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to question, “Can China really support OBOR?“12
Besides, does AIIB, the vault of OBOR, have enough combat power and endurance? For China, the final investment to AIIB was less than 1% of its foreign exchange reserves and about 70% of 100-billion-dollar statutory capital was raised from the other 56 member states.
(4) Challenges from foreign powers
Due to the strategic advantages along OBOR route, such as the economic crops and energy reserves in Central and West Asia, the prosperous economic activities along the Mediterranean area, and the strategic value of boundary between land and sea in Southeast and South Asia, the powers have been eager to struggle for resources in these regions and tried to stop China to be the hegemon. For example, Southeast Asia, as China’s neighborhood, has been regarded and influenced by the United States and Japan for a long time. In recent years, Russia also entered the ASEAN countries, which will bring some challenges to OBOR.
2.2 The Geographical Importance of Southeast Asian Countries of Greater Mekong Subregion
Southeast Asia is located in the southeast of mainland China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. It can be divided into two regions:
Land Southeast Asia, that is, the Indochina Peninsula, includes Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. Maritime Southeast Asia, composed of the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Islands, includes Brunei, Malaysia, Timor-Leste, Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore.13 The Southeast Asian
12 The Economist (2016, June 30). The AIIB- The infrastructure of power. Retrieved from:
http://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21701494-reasons-be-enthusiastic-about-chin as-answer-world-bank-infrastructure
13 東南亞研究學院。Wikiversity，2016 年 11 月 15 日參照：
https://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:%E6%9D%B1%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9E%E7%A0%94%E 7%A9%B6
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countries of GMS in our study are equivalent to “Land Southeast Asia”.
Southeast Asia and China have deep geographical relationship owing to thenearness and Southeast Asia was early influenced by Chinese culture. The Chinese have been widely distributed in the region. This study focuses on land Southeast Asia. However, land Southeast Asia and maritime Southeast Asia interact with each other frequently. We can show a more complete and logical discussion by the analysis starting from whole Southeast Asia then gradually to land Southeast Asia.
2.2.1 Background of Southeast Asia
China began to trade with Southeast Asia early in the Han Dynasty, exporting silk, ceramic ware. Southeast Asia was part of the maritime Silk Road and produced tea, cloth, paper, lacquer which were popular in the international market. About six hundred years ago, the Ming Dynasty navigator Zheng He was engaged in seven maritime expeditions, during which the ships docked at many parts of Southeast Asia. The capital of Central Java, Semarang, was named for Zheng He's original name.
In addition, the Chinese population went southward due to trade or other factors. During Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties, some people moved to Southeast Asia and Chinese culture therefore interact with the local culture.
Vietnam was the most affected countries by the Chinese culture. From the Qin, Han to the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, Vietnam continued to do exchanges with China in political or military fields. Legal, academic, social, religious and artistic, customs, economic and cultural exchanges occurred between two countries.
Southeast Asia is also affected by some cultures around the world other than Chinese culture, including India, Islam and Western cultures.14 Indian culture was the first culture impacting Southeast Asia. The Indian religion, language, customs, legal and political achievements may have been passed to
14 嚴智宏，東南亞文化與社會。載於東南亞文化教學參考手冊。台北：教育部，頁 79-116。
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some parts of Southeast Asia in the BC days. Many parts of Southeast Asia have cultural relics built under the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism, such as Khmer Angkor temple architecture. India has a great influence on the language of Southeast Asia. Many places of early Southeast Asia (except northern Vietnam and the Philippines), either directly used Sanskrit or Pali or used the Indian alphabet to spell their own languages.
With regard to the influence of Islamic culture, there were Muslim activities in Southeast Asia after the tenth century, mainly scattering in the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Maluku Islands, and the southern Philippines. Maritime Southeast Asia was gradually incorporated into the Islamic cultural circle (except the central and northern Philippines). Islam has become the main religion in the Malay and deeply affected literature, art and life of the local residents.
Another important cultural system is Western culture, Western countries headed east in the sixteenth century in order to find spices. Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands have entered Southeast Asia and established colonies. France and the United Kingdom also established colonies in Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei in the nineteenth century. By the beginning of the twentieth century, almost the whole Southeast Asia (except Thailand) was colonized by the Western powers. The colonists brought their culture to the colonies and the local lives were more or less affected. For example, the Philippines becomes Southeast Asia’s largest Catholic country owing to the influence of Spain. Even though Southeast Asian countries have been independent, the Western culture still widely affects Southeast Asia through diplomatic relations, economic strength and internet.
Southeast Asia has a large population of about 634 million people,15 in which Indonesia takes the largest part, with more than 255 million people, ranked the fourth in the world. Brunei has the lowest population of 430 thousand people. The races in the region are very complex. The new Malayans
15 中華民國外交部官方網站，2016 年 11 月 29 日參照：http://www.mofa.gov.tw/
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dominate, scattering in the Malay Peninsula, the Indonesian Islands, Borneo and the Philippine Islands. The main ethnic groups in Indonesia are the Javanese, the Sunda, the Madura. Thailand’s main ethnic groups are Thai, Chinese and Malay; Cambodia’s are Mon Khmer; Vietnam’s are Vietnamese, Dai, Miao and Thai; Laos’ are the Liao, Thai and Shan. The Philippines’ are Bisayans, Tagalogs, IloKanos and Bikols. In addition to the above aborigines, there are Chinese.16
As mentioned above, Southeast Asia has a large population and the potential of emerging markets. However, the diversity of races, language and religious beliefs would bring a considerable degree of challenge for government’s cooperation, industrial investment, economic and trade integration. Especially colonial rule has hurt the confidence of Southeast Asian people on their own traditions. Historical records left by colonial rule mostly view the local area from the colonial point. When Southeast Asian people rebuild their own history, they may have a stronger sense of autonomy due to the rise of consciousness. How OBOR can share the interests and consider different needs, and not let Southeast Asian countries feel oppressed in economical or racial aspects is an important condition for successful promotion of OBOR initiative.
16 周禮順(2003)，東南亞區域安全之研究。國立政治大學外交學系戰略與國際事務碩士在職專班
論文。
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Cambodia
1,590 181,035
Buddhism KhmerMyanmar
5,632 676,578
Buddhism BurmeseThailand
6,572 514,000
Buddhism ThaiThe
Philippines
10,600 282,764
Catholicism English and PhilippineMalaysia
3,051 330,257
Islam Malayan、Englishand Chinese Indonesia
25,599 1,904,569
Islam IndonesianBrunei
43 5,765
Islam MalayanTimor-Leste