材應配合情境作適當的修改,例如在教 學時間、路徑的安排都必須持續進行改進(H2-1(5)-S-2)。

“The experimental results from learning activities conducted in an elementary school show the benefits of this innovative approach(H2-1(5)-C-1).”

“The experts and students who experienced the learning scenario showed positive perceptions with respect to the motivation, interactivity and effectiveness issues

(H2-1(5)-C-2).”

“In addition, both of the experts agreed that the mobile device’s learning guidance (in the context of the real-world learning environment) was essentially helpful to the students(H2-1(5)-C-3).”

“Furthermore, for some applications, the time needed to complete the learning-missions could be quite different. In that case, the assumption that each learning stage has

identical expected time will need to be revised, and the path optimization problem will need to be enhanced as well(H2-1(5)-S-2).”

另外,Chang、Chen 和 Hsu(2011)的研究發現,若採用 Webquest 的 教學策略方法,能夠讓學習者產生積極的學習態度,並且對於學生進行高 層次的認知及思考會有所幫助(H2-1(9)-C-1)、(H2-1(9)-C-2)。而 Chang、

Chen 和 Hsu(2011)也認為,未來在採用 Webquest 作為教學策略時,應建 置一套完整的網路服務系統,將教科書以外的相關訊息和知識提供給學習 者參考(H2-1(9)-S-2)。同時,教師也必須多與學習者做頻繁的交流互動,

例如透過指派學習者各項學習任務,藉以培養相關技能(H2-1(9)-S-5)、

(H2-1(9)-S-7)。

“The results of this study show that using WebQuest in outdoor instruction influences students’ learning performance positively(H2-1(9)-C-1).”

“ Two other interesting results are: (1) when WebQuest was used in real situations, students could acquire more knowledge and experiences, and (2) in the learning activity of the experiment, the students accomplished different learning tasks and expressed their own opinions and perspectives, which could foster their critical thinking skills

(H2-1(9)-C-2).”

“The government should also encourage the WebQuest providers to build an Integrated Learning Net Service, which will include not only the knowledge found in a textbook, but also pluralistic information on medicine and health, ecology, travel tips, etc.

(H2-1(9)-S-2).”

“Teachers should interact with students frequently(H2-1(9)-S-5).”

“ First, teachers can assign homework or address problems which are related with curriculum to students and then the students can discuss with one another via an

e-learning platform. Second, the learning tasks based on different subjects, chapters and sections should be built by teachers, school or government as learning tools or activities, which can help students to acquire more knowledge from extracurricular learning resource and foster diversified learning skills such as oral report, collaborative wok or making report(H2-1(9)-S-7).”

其次,Ryu 與 Parsons(2012)的研究則認為,透過合作式學習的教學 策略,能夠觸發學習者進行問題思考,同時學習與他人分工合作的能力

(H2-1(17)-C-2)。在合作學習的過程中,學習者之間藉由相互的腦力激盪 並且相互討論彼此的觀點,最後再歸納出結論。透過這種教學方法能夠給 予學習者自我檢視的機會(H2-1(17)-C-3)。

“In this study, when considering the impact collaboration has on a mobile learning activity, our case study showed that when potential learners had manageable challenges, and they together could see them as positive selfimprovement opportunities, then an intention to collaborate seemed to be triggered(H2-1(17)-C-2).”

“This social form of learning experience deserves to be considered in collaborative

learning situations, and implies that the development of knowledge in collaboration (refer to Table 4) can be attributed to dynamic interaction with other learners

(H2-1(17)-C-3).”

再者,Song、Wong 及 Looi(2012)的研究則提出適性化學習的教學策 略可以針對學習者個別的需求進行學習。換句話說,教材內容會因學習者 的不同而有適當改變。因此,Song、Wong 及 Looi(2012)認為適性化學習 是未來培養學習者終身學習的關鍵(H2-1(52)-S-2)。

“We argue that students’ such conscious personalization is the key to nurture life-long learners who can practice and develop agency to learn their own ways(H2-1(52)-S-2).”

2. 認知及情意變項尚待解決之問題

其次,從表 4-15 中可以發現,在認知和情意變項方面,亦有少數的研 究結果未達顯著。例如,Babb 與 Ross(2009)的研究探討行動與無所不在 學習結合線上課程對於大學生的學習成績是否有正面幫助,研究結果發 現,採用傳統學習和線上學習的方式,對於學生的考試成績並無明顯的差 異,其原因在於學習者缺乏持續上線學習的動力,造成上線學習的學習者 通常是在課堂教學中出席率就相當高的學生(H2-1(4)-C-2)、

(H2-1(4)-C-3)。因此,Babb 與 Ross(2009)認為,當前最重要的工作在 於讓學習者了解課堂學習的重要性,線上課程應作為一種輔助工具而不適 合完全取代課堂教學(H2-1(4)-S-3)、(H2-1(4)-S-4)。

“For students who participated in class, participation was more frequent when slides were available before lecture(H2-1(4)-C-2).”

“No significant difference in exam performance was found between lecture slide availability conditions(H2-1(4)-C-3).”

“Most importantly, it is essential that students realize that having access to the

professor’s lecture slides before lecture does not always lead to better exam performance(H2-1(4)-S-3).”

“ Rather, slides are simply another tool that must be incorporated into effectivestudy strategies(H2-1(4)-S-4).”

此外,Kemp 與 Bushnell(2011)的研究中探討小學生使用簡訊進行英 語閱讀及寫作課程的效果,其研究發現學習者在操作技能方面有顯著提 升,但在認知方面卻未達顯著差異,其研究結論認為,透過簡訊的方式學 習,學習者可能在過程中接收到錯誤的訊息,導致認知上的誤解

(H2-1(41)-C-1)、(H2-1(41)-C-2)。

“Children took significantly longer and made more errors when reading messages written in textese than in conventional English(H2-1(41)-C-1).”

“Further, they were no faster at writing messages in textese than in conventional English, regardless of texting method or experience(H2-1(41)-C-2).”

再者,Kim 等人(2011)的研究探究行動科技對於小學生學習態度的影 響,發現在情意變項方面並無顯著差異。其研究結果認為,這或許和數位 落差有關,地處偏鄉地區的學生,由於缺乏教育資源,對於行動裝置的操 作技能較不純熟,相對來說對於行動裝置的接受程度也會降低

(H2-1(49)-C-1)、(H2-1(49)-C-2)。

“The findings suggest that students in the rural village, seriously lacking educational resources and technology exposure, may have benefited substantially more from mobile technologies than urban school students possibly due to their relatively higher

socioeconomic status and higher parental involvement and interest in education

(H2-1(49)-C-1).”

“In contrast, there was no evidence of interaction with parental education levels, the experience of teachers or school principals, or the teacher’s perception or preparation

of the technology(H2-1(49)-C-2).”

3. 技能變項以著重問題解決和精熟學習為主

根據本研究的量化統計結果,在教學策略方法主題中有關技能變項的研 究皆有達到顯著效果,顯示行動與無所不在學習對於學習者技能的提升有 不錯的效果。本研究進一步分析後發現,相關研究以使用探索式學習、

Webquest、精熟學習的教學策略為主。例如,Kemp 與 Bushnell(2011)的 研究採用精熟學習的教學策略,發現學習者透過行動裝置持續性地練習發 送英文短訊,將可以達到提升英語寫作技能的效果(H2-1(41)-C-5)、

(H2-1(41)-C-6)。Kemp 與 Bushnell(2011)並且指出,未來研究應該重 視學習者拼字的速度,除了正確性之外,拼寫的速度也同時反映了學生對 於英語單字的熟練程度(H2-1(41)-S-2)。

“However, better literacy skills were associated with greater textese reading speed and accuracy(H2-1(41)-C-5).”

“These findings add to the growing evidence for a positive relationship between texting proficiency and traditional literacy skills(H2-1(41)-C-6).”

“Future research should investigate differences in writing speed when texters use their own mobile phones(H2-1(41)-S-2).”

(二) 教學策略應用於各學科的效果和問題

依據本研究量化統計結果顯示,有關教學策略方法主題的相關研究中,

以探討自然科學課程和語文課程居多(如表 4-16 所示) ,本研究進一步分析

其研究結論和後續建議後,得到一些具有參考價值的重點,分別敘述如下:

表 4-16 教學策略應用於各學科之相關研究

研究內涵 相關文章

自然科學課程 Hwang、Yang、Tsai、Yang(2009) 、Hwang、Kuo、Yin、Chuang(2010)、Zhang 等 人(2010) 、Chang、Chen、Hsu(2011) 、Hwang、Wu、Ke(2011) 、Liu、Lin、Tsai、

Paas(2012) 、Shih、Chu、Hwang、Kinshuk(2011)、Coulby、Hennessey、Davies、

Fuller(2011) 、Ellis、Weyers、Hughes(2012)、Looi、Zhang、Chen、Seow、Chia、

Norris、Soloway(2011) 、Song、Wong、Looi(2012)

資訊課程 Johnson、Diwakaran(2011)

人文社會課程 Akkerman、Admiraal、 Huizenga(2009) 、Sung、Hou、Liu、Chang(2010)

語文學習課程 Looi 等人(2009) 、Liu、Chu(2010) 、Chang、Tseng、Tseng(2011) 、Sandberg、Maris、

Geus(2011) 、Kemp、Bushnell(2011)、Kim(2009)

其它課程 McPake、Plowman、Stephen(2012)

1. 自然科學課程以情境感知的教學策略為主

在自然科學課程方面,使用情境感知的戶外教學課程是近年來比較多研 究者偏好採用的教學策略。例如,Hwang、Kuo、Yin 及 Chuang(2010)的 研究當中以情境感知的學習環境應用於小學生的蝴蝶生態課程中,發現藉 由情境感知的方式在真實的情境下學習,學習者將能夠更專注於教材內容

(H2-1(5)-C-1)、(H2-1(5)-C-2)、(H2-1(5)-C-3);而 Shih、Chu、Hwang 及 Kinshuk(2011)的研究當中以情境感知的教學策略應用於小學生觀察校 園植被的課程,發現學生因為能夠實際的接觸教材內容,並藉由一套專家 學習系統,隨時了解各類植物的特徵以及其它相關訊息,因此學習者對於 課程的參與感因而大幅提升(H2-1(25)-C-2)、(H2-1(25)-C-3);而 Hwang、

Yang、Tsai 和 Yang(2009)的研究則藉由情境感知的教學策略,讓研究生

學習 X 射線的相關知識,發現學生對於教材內容的想法有正面的回應,因

為情境感知的教學方式讓使用者不再只是透過課本的紙上談兵,反而是多

重感官的刺激和即時的訊息傳遞,相對來說學習的印象將更為深刻,其研

究結果提出,藉由情境感知學習方式可以節省兩倍以上的時間,並且達到

系統化學習的目的(H2-1(1)-C-1)、(H2-1(1)-C-2)、(H2-1(1)-C-5)。

“The experimental results from learning activities conducted in an elementary school show the benefits of this innovative approach(H2-1(5)-C-1).”

“ The experts and students who experienced the learning scenario showed positive perceptions with respect to the motivation, interactivity and effectiveness issues

(H2-1(5)-C-2).”

“ In addition, both of the experts agreed that the mobile device’s learning guidance (in the context of the real-world learning environment) was essentially helpful to the students(H2-1(5)-C-3).”

“Especially since in this research we adopted context-aware u-learning concepts and implemented the repertory-grid method as an expert system to guide the students’

learning, the students felt relaxed in this learning experiment(H2-1(25)-C-2).”

“ Moreover, they were able to clearly see all parts of the plants, along with additional information, because of the enhancement of the digital technology(H2-1(25)-C-3).”

“The experimental results of training researchers for single-crystal X-ray diffraction operations have depicted the benefits of applying our innovative approach

(H2-1(1)-C-1).”

“All of the trainees have indicated that the benefits of the constructed context-aware u-learning environment are that it is ‘‘systematic”, ‘‘authentic”, and ‘‘economical”

(H2-1(1)-C-2).”

“One trainee even indicated that almost twice the time and manpower for training novices can be saved by practicing with this u-learning system(H2-1(1)-C-5).”

另外,除了情境感知的教學策略之外,在自然科學課程方面亦有研究者

採用了不同的教學策略。例如,Chang、Chen 及 Hsu(2011)的研究中採用

了 WebQuest 結合行動學習的教學策略應用於小學生的環境課程當中。其研

究結果顯示,使用 WebQuest 的戶外教學,對於學生的學習態度有正面積極

的作用(H2-1(9)-C-1)。另外兩個有趣的結果是:(1)當 WebQuest 的教學

策略使用在真實的情境下,學生可以掌握更多的知識和經驗,以及(2)在

進行學習活動時,學生能夠完成不同的學習任務,並表達了自己的意見和

觀點,可藉以培養他們批判性思維的技能(H2-1(9)-C-2)。

“The results of this study show that using WebQuest in outdoor instruction influences students’ learning performance positively(H2-1(9)-C-1). “

“Two other interesting results are: (1) when WebQuest was used in real situations, students could acquire more knowledge and experiences, and (2) in the learning activity of the experiment, the students accomplished different learning tasks and expressed their own opinions and perspectives, which could foster their critical thinking skills

(H2-1(9)-C-2).”

再者,Song、Wong 及 Looi(2012)的研究則採用了適性化學習的教學 方式,研究適性化學習應用於自然科學課程對學習者的影響。其研究發現,

雖然適性化學習擁有提供個別化的學習建議及分析學習者的特點的優勢,

然而 Song、Wong 及 Looi(2012)的研究中亦指出,適性化學習的系統,

可能導致學習者過度的依賴系統提供的建議,進而喪失自我省思的能力

(H2-1(52)-C-2)、(H2-1(52)-C-3)。因此,培養學生擁有自主思考的能 力,進而學會針對系統的建議進行篩選,將是未來推動適性化教學時必須 斟酌的重點之一(H2-1(52)-C-3)。

“It is true that the adaptive technology may provide personalized advices or resources with respect to the system’s perpetually identified and updated student learning

characteristics and contexts(H2-1(52)-C-2).”

“In the long run, however, we argue that such learning settings may result in the

students’ over-reliance on the system’s recommendations while not being able to pick up the skills of self-identifying learning strategies or filtering of learning resources that are much needed for genuine autonomous learning(H2-1(52)-C-3).”

2. 人文社會課程方面以遊戲式結合故事的教學策略為主

在人文社會課程方面,Akkerman、Admiraal 和 Huizenga(2009)的研

究探討遊戲式學習的教學策略應用於中學生歷史課程的效果。其研究發

現,藉由遊戲式教學策略結合具有架構的故事情節,能夠有效地激發學習

者的好奇心和參與課程的意願(H2-1(3)-C-4)。Akkerman、Admiraal 和 Huizenga(2009)的研究建議指出,未來的研究應著重在如何讓遊戲式教材 具有更完整的故事情節,讓學習者在建構知識時更有效率(H2-1(3)-S-1)、

(H2-1(3)-S-2)。

“Compared to receiving the story, both these types positively affected the engagement of the students being active and motivated during the game(H2-1(3)-C-4).”

“ Future research on games and game design should explore whether it is possible to further merge these storification processes(H2-1(3)-S-1).”

“ The perspectives of the three distinguished storification processes allow us to look more deeply into sense-making processes in such narrative structures as games

(H2-1(3)-S-2).”

另外,Sung、Hou、Liu 和 Chang(2010)的研究將問題解決策略的教 學方式導入小學生的博物館探索課程當中。其研究發現,當使用問題解決 策略於人文社會課程時,對於小學生的學習態度會有正面提升。此外,

Sung、Hou、Liu 和 Chang(2010)認為,未來的研究應著重於視聽系統的 加強,包括提供適當的情境任務以及研討活動給學習者,或是利用學習表 單記錄學習歷程,藉以提高學習者的參與度和動機(H2-1(38)-C-2)。

“We thus suggest that if the audio–visual system could include appropriate situational tasks and discussion activities or the learning sheet could adopt strategies that improve learner’s concentration and motivation, these two types of guide modes may also be enhanced(H2-1(38)-C-2).”

3. 語文學習課程以著重提升英語能力的相關教學策略為主

在語文學習方面,近年來的研究主要著重在英語學習方面。換句話說,

如何透過適當的教學策略提升學習者的英語各項能力,是目前研究者所重

視的議題。例如,Looi 等人(2009)、Sandberg、Maris 及 Geus(2011)的 研究將行動學習應用於小學生的英語字彙學習。透過教學實驗發現,採用 行動學習的教學策略對於學生單字的理解和學習的意願產生正面影響,Looi 等人(2009)認為,行動學習的優勢即在於學習者擁有學習的自主權,其 有權利決定自己學習的時間和地點,若未來教師能夠針對不同學習者進行 個別化的教學,則行動學習的效果將會有顯著提升(H2-1(2)-C-2)、

(H2-1(2)-C-4)。另外,Sandberg、Maris 及 Geus(2011)則提出,行動學 習應用於語文學習的好處在於學習者能夠利用其零碎或是空閒時間進行學 習,大幅增加學習的機會與時間,以往的學習方式並無法達到這樣的效果

(H2-1(12)-C-3)。

“Indeed personalization has broad interpretations – e.g. autonomy to chart their own learning paths, giving students choices and voices, linking their learning in and out of classroom, etc(H2-1(2)-C-2).”

“ The lesson discussed here provides a microcosm of a mobilized lesson that harnesses the affordances of the technologies to support planned differentiated instruction by the teacher and a kind of personalized learning for students(H2-1(2)-C-4).”

“It was demonstrated that time on task can be enhanced by providing the learner with an opportunity to learn in the informal context of his or her spare time(H2-1(12)-C-3).”

另外,針對語文學習課程部分,亦有其它相關研究採用不同的教學策 略,例如 Chang、Tseng 和 Tseng(2011)的研究探討接收頻道的多寡對於 學生學習效果的影響,其研究結果發現針對不同學習成就的學習者,應採 用不同的頻道數量學習(H2-1(11)-C-1)、(H2-1(11)-C-2)。例如低成就 學習者可能僅適合單頻道學習,才不至於造成學習負荷過重;而英語高成 就學習者,透過聲音和文字的雙頻道學習模式反而能達到更好的吸收效果

(H2-1(11)-C-3)、(H2-1(11)-C-4)。

“ The results revealed that (a) high English proficiency learners had significantly better English listening comprehension and lower intrinsic and extraneous load than low English proficiency learners(H2-1(11)-C-1).”

“ (b) both high and low English proficiency learners learning with dual channel had significantly better English listening comprehension and held more positive attitude toward the ubiquitous learning environment than learners learning with single channel

(H2-1(11)-C-2).”

“(c) for learners learning with single channel, low English proficiency learners had significantly higher extraneous load than high English proficiency learners

(H2-1(11)-C-3).”

“ (d) for low English proficiency learners, learners who learned with dual channel possessed significantly lower extraneous load than learners who learned with single channel(H2-1(11)-C-4).”

(三) 小結

本研究以上針對教學策略方法主題下的研究進行質性分析,發現近年來 研究者逐漸重視不同教學策略對於學習者在認知、情意以及技能變項上的 影響。另外,有關探究式學習和問題解決學習是研究者偏好採用的教學策 略之一。這或許反映了以學習者為中心的趨勢,因為在這兩項教學策略中,

教師多半扮演輔助者的角色,而學習者透過自身或群組思考進行知識建構。

二、教學工具分析結果與討論

根據本研究量化統計結果發現,在研究主題方面關於教學工具的相關研 究共有 38 篇。本研究再從這些研究當中分別針對其研究結論及研究建議進 行探討,以提供後續研究者一些參考依據。本研究進一步發現,相關教學 工具的種類繁多,將其分類後約可分為 Podcast、智慧型手機、行動裝置、

PDA(Personal Digital Assistant) 、SMS(Short Message Service)、心智圖、

ICT(Information and Communication Technology) 、虛擬實境、RFID(Radio

Frequency Identification) 、QuesTInSitu、iPAD、QR-Code、Facebook、RSS

(Really Simple Syndication) 、E-mail、Online forum、MMS(Multimedia Messa ging Service)等十種以上。本研究分類如表 4-17 所示:

表 4-17:研究工具類目表

教學工具 相關文章

Podcast Evans(2008) 、McKinney、Dyck、Luber(2009) 、O’ Bannon、Lubke、Beard、Britt(2011)、

Abdous、Facer、Yen(2012) 、Kazlauskas、Robinson(2012)、Hew(2009)

智慧型手機 Mintz、Branch、March、Lerman(2012) 、Kinsella(2009)、Merchant(2012)、Clough、

Jones、McAndrew、Scanlon(2008) 、Lu(2008)

行動裝置 Chen、 Chang、Wang(2008) 、Churchill、 Hedberg(2008) 、Ruchter、Klar、Geiger(2010)、

Wang、Wiesemes、Gibbons(2012)

PDA Churchill、Churchill(2008) 、Reynolds、Walker、Speight(2010) 、Ng、Nicholas(2012)、

Clough、Jones、McAndrew、Scanlon(2008) 、Mifsud、Mørch(2010)

SMS Rau、Gao、Wu(2008) 、Huang、Kuo、Lin、Cheng(2008)、Cavus、Ibrahim(2009)、

Wood、Jackson、Hart、Plester、Wilde(2011) 、Coe、Oakhill(2011)

心智圖 Chu、Hwang、Tsai(2010) 、Hwang、Chu、Lin、Tsai(2011)

ICT Osterlund、Robson(2009) 、Junco、Cotton(2012)

虛擬實境 Monahan、McArdle、Bertolotto(2008)

RFID Chu、Hwang、Tsai、 Tseng(2010)

QuesTInSitu Santos、Pérez-Sanagustín、Hernández-Leo、Blat(2011)

iPAD Peluso(2012)

QR-Code Chen、Teng、Lee、Kinshuk(2011)

Facebook Pimmer、Linxen、Gröhbiel(2012)

RSS Lan、Sie(2010)

E-mail Rau、Gao、Wu(2008)

Online forum Rau、Gao、Wu(2008)

MMS Huang、Kuo、Lin、Cheng(2008)

教學平台 Klopfer、Squire(2008)

由於相關研究所使用之教學工具種類眾多,本研究以下僅針對近年來最 多研究採用的五種工具進行探究,由表 4-17 中可知,Podcast、智慧型手機、

行動裝置、PDA、SMS(Short Message Service)等五種裝置是近年來研究

者較為偏好採用的研究工具,本研究將針對其相關研究進行質化分析,藉

以抓住教學工具主題近年來的研究重點與脈絡。分別敘述如下:

(一) Podcast 應用於行動與無所不在學習

本研究發現,近年來許多研究者會使用 Podcast 作為行動與無所不在學 習的教學工具。本研究從其結論與後續建議中得到一些值得後續研究重視 的問題,例如,Evans(2008)指出,使用 Podcast 作為教學工具能夠幫助 學習者更有效率的學習,相較於以往學生透過課堂手寫筆記的方式,Podcast 不僅節省了許多時間成本,同時能結合線上平台與教學者進行互動

(H2-2(6)-C-1)。因此 Evans(2008)認為,學習者對於 Podcast 的接受度 較傳統的課堂學習來的高(H2-2(6)-C-2)。

“Statistical analysis of the results of the study indicates that students believe that podcasts are more effective revision tools than their textbooks and they are more efficient than their own notes in helping them to learn(H2-2(6)-C-1).”

”They also indicate that they are more receptive to the learning material in the form of a podcast than a traditional lecture or textbook(H2-2(6)-C-2).”

此外,學生不僅對 Podcast 有較高的接受度,McKinney、Dyck 及 Luber

(2009)亦指出,在學習成績上面,使用 Podcast 的學生族群,其學習成績 也明顯優於使用傳統課堂學習的學生族群(H2-2(8)-C-1)。

“Results indicated that students in the podcast condition who took notes while listening to the podcast scored significantly higher than the lecture condition(H2-2(8)-C-1).”

而從教學者的角度來看,O’Bannon、Lubke、Beard 及 Britt(2011)認 為教師對於 Podcast 的適應並無明顯的困難,也不會因為使用的 Podcast 進 行教學就捨棄傳統的講述方式(H2-2(18)-C-1)。因此 O’Bannon、Lubke、

Beard 及 Britt(2011)提出 Podcast 適合作為一種輔助的教學工具,因為它

易於使用和操作,但不認為 Podcast 可以完全取代傳統的上課方式

(H2-2(18)-C-4)、(H2-2(18)-C-5)。畢竟面對面的傳統講課方式能夠提 供學習者與教學者較佳互動性,包含了聲音、表情、肢體語言和即時的現 場對話互動皆是行動裝置目前比較難以取代的部分。

“The results revealed that there was no significant difference in the achievement of preservice teachers who experienced podcast instruction versus those who received lecture instruction(H2-2(18)-C-1).”

“They tended to like the podcasts as well as the length of the podcasts and felt that they were reasonably effective for learning(H2-2(18)-C-4).”

“ They agreed that the podcasts were easy to use but disagreed that they should be used to replace lecture(H2-2(18)-C-5).”

另外, Abdous、Facer 和 Yen(2012)則指出,學習者的成績和使用 Podcast 的頻率相關性極高,特別是在一些需要高次思考的課程

(H2-2(22)-C-2) 。本研究認為 Podcast 的優勢在於它的移動性與靈活性,能 夠提供學習者在不同的時間點和環境進行思考活動。以往學習者多半只在 教室進行的探索活動,藉由 Podcast 的輔助能夠拉長學習時間,進而加強理 論與概念的建構。

“In contrast, however, our findings indicate a strong relationship between the use of PSM and students’ final grades, particularly in upper level courses(H2-2(22)-C-2).”

縱然 Podcast 存在許多優勢,但有研究者從另一個角度解讀 Podcast,例

如 Kazlauskas 與 Robinson(2012)認為,並非每個學習者都對 Podcast 抱持

歡迎的態度(H2-2(31)-C-1)。而 Kazlauskas 與 Robinson(2012)進一步指

出,部分學習者所寄望的並不是 Podcast 所提供具有高度移動性與靈活性的

學習方式,他們較於偏好與教學者和同儕之間面對面團體學習方式,或許

未來的教學者應考慮採用混成學習的方式進行教學,而不只是單純為了科 技而科技(H2-2(31)-C-2)。

“These findings reinforce the emerging concept that podcasts are not embraced by everyone(H2-2(31)-C-1).”

“ Despite the flexibility and mobile learning opportunities afforded by podcasts, significant numbers of students prefer to learn in face-to-face environments and by reading and/or listening in set study environments(H2-2(31)-C-2).”

綜合以上所述,Podcast 適合當作學習者離開學校之後的個人學習工 具,它可以做為學習者複習與深入思考的教材。例如 Hew(2009)指出,

學習者能夠透過 Podcast 觀看教師的課堂演講或補充教材,亦可針對課堂中 尚未學會的部分深入探究(H2-2(38)-C-2) 。然而,Hew(2009)認為,Podcast 的出現並非是要取代傳統的課堂教學,或是鼓勵學生完全在家學習,而是 作為一種輔助學習的工具(H2-2(38)-C-5)。

“Overall, we found that the most common use of podcasting is limited to instructors’ use of lecture and supplementary podcasts(H2-2(38)-C-2).”

“ In addition, the availability of podcast does not appear to encourage students to skip classes(H2-2(38)-C-5).”

後續研究建議方面,Evans(2008)指出,未來的研究者應可考慮使用 問卷調查的方式去了解學習者對於 Podcast 應用於教學上的效果

(H2-2(6)-S-1)。而 Evans(2008)則認為,研究者或許能夠透過測量學習

者使用 Podcast 的時間來了解學習者的學習態度(H2-2(6)-S-2)。除了學習

者的態度之外, McKinney、Dyck 與 Luber(2009)則認為提供學習者快速

融入教材的情境,將是 Podcast 導入教學的重要關鍵,如何能讓學習者不分

所面臨的挑戰之一(H2-2(8)-S-3)。另一方面,O’Bannon、Lubke、Beard 和 Britt(2011)則強調,技術的提升也是後續研究者所需要考量的因素,

例如 Podcast 教材的錄音品質、下載檔案的速度是否讓使用者滿意等等

(H2-2(18)-S-2)、(H2-2(18)-S-5)。

“Future studies will involve questionnaires that draw out efficiency as opposed to duration, perhaps by getting students to consider equal time periods of study for each

(H2-2(6)-S-1).”

“They should also measure the number of times students carry out repeat listenings to the podcasts in an effort to measure the total listening time(H2-2(6)-S-2).”

“More research is needed to discover best practices of integrating the new technology into the classroom setting so that technology enhances the learning environment and does not become one more distraction(H2-2(8)-S-3).”

“ Students must be comfortable with the downloading procedures and accept podcasting as an instructional method(H2-2(18)-S-2).”

“ Methods for ensuring the quality of podcast recordings should be followed by researchers who wish to create more user-centered podcasts(H2-2(18)-S-5).”

Hew(2009)指出,未來需要更多的研究去了解學習者參與 Podcast 教 材的設計和製作,是否會影響其學習的效果(H2-2(38)-S-1)。其次,

O’Bannon、Lubke、Beard 及 Britt(2011)、Hew(2009)認為未來的研究應 著重在探討 Podcast 對學習者情意方面的影響,也許透過一年以上長時間的 觀察能夠減輕學習者對於新科技所產生的新奇感,進而真正了解到學習者 的態度(H2-2(18)-S-1)、(H2-2(38)-S-2)。其次,Hew(2009)認為,未來 的課程也能嘗試以 Podcast 去結合問題解決的教學課程,看看是否有助於學 生問題思考能力的培養(H2-2(38)-S-3)。

“First, additional research is needed to determine whether and how the involvement of students in designing and producing their own podcasts may influence their learning

(H2-2(38)-S-1).”

“Because the use of instructional podcasting is in its infancy, there is a need for additional research in different content areas and for longer periods of time

(H2-2(18)-S-1).”

“ Second, future research should examine the impact of using podcast on students’

learning and affective domains over a longer period of time, perhaps more than one year as this would help mitigate novelty effects(H2-2(38)-S-2).”

“Third, future research may also be conducted to address the question of which types or characteristics of courses, if podcasted, would most benefit students(H2-2(38)-S-3).”

最後,Hew(2009)指出,未來研究應去探索 Podcast 的使用和學習者 之間的互動關係,了解若將 Podcast 作為行動與無所不在學習的教學工具是 否能夠提升同儕間互動的意願(H2-2(38)-S-6)。畢竟任何教學工具最後還 是要學習者能夠善用它才會顯現出效果,因此 Kazlauskas 與 Robinson(2012)

認為縱使科技的創新不曾停止,但我們必須去思索新科技是否真的適合用 於教學活動,而不是一味的盲從(H2-2(31)- S-2)。

“Fifth, future research should examine the interplay between learner characteristics and the use of podcast(H2-2(38)-S-6).”

“Although educators should not avoid the tantalising innovations afforded by technology, they need to be aware that the caricature of the 21st century student as an avid consumer of any and all technology does not necessarily transfer to the learning environment

(H2-2(31)-S-2).”

(二) 智慧型手機應用於行動與無所不在學習

近年來隨著智慧型手機的蓬勃發展,許多研究者也將智慧型手機納入行 動與無所不在學習的教學工具之一。而他們也針對智慧型手機用於教學現 場的經驗提出一些看法。例如,Mintz、Branch、March 及 Lerman(2012)

指出,透過智慧型手機進行教學活動,能夠幫助自閉症的兒童發展社會技

能(H2-2(20)-C-1) 。Mintz、Branch、March 及 Lerman(2012)進一步表明,

智慧型手機若能夠搭配情境感知的應用程式,不僅能幫助特殊教育的學生 克服心理的障礙,同時研究也發現,對於其社交能力和生活技能的發展也 有顯著提升(H2-2(20)-C-2)、(H2-2(20)-C-3)。

“This study was primarily designed to explore the factors that may mediate teacher engagement with and use of a smartphone technology tool designed to help children with ASD with social and life skills development(H2-2(20)-C-1).”

“ Our results indicate that in the perception of teachers (and children), there is potential for flexible, individualized persuasive mobile applications to make a difference to the domains of social and life skills in children with ASD(H2-2(20)-C-2).”

“ Additionally, in a significant number of instances there is evidence that HANDS has had an actual impact on social and life skills development(H2-2(20)-C-3).”

而在語言學習方面,Lu(2008)指出,學生對於透過智慧型手機學習新 字彙的方式持正面看法,一方面是在於智慧型手機具有無所不在的特性,

另一方面在於智慧型手機已是現代非常普遍的工具之一,學生透過智慧型 手機學習的門檻並不高且易於攜帶,只要搭配適當的應用程式就能隨時隨 地進行學習(H2-2(33)-C-1)。

“Results of the questionnaires show that students in general hold positive attitudes towards learning vocabulary via mobile phone(H2-2(33)-C-1).”

整體而言,智慧型手機用於非正式學習的機會增加許多。Clough、Jones、

McAndrew 和 Scanlon(2008)認為,學習者不僅能夠利用生活中零碎時間

進行學習活動,且智慧型手機能完全融入於日常生活,學習者較能以輕鬆

的方式進行學習(H2-2(32)-C-1)、(H2-2(32)-C-2)。

“Overall, the results suggest that mobile devices are used extensively in an informal learning context by enthusiasts, and that they use them in ways that correspond to the collaborative, contextual and constructivist mobile learning philosophies identified

(H2-2(32)-C-1).”

“ The mobile device enthusiasts had already successfully adopted their devices and had integrated them into their daily lives(H2-2(32)-C-2).”

後續建議方面,Mintz、Branch、March 和 Lerman(2012)認為,若是 將智慧型手機導入教學活動當中,有部分的家長會抱持懷持的態度。因此,

家長與教師之間必須要有良好的溝通,並且仔細的規劃後續的教學活動,

讓家長對於課程設計不會有所疑慮(H2-2(20)-S-1) 。Mintz、Branch、March 和 Lerman(2012)建議後續研究者應著眼於未來的教學策略規劃,促進教 師和家長更加注重兩者之間的協同工作,讓家長了解行動與無所不在學習 是真正能夠幫助學習者的學習方式(H2-2(20)-S-4)。

“Consideration should also be given to allowing parents to take more control of the design of interventions – perhaps doing this independently of the teachers

(H2-2(20)-S-1).”

“ In conclusion, we recommend that future projects should focus on developing implementation strategies that facilitate both greater cooperative working between teachers and parents and greater focus on parental input(H2-2(20)-S-4).”

另外,Kinsella(2009)則認為利用智慧型手機作為教學工具對於學生 是如魚得水,因為對於這一世代的數位原民來說,使用智慧型手機幾乎沒 有障礙,未來比較需要面臨的問題反而是通話費用過高所造成使用意願降 低的問題(H2-2(24)-S-1) 。最後,綜合 Clough、Jones、McAndrew 及 Scanlon

(2008)、Merchant(2012)的說法,智慧型手機目前已普遍存在於非正式

學習的活動當中,像是各種學科類型的手機應用程式。未來若是能夠提升

技術層面及完整的教材規劃,相信距離智慧型手機全面導入正式學習的目 標將不會太遠(H2-2(32)-S-2)、(H2-2(27)-S-3)。

“The application described here simply allows the student to interact with the lecturer through a mobile phone, which every modern student has, and knows how to use so no learning barrier exists with this technology(H2-2(24)-S-1).”

“This has implications for formal educators which need to be explored in future work

(H2-2(32)-S-2).”

“How schools accommodate and adapt everyday mobile practices so that they mesh with the structures of formal learning is an important topic for further investigation

(H2-2(27)-S-3).”

(三) 行動裝置應用於行動與無所不在學習

關於行動裝置的部分,Chen、Chang 和 Wang(2008)指出,若是將行 動裝置融入於教學活動當中,將能夠提高學習者的學術表現、任務完成率 及學習目標的達成率(H2-2(1)-C-1) 。Ruchter、Klar 和 Geiger(2010)則認 為,行動裝置於環境教育課程裡最能夠發揮其優勢,例如像一些戶外活動 或需要大範圍移動的教學現場(H2-2(10)-C-1)。行動裝置能夠適時地扮演 學習者與教材之間的媒介。而 Churchill 與 Hedberg(2008)則認為,若是 以行動裝置作為教學工具,其教材的介面呈現不宜有太多滾軸設計,也就 是說教材應以全屏呈現較佳,此外,教材應具備放大縮小功能,增加學習 者在閱讀上的舒適感(H2-2(5)-C-2)。

“Experimental results indicate that the proposed system can enhance three learning performance indicators, namely academic performance, task accomplishment rates, and learning goals achievement rates(H2-2(1)-C-1).”

“This work demonstrates that novel approaches to computer-mediated education employing mobile devices may offer new opportunities in particular to the field of environmental education(H2-2(10)-C-1).”

“ These principles include: design for landscape and full screen presentation, design for one step interaction, minimize scrolling, design for short contact time, design to match the task, provide zooming capability to enlarge display beyond the physical limits of the screen, and design to include movable, collapsible, overlapping, semitransparent interactive panels(H2-2(5)-C-2).”

綜合以上所述,行動裝置是否能夠正常的融入行動與無所不在學習中,

在於教學者在何種情境下使用它、如何針對其介面的大小設計教材內容。

因此,教材開發者對於行動裝置必須要有基本的了解才能夠有效的利用行 動裝置的優勢。

後續研究建議方面,Churchill 與 Hedberg(2008)認為,未來應分別針 對不同類型的行動裝置設計合適的教材,換句話說,教材內容的呈現是隨 著裝置的不同而有所變化,因為每一種行動裝置有特定的大小、解析度等 的不同,若是能夠鎖定各種行動裝置本身的優勢進行教材設計,將可發揮 其最大的成效(H2-2(5)-S-1) 。另外,Ruchter、Klar 和 Geiger(2010)則認 為,未來行動與無所不在學習將逐漸導向自主學習的型態,教學者的角色 只是從旁協助學習,不同於以往教學者主導學習情境的模式

(H2-2(10)-S-1)。而 Ruchter、Klar 和 Geiger(2010)也表明,行動裝置應 用於教學現場能夠扮演教材與學者間的溝通橋梁,學習者透過行動裝置的 介面去體會教材、理解教材,因此他認為隨著無線網路的快速發展,未來 行動裝置應用於自然環境相關課程勢必會更加多元(H2-2(10)-S-2)。

“In the future it might be also important to establish specific design possibilities between various devices such as integrated PDA and mobile phone devices, compared with he more popular 3G mobile phones(H2-2(5)-S-1).”

“Consequently, by combining personalized and location-based information presentation with selfdetermined exploration, future mobile nature guides could surmount their motivational functionality to further enhance the environmental learning experience of a

wide variety of target groups(H2-2(10)-S-1).”

“ This also implies that computer-based environmental learning media could be used to make the direct experience of natural environments also accessible to people with disabilities(H2-2(10)-S-2).”

(四) PDA(Personal Digital Assistant)應用於行動與無所不在學習 關於將 PDA 作為教學工具的研究,Churchill 與 Churchill(2008)指出 PDA 可以作為一種多媒體存取工具、連接工具、捕捉工具、代表性的工具 和分析工具(H2-2(4)-C-1)。也就是說,學生可以透過 PDA 存取課堂中所 需的多媒體資訊,如影片、聲音、圖文檔案,此外,也能夠藉由 PDA 連結 網路或進行筆記,也可以透過 PDA 思考和分析所學得的知識。因此,

Churchill 與 Churchill(2008)表明,PDA 能夠幫助學習者思維能力的發展,

在目前以學習者為中心主義當道的時代,PDA 不僅提供一個更為方便的學 習管道,同時也改變了原先以課堂為主的傳統教學(H2-2(4)-C-2)、

(H2-2(4)-C-3)。

“This study explicated five educational affordances of PDAs based on the participating teacher’s explorative uses of this technology, described as follows: multimedia-access tool, connectivity tool, capture tool, representational tool and analytical tool

(H2-2(4)-C-1).”

“ The study also shows that there were certain developments in the participant’s thinking as he explored educational affordances(H2-2(4)-C-2).”

“ These developments suggest a possible shift in the participating teacher’s thinking towards more student-centered pedagogical applications of PDAs(H2-2(4)-C-3).”

其次,Reynolds、Walker 及 Speight(2010)藉由觀察學習者的回饋中 也發現,使用 PDA 作為教學工具,能夠增加學生對於教材的印象和興趣,

同時也能夠提升與同儕之間的互動頻率(H2-2(14)-C-1) 。Reynolds、Walker

及 Speight(2010)進一步指出,若是將 PDA 應用於博物館教學等戶外學習 活動當中,可以作為補充教材的呈現管道,當學習者對於內容無法理解時,

PDA 能夠扮演解決疑惑的關鍵角色(H2-2(14)-C-3) 。藉由這種方式,教學 者不會為了解答眾多學生的問題而疲於奔命,且在無形當中擴大了教學場 域。

“In a three-stage qualitative evaluation programme, student feedback showed that overall the trails enhanced students’ knowledge of, interest in, and closeness to the objects(H2-2(14)-C-1).”

“ Broader findings suggest that technology has a key role to play in helping to maintain the museum as a learning space which complements that of universities as well as schools(H2-2(14)-C-3).”

再者,Reynolds、Walker 與 Speight(2010) 、Ng 與 Nicholas(2012)認 為,將 PDA 導入於課堂學習活動當中,若是能夠解決技術層面上的問題,

例如網路頻寬、程式設計方面的問題,則 PDA 的未來發展將會更加值得期 待(H2-2(14)-C-2)、(H2-2(28)-C-2)。

“However, the trails were only partially successful from a technological standpoint due to device and network problems(H2-2(14)-C-2).”

“ There is no single or simple solution to the effective integration of mLearn (or ICT) programmes in teaching and learning and it takes time to develop effective working relationships between management, teachers and student (H2-2(28)-C-2).”

綜合以上所述,將 PDA 應用於教學情境中已是近年來行動與無所不在

學習的趨勢,由於大部分的學習者對於新興科技會產生較高的興趣,因此

Mifsud 與 Mørch(2010)認為,未來在教學活動中,應確保學生是否投入

於課堂活動,而不是使用 PDA 進行其它非關課程的活動,反而影響了學習

的品質(H2-2(34)-C-1)。

“We found that the students’ PDA-mediated actions in the classroom were not

exclusively used for the tasks and activities set by the teacher, but that the students also used the PDAs on their own initiative – so-called ‘off-task’ activities(H2-2(34)-C-1).”

後續研究建議方面,Churchill 與 Churchill(2008)提出,目前大多數研 究者著重在學習者的學習成效方面,例如藉由教學實驗去衡量學生的情意 和認知方面成果,以教學者觀點為出發的研究則相對較少(H2-2(4)-S-1)。

因此,未來應藉由更多教學者分享其使用 PDA 作為教學工具的經驗,並制 定未來改進缺點的方略。而 Churchill 和 Churchill(2008)則認為,目前許 多相關研究的時程並不夠長,無法真正的了解學習者是否是受到新奇感的 影響而有較好的接受度和學習態度,因此未來進行教學實驗時,若是能用 一段較長的時間觀察學生的行為,則所得到的實驗結果可信度應較高

(H2-2(4)-S-2)。

“Further studies should attempt to engage more teachers in similar inquiries to expand this initial set into a more comprehensive collage of educational affordances of PDA technology(H2-2(4)-S-1).”

“ Further studies should explore contexts other than a technical education institution and should also provide more detailed accounts of teachers’ actual applications of PDA technology with students over an extended period of time(H2-2(4)-S-2).”

另外,Reynolds、Walker 與 Speight(2010)指出,未來 PDA 導入教學

活動時應能夠嘗試以不同的教學方法去做搭配變化,例如博物館探索課程

或許能透過合作學習、問題導向學習讓學習者培養分工合作、思考問題的

技能(H2-2(14)-S-1)。Reynolds、Walker 與 Speight(2010)則指出,PDA

應用於教學現場如同扮演一個輔助者的角色,從另一個角度來看,他提供

一個舞台給教學者和學習者作為學術交流的平台,同時亦可當作學習者與 教材之間的媒介(H2-2(14)-S-2)、(H2-2(14)-S-3)。

“Handheld technology can be a way of serving different audiences in the museum, and of using different pedagogical approaches in museums(H2-2(14)-S-1).”

“ This project suggests that approaches to learning more common in formal education have a place in museums, and it may perhaps be more useful to think of the museum as an arena for various types of learning rather than a place which involves a single type of learning(H2-2(14)-S-2). “

“Technology has a key role to play here, helping to maintain the museum as a learning space which complements that ofuniversities as well as schools(H2-2(14)-S-3).”

其次,Clough、Jones、McAndrew 及 Scanlon(2008)提出,未來行動 裝置將更加普遍和便宜,將會使其應用於非正式學習的機會大幅增加

(H2-2(32)-S-1) 。然而如何將 PDA 導入正規教育將是今後必須加以探究的 議題,Mifsud 與 Mørch(2010)認為,除了要有完善的配套措施外,教師 如何教、學生如何學,將會直接影響到學習者的動機和成效

(H2-2(34)-S-2)。

“As mobile connectivity becomes more prevalent and less expensive, it is likely that informal learners will make increasing use of it to support such serendipitous learning

(H2-2(32)-S-1).”

“ Thus, we argue in this paper that studentdefined activities need not necessarily be isolated and categorized as off-task, but instead should build on established contexts shared by both teachers and students in order to create new contexts for teaching and learning and increased motivation for students(H2-2(34)-S-2).”

(五) SMS(Short Message Service)應用於行動與無所不在學習

而在 SMS 作為教學工具的相關研究中,Rau、Gao 與 Wu(2008)指出,

SMS 能夠扮演學生與教師間的溝通橋樑,有助於提升整體的學習成效

(H2-2(2)-C-1) 。另一方面,Rau、Gao 與 Wu(2008)認為,透過互聯網的 方式進行學術交流,能夠降低學習者的心理壓力(H2-2(2)-C-2) 。Rau、Gao 與 Wu(2008)指出,教學者必須慎重考慮互相交流的訊息是否應設為公開,

因為這將會造成學習者心理層面的壓力,甚至造成不願意參與課程的反效 果(H2-2(2)-C-3)。

“The result showed that instant messaging helps bonding the two roles – student and instructor – in the instruction process effectively(H2-2(2)-C-1).”

“When combined with Internet communication media, it can significantly increase student extrinsic motivation without causing higher pressure(H2-2(2)-C-2).”

“ Additionally, communication media demanding public expression rather than private dialogue should be adopted with careful consideration, since they may raise student pressure(H2-2(2)-C-3).”

另外,Huang、Kuo、Lin 及 Cheng(2008)的研究結果也顯示,學習者 能夠透過 SMS 的方式有效地從各式各樣的通訊裝置中發送訊息,和教師、

同儕進行學術交流,且因為 SMS 即時的特性,更適合作為同步學習的輔助 工具(H2-2(3)-C-1) 。Cavus 與 Ibrahim(2009) 、Wood、Jackson、Hart、Plester 及 Wilde(2011)則指出,學習者透過 SMS 學習語言,能夠加強其拼字的 能力,進而提升閱讀和寫作能力(H2-2(25)-C-1)、(H2-2(35)-C-1)。

“the results indicate that our system can facilitate synchronous learning by enabling

“the results indicate that our system can facilitate synchronous learning by enabling

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