國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
effects, the survival and security of the nation would also be threatened. 16
1.3.4 The Definitions of “Energy Diplomacy” and “Policy Behavior”
Foreign policies are the policy guidelines governments rely on when envisioning international interactions. They not only proclaim the goals that governments intend to pursue, but also represent the tactics governments are prepared to use. Factors influencing the determination of foreign policies originate from a variety of analytical levels and they exert their influence simultaneously. Among others, individual decision-makers are considered a key factor. These policies are often under the influence of regimes and social forms, the global environment, and constraints from the international community. 17
Energy diplomacy can be regarded as any diplomatic activities carried out between energy exporting or consuming states, transnational oil companies, or international
organizations. The purposes of such diplomacy are to maintain and strengthen the nation's security of energy import and export, pursue geopolitical economic advantages, and maximize national interests. 18
1.4 Research Literature Review 1.4.1 Geopolitics
Scholars from around the world have considered the region of Central Asia and its
geopolitical circumstances from a variety of perspectives. Western scholar, Lutz Kleveman, in his book The New Great Game: Blood and Oil in Central Asia expresses that countries such
16 龔祥生，「中共能源外交戰略之日本因素研究」，國立政治大學碩士論文 (台北：2006 年)，頁 3-19。
[Kung, Shian-Son. Zhonggong Nengyuanwaijiao Zhanlue Zhi Riben Yinsu Yanjiu (Factoring in Japan in regard to CPC’s energy diplomacy strategy), unpublished thesis, NCCU (Taipei: 2006), p. 3-19.]
17 Goldstein, Joshua S. International Relations (New York: Longman Publisher, 2008), p.122-147.
18 龔祥生，「中共能源外交戰略之日本因素研究」，國立政治大學碩士論文 (台北：2006 年)，頁 3-19。
[Kung, ShianSon. Zhonggong Nengyuanwaijiao Zhanlue Zhi Riben Yinsu Yanjiu (Factoring in Japan in regard to
‧
as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Iran, Iraq, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan, which are situated in Spykman's “heartland” have already become the focal point of the power struggle between the US, Russia, and other nations primarily due to their abundant oil and natural gas reserves. Chinese scholar, Xu Tao (許濤), asserts that Central Asian countries implement a balanced foreign policy. When the great powers involve themselves in Central Asia, these countries mediate between them so as to gain opportunities and space for self-development, and to obtain assistance and economic security. Taiwanese scholar Dr. Jen-Kun Fu also formulates a “New Geopolitical Theory” in regard to the policy behavior of these countries.
This theory considers that the countries of Central Asia can obtain a balance among politics, geography, economy, and ideology (per their function in society), like John F. Nash's
Equilibrium theory, to rationalize the best responses.
These varying perspectives in consideration of the geopolitical circumstances in Central Asia are reviewed in greater detail in the subsections found hereafter.
1.4.1.1 Perspectives of Western Scholars
Historically, geopolitical studies can be traced back to 1897 to the German scholar, Friedrich Ratzel, who published a book, Politiche Geographic, providing a basic framework that viewed nations as organic entities. Four years later, a Swedish scholar, Rudolf Kjellen first created the term “Geopolitics” in his work Staten Som Lifsform (or 'The State as a Living Form'). This book had a strong influence on later geographic studies. During World War II and the late 19th century, works such as Halford J. Mackinder’s Heartland Theory, Alfred T.
Mahan’s Sea Power Theory, and Nicholas J. Spykman’s Rimland Theory were all affected by Kjellen’s work.
However, due to changes in international relations, regional integration, and globalization, classical geopolitical theories could not meet the needs of fully informing scholars regarding evolving international conflicts after World War II. In 1960s, many scholars analyzed international political structure from multiple viewpoints and
CPC’s energy diplomacy strategy), unpublished thesis, National Chengchi University (Taipei: 2006), p. 3-19.]
‧
considerations including geographic factors to produce strategies for national security and development. In recent years, Samuel Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996) and Zbigniew Brzezinski’s The Grand Chessboard:
American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives (1998) have become most notable. In Brzezinski’s work, he provides his own insight on the importance of Central Asia. He dedicates an entire chapter (Chapter 5) to introduce Central Asia, discussing its importance, reviewing the strategic implications of its energy resources. Brzezinski focuses his argument mainly on the competition among ethnic groups in the region and powerful nations in Central Asia. He refers to the region as “Asia’s Balkans Peninsula.” However, Brzezinski’s theory is not without its flaws. He somewhat oversimplifies the strategies China had implemented to date in Central Asia in his book. 19
Nonetheless, we still can focus on the more important point. In Makinder’s point of view, his basic doctrine indicates that those who rule the “Heartland” or the pivot land can control the world. While Spykman had a different claim, he claims that: “Who controls the rim land rules Eurasia; who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world.”
If we think deeply in regard to these two theories, we can see the importance of Central Asia and China. Central Asia could be said to be located in the “Heartland” whereas China could easily be considered the “Rim Land.” Hence, both regions are in extensively vital strategic locations. If Central Asian countries and China make great efforts to facilitate their cooperation, China will experience enormous economic development if one gives credence to the views of Makinder or Spykman or both given this interpretation.
Another German scholar, Lutz Kleveman, used simple language in The New Great Game:
Blood and Oil in Central Asia to express that countries such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Iran, Iraq, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan, which are situated in Spykman's
“heartland” have already become the focal point of the power struggle between the US, Russia, and other nations primarily due to their abundant oil and natural gas reserves. This
19 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives (New York: Basic Books, 1997), p.123-150.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
indicates that Central Asian states are of vital importance in today’s world where demand for energy is enormous and competition among great powers is intense. 20
In addition, this fact has been commented on, by Joseph Nye and other Western scholars, in regard to Central Asia’s role in the energy domain, and regarding the
implementation of China’s foreign policies in the region. As opposed to Western studies, Russian and Central Asian scholars set out from different points of view. They emphasize the status quo and then follow along the same lines as their Western counterparts have taken in regard to the region.
1.4.1.2 Perspectives of Taiwanese scholars
As Taiwanese scholar Dr. Jen-Kun Fu(傅仁坤) asserts, “Geopolitics emphasizes the functional behavior of a nation. That is, how a nation maneuvers its visible resources and invisible potential, such as politics, geography, economy, and military, in compound with powerful space-time factors, to realize social prospects and visions.” Elaborating upon the aforementioned concept, he formulates the “New Geopolitical Theory,” which applies a structural-functional theory to geopolitics. Aiming to obtain the balance among politics, geography, economy, and ideology (per their function in society), one must combine the structural behavioral science derived from the interaction of these four actors and John F.
Nash's Equilibrium theory, which rationalizes how best responses can be prompted in various game situations. 21
20 Kleveman, Lutz, The New Great Game: Blood and Oil in Central Asia (New York: Atlantic Books, 2003), p.
1-10.
21 陳章華，「中國與中亞能源合作之探究- 以地緣政治觀點為中心」，清雲科技大學碩士論文 (桃園：2011
年 12 月)，頁 3-4。[Chen, Changhua. Zhongguo Yu Zhongya Nengyuan Hezuo Zhi Tanjiu - Yi Diyuanzhengzhi Guandian Wei Zhongxin (The research on the energy cooperation between Central Asia and China from the
‧
國立 政 治 大 學