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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter, results of the study were presented according to the three research questions. First, frequencies of the five much used speech acts (compliment, request, apology, complaint, and refusal) in two sets of textbooks (Textbook F and Textbook S) were counted and presented in the frequency table. Comparisons were then made to show the distribution of the five speech acts in two sets of textbooks.
Then, the above-mentioned five speech acts were analyzed cross-culturally and their results were shown in the frequency table, under which the preference (American or Chinese) each set of textbooks show in presenting them as well as the display of cross-cultural comparisons and contrasts in textbooks or teachers’ manuals were discussed. Lastly, the results of the occurrence of supportive moves or small talk accompanying each speech act in two sets of textbooks were shown in the frequency table, under which the explanations of cross-cultural differences in textbooks or teachers’ manuals were discussed.
Frequencies of the Five Much Used Speech Acts
In order to answer the first research question, the frequencies of the five much used speech acts were counted. The occurrence of a speech act and its corresponding response form one count. The results are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Frequencies of the five much used speech acts in two sets of textbooks
Speech act Textbook
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Textbook F Textbook S
Total act of compliment was the highest in frequency, whose frequency per volume was 7, and frequency per unit was 0.78. As to the remaining four speech acts in Textbook F, which are request, apology, complaint, and refusal, the frequencies were low,
providing insufficient examples for students to learn from. They might encounter some difficulties in real-life communicating situations as a result. Since compliment, request, apology, complaint, and refusal are the much used and explored speech acts, they should be properly distributed in the textbooks. However, from Table 1.1, it is clearly seen that the speech act of request, apology, complaint, and refusal were all in low frequency, and that the frequency per volume was 1.5, 1.17, 1.67, and 2.83 respectively; that is to say, these speech acts appeared only 1 to 3 times in each volume of Textbook F, and could be considered improperly distributed.
Speaking of Textbook S, from Table 1.1, we can see that the top two
frequencies were formed by the speech act of request and apology, whose frequency per volume was 8.83 and 3 respectively, and whose frequency per unit was 1.47 and 0.5 respectively. As to the remaining three speech acts in Textbook S, which are
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compliment, complaint, and refusal, the frequencies were low, providing students with insufficient examples to learn from. From Table 1.1, it is clearly seen that the speech act of compliment, complaint, and refusal were not properly distributed in Textbook S, and the frequency per volume was 1.67, 1.83, and 1.67 respectively; that is, these speech acts appeared only 1 to 2 times in each volume of Textbook S.
From the above, we can see that most of the five much used and explored speech acts analyzed in this study were not appropriately distributed in both sets of textbooks, and the reason behind this phenomenon might be that both textbook designers and editors of Textbook F and Textbook S seldom think of presenting the much used and explored speech acts as a top priority, or that they do not know what the much used and explored speech acts are.
Preference: American or Chinese
To answer the first part of research question two, the preference (American or Chinese) the two sets of textbooks held in presenting the five speech acts were analyzed in the following.
Compliment
In Textbook F, there were 42 compliments found (see Table 1.2). Among the 42 compliments, 90% were direct ones. On the other hand, in Textbook S, there were only 10 compliments discovered (see Table 1.2), and among them, 90% were direct ones. From Table 1.2, it is clearly shown that Textbook F provided more compliment examples for students to get in touch with. Therefore, students can have repeated chance to practice using certain types of compliment strategies under different conversational situations. When looking at Textbook S, there were only 10 items of compliments in total, restricting students of the chance to get familiar with the compliment act.
According to previous literature, compliments have been found to occur in a
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much wider variety of speech act situations in American culture than in other cultures (e.g., Wolfson, 1989), and direct complimenting was the most often adopted strategy for both Chinese and American speaker groups (Yu, 2005). On the basis of previous research, we can say that as to the directness level, both Textbook F and Textbook S show the Chinese and American preference as well, since both speaker groups employed direct complimenting with a high proportion.
Table 1.2
Distribution of compliment strategies in two sets of textbooks
Compliment strategy
Textbook
Textbook F Textbook S
Frequency % Frequency %
Direct compliment
e.g.: Cool! That’s a nice picture of you.
38 90 9 90
Indirect compliment
e.g.: I’m sure you can get into any college you choose.
4 10 1 10
Total 42 100 10 100
Specific examples of compliment strategies discovered in Textbook F are listed as follows, while examples from Textbook S can be found in Appendix B.
1. Direct compliments
Ex. Textbook F Book 1 Unit 2 Campus Buildings (p.197)
→ Stella: Cool! That’s a nice picture of you.
Wendy: Really? I think I look stupid in that picture.
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 5 Fashion Show (p.236)
→ Lily: Stella, you’re good at this. Have you ever thought of going into fashion
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design?
Stella: Not really. But now that you mention it, maybe I’ll think about it.
Ex. Textbook F Book 5 Unit 5 Student Council Elections (p.246)
→ Josh: Yes! Her nickname is Ash, you know. I’m helping her to run for the position of treasurer, and it was my idea to put “Vote for Ash and she’ll deal with your cash” on her poster.
Debbie: That’s very creative!
Josh: Thank you. By the way, here’s a small gift from Ash.
2. Indirect compliments
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 5 Fashion Show (p.236)
→ Lily: So the way Samuel dressed was your idea too?
Stella: Exactly. Any comments?
Lily: Wow! That outfit certainly did the trick. The old pants with holes in them and the worn-out jacket clearly showed how sloppy Samuel is.
Stella: Thank you. However, I have to say that Samuel was not very happy about that. He won’t admit that he is sloppy.
Ex. Textbook F Book 5 Unit 9 College Applications (p.261)
→ Stella: With your grades, and the tough classes you’ve taken, I’m sure you can get into any college you choose.
Debbie: Actually, the colleges I picked were ones close to home.
Holmes (1988) argued that the main function of compliments is to establish solidarity between speaker and addressee, we can see that compliments usually serve as the initiator of a smooth conversation. Consequently, letting EFL students learn how to pay compliments to others appropriately in English is important. The reason why there were only 10 items of compliments in Textbook S might be that the designers and editors of Textbook S are affected by the conservative reaction of
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Chinese people to complimenting (Herbert, 1989; Oliver, 1971; Wolfson, 1989; Yu, 2005). For example, it is common for Americans to compliment a stranger to show their friendliness, but if the Chinese do so in a Chinese context, embarrassment for the address may form (Yu, 2005). In other words, the Chinese hold a more conservative attitude to compliments when compared to the American people (Herbert, 1989;
Oliver, 1971; Wolfson, 1989; Yu, 2005).
As to the distribution of compliment topics in Textbook F, Table 1.3 shows that 60% of compliment topics fell on ability/performance, whereas only 14% on
appearance/possessions. In other words, speakers in Textbook F complimented proportionately more on ability/performance than appearance/possessions. And according to previous literature, Chinese speakers tended to compliment
proportionately more on ability and/or performance than English speakers (Lin, 2008;
Yang, 1987; Yu, 2005), whereas English speakers proportionately more on
appearance and/or possessions than Chinese speakers (Holmes, 1986, 1988; Knapp, Hopper, & Bell, 1984; Lin, 2008; Wolfson, 1989; Yu, 2005). Thus, we can say that Textbook F shows a preference closer to the Chinese one when it comes to
compliment topics.
On the other hand, the distribution of compliment topics in Textbook S in Table 1.3 indicates that 50% of compliment topics fell on the ability/performance category, whereas 40% on the appearance/possessions category. That is to say, Textbook S also shows a preference closer to the Chinese one in the case of compliment topics.
Table 1.3
Distribution of compliment topics in two sets of textbooks
Compliment topic Textbook
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Textbook F Textbook S
Frequency % Frequency %
Appearance/Possessions
e.g.: And you were a real knockout in that pink dress.
6 14 4 40
Ability/Performance
e.g.: Stella, you’re good at this.
25 60 5 50
Others
e.g.: Your family is really nice.
11 26 1 10
Total 42 100 10 100
The following are some examples of compliment topics chosen from Textbook F, whereas examples from Textbook S can be found in Appendix B.
1. Appearance/Possessions
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 5 Fashion Show (p.235)
→ Wendy: …And you were a real knockout in that pink dress.
Lily: Thank you. I liked your outfit, too. It made you look very smart─ exactly the way you are.
Ex. Textbook F Book 4 Unit 3 Seeing the School Nurse (p.255)
→ Nurse: Stella, you have good eyes. Take care of them.
Stella: Thank you, Nurse Stevens. Is that it?
2. Ability/Performance
Ex. Textbook F Book 1 Unit 8 School Anniversary (p.215)
→ Stella: Great job, Wendy. Your band was terrific.
Wendy: Thanks. Actually, I was very nervous performing in front of so many people.
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 5 Fashion Show (p.236)
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→ Lily: Stella, you’re good at this. Have you ever thought of going into fashion design?
Stella: Not really. But now that you mention it, maybe I’ll think about it.
Ex. Textbook F Book 6 Unit 5 “Best” in the Class (p.247)
→ Debbie: …By the way, it was very creative of you to come up with so many
“Bests” and “Mosts.”
Stella: I thought so, too!
What’s worth mentioning is that the majority of compliments on “other topics” in Textbook F pertained to personality, as illustrated below.
3. Others
Ex. Textbook F Book 1 Unit 9 New Year’s Eve Dinner (p.218)
→ Wendy: Thanks. Your family is really nice. They are all very welcoming and friendly.
Stella: Thank you. I’m happy to say that we all get along very well.
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 6 Showing Comfort (p.239)
→ Samuel: You are so thoughtful, Wendy.
Stella: She is, isn’t she? When you get tired of studying, you’ll have these CDs to listen to.
Ex. Textbook F Book 3 Unit 6 Dating (p.243)
→ Debbie: Stella, what do you think of David?
Stella: Oh, he’s a nice guy. Why?
Debbie: I’ve noticed he always tries to sit next to you in class, and he gets nervous when he’s talking to you. I think he likes you.
Ex. Textbook F Book 5 Unit 7 Volunteer Service (p.252-253)
→ Stella: Are you? I thought you completed your graduation requirement for volunteer service a long time ago.
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Debbie: You’re right, I did. But I still love going to see these kids. It feels good to spend time with them.
Stella: Wow, I really admire your generosity, Debbie. I wish I could be as caring and selfless as you are.
Ex. Textbook F Book 6 Unit 8 Senior Awards Night (p.257)
→ Stella: (To Gerry) You’re such a gentleman.
Josh: That’s true sportsmanship, Gerry.
In an American society, complimenting on a person’s appearance/possessions may be regarded as a way to create solidarity between the speaker and addressee (Holmes, 1988), and could be implemented whenever an acquaintance is seen with something new (Wolfson, 1989). Therefore, this cultural difference must be taught in the EFL classroom to avoid communication breakdown in real-life conversations. The reason why both Textbook F and Textbook S provide insufficient conversations regarding complimenting on one’s appearance/possessions might be that designers and editors of both sets of textbooks are influenced by the preference of the Chinese people on compliment topics. The Chinese traditionally tend to put emphasis on virtues and qualities rather than good looks or possessions of individuals (Yang, 1987), and directly admiring a person’s appearance/possessions would usually be viewed as uncultivated since implicitness is one traditional trait of the Chinese people (Ye, 1995). Besides, physical appearance in Chinese socio-cultural contexts
traditionally has a sexual implication and is mostly avoided in social interaction (Hsu, 1953, as cited in Yu, 2005). The designers and editors of both Textbook F and
Textbook S may be affected by the preference of the Chinese when presenting the compliment topic.
Table 1.4 reveals that in Textbook F, interlocutors employed acceptance strategies proportionately more than amendment strategies and non-acceptance
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strategies when it comes to compliment responses. And from previous studies, there was an overall tendency showing that the Chinese appeared to adopt non-acceptance and amendment strategies (Chen, 1993; Lin, 2008; Ye, 1995; Yu, 2004) more often than the English speakers did, whereas the latter much more often used acceptance strategies (Chen, 1993; Knapp, Hopper, & Bell, 1984; Lin, 2008; Yu, 2004).
Therefore, it is clearly seen that Textbook F shows a preference closer to the Americans in presenting compliment responses.
When looking at Textbook S, Table 1.4 shows that only 40% of the
interlocutors applied acceptance strategies, whereas 10% used amendment strategies and 50% employed others. And among the conversations categorized into others, 30% of them were combinations of strategies of acceptance + amendment or non-acceptance + amendment. As a result, we can say that Textbook S shows a preference neither closer to the Americans nor the Chinese. To speak more
specifically, both the American and the Chinese preference were presented, but no further explanations of their cultural differences were given in the textbooks or their corresponding teachers’ manuals.
Table 1.4
Distribution of compliment responses in two sets of textbooks
Compliment response
Textbook
Textbook F Textbook S
Frequency % Frequency %
Acceptance strategies
e.g.: Thank you.
11 26 4 40
Amendment strategies
e.g.: Yours was great, too.
5 12 1 10
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Non-acceptance strategies
e.g.: Really? I think I look stupid in that picture.
1 2 0 0
Others
e.g.: Thanks. Actually, I was very nervous performing in front of so many people.
25 60 5 50
Total 42 100 10 100
The following are some examples of compliment responses extracted from Textbook F, while examples from Textbook S can be found in Appendix B.
1. Acceptance strategies
Ex. Textbook F Book 5 Unit 5 Student Council Elections (p.246)
→ Josh: Yes! Her nickname is Ash, you know. I’m helping her to run for the position of treasurer, and it was my idea to put “Vote for Ash and she’ll deal with your cash” on her poster.
Debbie: That’s very creative!
Josh: Thank you. By the way, here’s a small gift from Ash.
Ex. Textbook F Book 6 Unit 5 “Best” in the Class (p.247)
→ Debbie: …By the way, it was very creative of you to come up with so many
“Bests” and “Mosts.”
Stella: I thought so, too!
2. Amendment strategies
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 5 Fashion Show (p.235)
→ Lily: Your group’s show was great.
Wendy: Yours was great, too.
3. Non-acceptance strategies
Ex. Textbook F Book 1 Unit 2 Campus Buildings (p.197)
→ Stella: Cool! That’s a nice picture of you.
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Wendy: Really? I think I look stupid in that picture.
Also note that ‘other responses’ accounted for 60% of all the responses in Textbook F.
In this category, a great majority of responses were made up of absent responses because the speaker was complimenting on a third person who was not present; others were composed of merely absent responses from the addressee; and still others were responses categorized into combination strategies (e.g. acceptance + amendment).
Specific examples are shown as follows.
4. Others
Ex. Textbook F Book 6 Unit 9 Graduation Ceremony (p.261)
→ Gerry: Speaking of Peter, not only does he excel at every subject, sports and music, he’s also a good speaker.
Stella: He must be a genius.
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 6 Showing Comfort (p.239)
→ Samuel: You are so thoughtful, Wendy.
Stella: She is, isn’t she? When you get tired of studying, you’ll have these CDs to listen to.
Ex. Textbook F Book 5 Unit 1 Future Plans (p.233)
→ Stella: I’m sure you can get into any college you want to! After all, you’re a straight-A student.
Debbie: Thanks for your encouragement. But getting admitted to a top school really isn’t easy.
For compliment response behavior, Chen (1993) reported that the American English speakers' strategies were mostly influenced by Leech's Agreement Maxim, whereas the Chinese speakers' strategies by Leech’s Modesty Maxim. This cultural difference must be explained in an EFL classroom to enhance the effectiveness in communication. However, in Textbook F and Textbook S, neither the textbooks nor
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their corresponding teachers’ manuals present this kind of difference to students, which builds up a barrier to students’ reinforcement of sociolinguistic competence.
Request
In Textbook F, there were only 9 requests found (see Table 1.5). Among the 9 requests, 67% were direct ones. This result reveals that Textbook F shows a
preference closer to the Chinese in presenting the request act because previous literature has shown that requests made by the Chinese were much more direct than requests made by the native English speakers (Lee-Wong, 1994; Oliver, 1971; Yu, 1999; Zhang, 1995).
Speaking of Textbook S, there were 53 requests discovered (see Table 1.5).
Among the 53 requests, 40% were direct ones, while 60% were indirect ones. This result shows that Textbook S holds a preference closer to the Americans in presenting the request act since previous literature has shown that native English speakers were liable to use indirect requests to decrease the threat or force of requests (Lycan, 1984;
Wierzbicka, 1991; Yu, 1999).
Table 1.5
Distribution of request strategies in two sets of textbooks
Request strategy
Textbook
Textbook F Textbook S
Frequency % Frequency %
Direct request
e.g.: Please move the chairs while I get the broom.
6 67 21 40
Indirect request
e.g.: Can you help me find some books about Taiwan?
3 33 32 60
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Total 9 100 53 100
Some examples of direct and indirect requests derived from Textbook F are shown as follows, whereas examples from Textbook S can be found in Appendix B.
1. Direct request
Ex. Textbook F Book 2 Unit 1 Cleaning Jobs (p.224)
→ Samuel: All right, all right. You know how I hate cleaning. I want to get this done as soon as possible.
Wendy: Well, let’s get started then. Please move the chairs while I get the broom.
Samuel: OK.
Ex. Textbook F Book 4 Unit 9 Going Camping (p.275)
→ Debbie: … (Turns around) Stella, put the marshmallows onto the sticks.
Stella: Like this?
Debbie: Yes.
The first example from the above can be an illustration of typical direct Chinese requests, which cover requestive verbs such as ken-qing (懇請) and qing-qui (請求), and assertive verb like yao-qiu (要求) (Zhang, 1995).
2. Indirect request
Ex. Textbook F Book 3 Unit 1 A New Home (p.229)
→ Dad: Why don’t you unpack your bags then?
Stella: (Excited) I think I’m too excited to unpack, too. I’d rather look around our new house some more. What’s the kitchen like?
Ex. Textbook F Book 6 Unit 2 In the Library (p.238)
→ Stella: … I need to write a report for my history class, too. Can you help me find some books about Taiwan?
Gerry: Yes, I can. But you can only check out three books at a time.
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The first example from the above can be categorized as an indirect request with non-conventional sentence patterns, which can neither be interpreted by the literal meanings nor by the conventional norms (Lycan, 1984). In this situation, the underlying meanings of non-conventional indirect requests depend not only on the
The first example from the above can be categorized as an indirect request with non-conventional sentence patterns, which can neither be interpreted by the literal meanings nor by the conventional norms (Lycan, 1984). In this situation, the underlying meanings of non-conventional indirect requests depend not only on the