Chart 2-9: Uzbekistan’s Total Oil Production and Consumption 1992-2010
2.1.4.2 A Brief Overview of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan’s Post-Soviet History
2.1.4.1.2 Energy Exploitation in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan
Unlike the other Central Asian countries, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are largely destitute in regard to oil and natural gas. Especially this is true for Tajikistan, while both countries depend upon Turkmenistan for oil and natural gas supplies to invigorate their economies as they step on to the world stage once again. After local exploration for ten years in search of oil and natural gas resources to exploit only not very significant resources have been found, falling far short of their demand for domestic consumption. These countries both have introduced some energy policies for national development without much success. Nonetheless, other infrastructure projects such as hydropower stations in Tajikistan and developments which tie into our research focus do exist however they do not fall within the domain of this current study.
2.1.4.2 A Brief Overview of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan’s Post-Soviet History
Since Uzbekistan became independent in 1991, Islam Karimov has basically favored a
dictatorship during his tenure. Uzbekistan joined the Commonwealth of Independent States in 1991.While it withdrew from the CIS in 1999. After the color revolutions (2003 Georgia's
"Rose Revolution,” 2004 the Ukraine’s "Orange Revolution" and 2005 the Kyrgyz’s "Tulip Revolution") and in the aftermath of the Andijan Massacre in 2005, in July of 2005 Uzbekistan reversed its position of close ties with America and established closer ties with the PRC which supported the regime's response to the events in Andijan.
After independence in 1991, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war from 1992-1997. In 1997 the opposition party in the Tajik Civil War signed a ceasefire agreement. After the civil war ended, Tajikistan restored its political stability and accepted extensive foreign aid.
Since Kyrgyzstan became independent in 1991, Askar Akayev remained president until the March 2005 Tulip Revolution occurred in which he was overthrown and Kurmanbek Bakiyev took over as president. In April 2010 a revolution occurred again in Kyrgyzstan, the former president Kurmanbek Bakiyev was overthrown and Roza Otunbayeva served as transitional government leader. This incident can be said to be the reversal of the Color
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revolutions. Regarding to Manas Air Base, Kyrgyzstan parliament on June 2013 decided that U.S. troops must withdraw from Manas Air Base before July 2014.
2.1.4.2.1 Uzbekistan’s Post-Soviet History
In 1991 Uzbekistan declared independence after the collapse of the USSR. On the 29th of December, 1991 Islam Karimov won Uzbekistan’s presidential election for the first time. In 1995 through a controversial referendum, Islam Karimov’s term was extended to 2000, and in the presidential election of 2000, he was re-elected. On January 27th, 2002 Islam Karimov proposed a referendum, so that the constitutional presidential term was extended from five years to seven years. On 23th Dec 2007 Islam Karimov was re-elected again in the
presidential election. 69
According to a recent review, the government now led by Islam Karimov supports joining the CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) after the Andijan Massacre in
2005which causing hundreds of people to be killed, and this event is regarded as a symbol of the human rights abuses ongoing in Uzbekistan. 70
Uzbekistan joined the Commonwealth of Independent States in 1991, later withdrawing in 1999. After the “Color Revolutions” (referring to Georgia's 2003 "Rose Revolution,” the Ukraine’s 2004 "Orange Revolution" and Kyrgyzstan’s 2005 "Tulip Revolution") and in the aftermath of the Andijan Massacre in 2005, with harsh criticism of Uzbekistan's repressive regime and calls for an impartial investigation coming from the West, in July of 2005
Uzbekistan reversed its position of maintaining close ties with America and established closer ties with the PRC which supported the regime's actions at Andijan. Uzbekistan, under SCO auspices, invoked a provision within its agreements with the U.S. asking the U.S. to withdrawal
69 Novostei, Vremya. “President Islam Karimov's legal position becomes questionable as of tomorrow,”
Ferghana Information agency, Jan 22, 2007, available at: http://enews.fergananews.com/article.php?id=1807, (accessed: 20140515).
70 “Islam Karimov–One of the Principle Obstacles To Anybody’s Eurasian Union Plans,”
ThereAreNoSunglasses: American Resistance To Empire blog site, Jul 1, 2012, available at:
http://therearenosunglasses.wordpress.com/2012/07/01/islam-karimov-one-of-the-principle-obstacles-to-anybod ys-eurasian-union-plans, (accessed: 20140515).
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its troops from military bases in Uzbekistan. 71
It should be noted that for several years Uzbekistan enjoyed something of a client status with the U.S. which allowed Karimov even to make a personal visit to the Pentagon during the later Bush Administration -- an event which is usually reserved for close U.S. allies only.
2.1.4.2.2 Tajikistan’s Post-Soviet History
Almost immediately after independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war that saw various factions vying for power, some allegedly backed by Russia and/or Iran. The
occurrence of this extremely tragic civil war in 1992-1997 led to increasing poverty and the flight of much of the non-Tajik or non-Muslim ethnicities that had resided in Tajikistan including much needed technical expertise for Tajik industries. The territories of the former Soviet Union and states of the West became home to these émigrés seeking better economic opportunities abroad. Today most of Tajikistan’s male population regularly migrates to Russia and other nations in search of employment, making Tajikistan one of the poorest countries in Asia. 72
In 1994 Emomali Rahmon was elected as president of Tajikistan, and since then Tajikistan has in effect been a one-party state, and subject to much outside scrutiny. In 1997 the opposition party in the Tajik Civil War (the United Tajik Opposition) signed a ceasefire agreement. In 1999’s presidential election Emomali Rahmon was re-elected. After the civil war ended, Tajikistan restored its political stability and accepted extensive foreign aid. 73 Russian border troops remained deployed along the Tajik-Afghan border until after the summer of 2005. After the 2001 “9/11” terrorist attacks in the U.S., French troops were stationed in the Tajik capital of Dushanbe, at its airport. Moreover, the U.S. military regularly
71 “Q&A: U.S. Military Bases in Central Asia,” The New York Times, Jul 26, 2005, available at:
http://www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/slot2_072605.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0, (accessed: 20140515).
72 “Tajikistan Well Placed to Exploit Russo-Iranian Competition,” History's Shadow: Exploring the link between history and today blog site, Feb 6, 2014, available at: http://historysshadow.wordpress.com/tag/tajik-civil-war, (accessed: 20140516).
73 “Tajikistan Civil War,”GlobalSecurity.org, available at:
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/tajikistan.htm, (accessed: 20140516).
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conducts joint training missions in the country as well. 74
2.1.4.2.3 Kyrgyzstan’s Post-Soviet History
In October 1990 Askar Akayev was elected president of Kyrgyzstan, and he remained president until the March 2005 Tulip Revolution occurred in which he was overthrown and Kurmanbek Bakiyev took over as president. In April 2010 a revolution occurred again in Kyrgyzstan, the former president Kurmanbek Bakiyev was overthrown and a new constitutional system was established during which time Roza Otunbayeva served as the transitional government leader. These events caused at least 75 people to be killed and 458 wounded. On the 15th of April, 2010, Kurmanbek Bakiyev fled to Kazakhstan. 75
Because of the fact that the former Kyrgyz president Kurmanbek Bakiyev was supported by the United States, presumably the incident may have been directed by Russia, so that the pro-US President Kurmanbek Bakiyev was replaced by the transitional government under Roza Otunbayeva’s leadership to reduce the US military presence in Central Asia, in line with the strategic interests of Russia, and this incident can be said to be a reversal of one of the
“Color Revolutions” (as aforementioned). 76
Another issue relates to the Manas Air Base that is the only US military base currently left in Central Asia. On the 3rd of February, 2009, under considerable pressure President Kurmanbek Bakiyev had announced plans to shut down the Manas Air Base immediately, which was approved by Kyrgyzstan’s Parliament on the 19th of February 2009. But after further diplomatic negotiations the base was allowed to remain open. In January 2013, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Robert Blake announced that Washington was holding
74 “French forces withdraw from Tajikistan while Russian troops get comfortable,” Journal of Turkish Weekly, May 6, 2013, available at:
http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/149970/french-forces-withdraw-from-tajikistan-while-russian-troops-get-co mfortable.html, (accessed: 20140516).
75 Hiro, Dilip. “Kyrgyzstan's second tulip revolution,” The Guardian, Apr 8, 2010, available at:
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/apr/08/kyrgyzstan-second-tulip-revolution, (accessed:
20140516).
76 Engdahl, F. William. “Kyrgyzstan’s ‘Roza Revolution’— Cui Bono?” Washington, Moscow, Beijing and the Geopolitics of Central Asia,” F W Engdahl, available at:
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preliminary discussions with Kyrgyzstan over continuing to have access to Manas after 2014.
Kyrgyzstan parliament on June 2013 however decided that U.S. troops must withdraw from Manas Air Base before July 2014. 77
2.2 Development Strategies of Central Asian Countries