Community Based Tourism (CBT)

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1.4. Theoretical Framework

In order to understand, first a number of definitions important for the theoretical framework of the thesis: Sustainable Tourism, Ecotourism, Community-based Tourism (CBT), and Indigenous Tourism.

1.4.1 Community Based Tourism (CBT)

For decades, tourism has experienced continued growth and deep diversification, becoming one of the most influential economic sectors on the planet. It is an extraordinarily dynamic and changing activity.

In recent years there has been a rapid growth in the number of international tourists, from 528 million in 1995, to 1.235 billion in 2016, and an expected 1.8 billion in 2030. Tourism is a huge industry and an important part of all modern economies, as it is a source for foreign and domestic investment, foreign currency circulation, entrepreneurial initiatives, service-based job creation, and local social enhancement (UNWTO, 2018).

Figure 1: International tourists

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International tourism by itself has an increasingly significant role in international trade, having exceeded $ 1.5 trillion in operations attributable only to international tourism in 2015. Currently, tourism turnover equals or even exceeds that of oil exports, food products or automobiles. Its overall impact is particularly significant, contributing today to 9.8% of world GDP. A context in which the tourism industry has contributed with a total of 284 million direct jobs in 2015. These figures speak for themselves of the enormous impact of tourism on development policies at local, regional and global levels (UNWTO, 2018).

As such, sustainability concepts apply to the tourism industry as well. Sustainability literally means the capacity to endure over time. Sustainability associates with balance and equity, which acknowledges our dependence on the health of natural systems for our survival and well-being, the limit carrying capacity of the Earth and the detrimental impact of unchecked human activities.

Thus, sustainability strives for balance among the interconnected ecological, economic and social systems. Sustainability must be integrated in all sectors. Including tourism.

1.4.1.1. Sustainable Tourism:

According to the UNWTO & UNEP, Sustainable Tourism is defined as follow: “Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities.” “Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic, and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development, and a suitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to guarantee its long-term sustainability” (UNEP & UNWTO, 2005: 11-12).

Sustainable tourism takes into account issues of Energy and GHG emissions; water consumption;

waste management; loss of biological diversity; and effective management of cultural heritage.

Tourism's importance for sustainable development was also recognized, recently at 'Rio+20: The Future We Want" summit: "We emphasize that well-designed and managed tourism can make a significant contribution to the three dimensions of sustainable development […] We call for enhanced support for sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building in developing countries in order to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development" (UNCSD, 2012).

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Recently, the United Nations came together in 2015 to discuss how we must work together to help improve the lives of future generations. The purpose of this meeting was to implement a unique set of goals that will help ‘end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all’ as part of a new agenda for sustainable growth and development. These significant targets, are set to be achieved in the next 15 years. Tourism features prominently in the outcome document

“Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” and is included as a target in three out of the 17 Goals, namely Goal 8.9, 12.b. and 14.7.²

Under these circumstances the tourism industry itself is called in the coming years to become one of the fundamental engines and priority field of application of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), with the declaration of 2017 is the Year of Tourism for Sustainable Development. The International Year aims to: (1) raise awareness on the contribution of sustainable tourism to development; and (2) mobilize all stakeholders in making the sector a catalyst for positive change (International Finance Corporation, 2017).

Using the GSTC Criteria set by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC)³ would be a valid way to recognize sustainability practices in tourism. “The GSTC Criteria serve as the global baseline standards for sustainability in travel and tourism. The Criteria are used for education and awareness-raising, policy-making for businesses and government agencies and other organization types, measurement and evaluation, and as a basis for certification. They are the result of a worldwide effort to develop a common language about sustainability in tourism. They are arranged in four pillars: Sustainable management; Socioeconomic impacts; Cultural impacts; and Environmental impacts (including consumption of resources, reducing pollution, and conserving biodiversity and landscapes) (GSTC, 2018).

2 Sustainable tourism is included under Goal 8 (Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all), target 8,9 (By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products); Under Goal 12 (Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns), target 12.b (Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products) and under; Goal 14 (Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development), target 14.7 (By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island Developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism) (International Finance Corporation, 2017).

3 In 2007, a coalition of 32 partners, initiated by the Rainforest Alliance, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Foundation, and the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), created the GSTC. The purpose was to foster increased understanding of sustainable tourism practices and the adoption of universal sustainable tourism principles (GSTC, 2018).

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Ecotourism is a niche segment of tourism, which is often referred to, especially in Taiwan. The term ecotourism emerged in the late 1980s as acknowledgment of sustainable and global ecological practices. As ecotourism has grown in popularity, its definitions have been expanded to incorporate ideas about ecotourism responsibility, environmentally friendly destination management, and sustainable development of local human (Coria & Calfucura, 2012).

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) definesecotourism as "responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education" (TIES, 2015). "Education is meant to be inclusive of both staff and guests".⁴ Ecotourism represents a set of principles that were successfully implemented in various global communities, and are supported by extensive industry and academic research. Ecotourism, when properly executed based on these principles, exemplifies the benefits of socially and environmentally sound tourism development (TIES, 2015).⁵ Ecotourism has also been recognized

4There are many other definitions of ecotourism. For example, Fennel, a well-known scholar of ecotourism defined in 1999 ecotourism as "a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, and which is ethically managed to be low-impact, non-consumptive, and locally oriented (control, benefits, and scale). It typically occurs in natural areas, and should contribute to the conservation or preservation of such areas" (Fennel 1999, 43).

According to the UNWTO's definition, ecotourism refers to forms of tourism which have the following characteristics:

(1) All nature-based forms of tourism in which the main motivation of the tourists is the observation and appreciation of nature as well as the traditional cultures prevailing in natural areas; (2) It contains educational and interpretation features; (3) It is generally, but not exclusively organised by specialised tour operators for small groups. Service provider partners at the destinations tend to be small, locally owned businesses; (4) It minimises negative impacts upon the natural and socio-cultural environment; (5) It supports the maintenance of natural areas which are used as ecotourism attractions by Generating economic benefits for host communities, organisations and authorities managing natural areas with conservation purposes; (6) Providing alternative employment and income opportunities for local communities; (7) Increasing awareness towards the conservation of natural and cultural assets, both among locals and tourists (UNWTO, 2002).

5 The principles of ecotourism were also updated in 2015 by the TIES: "Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who implement, participate in and market ecotourism activities should adopt the following ecotourism principles: (1) Minimize physical, social, behavioral, and psychological impacts; (2) Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect; (3) Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts; (4) Provide direct financial benefits for conservation; (5) Generate financial benefits for both local people and private industry; (6) Deliver memorable interpretative experiences to visitors that help raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climates; (7) Design, construct and operate low-impact facilities; (8) Recognize the rights and spiritual beliefs of the Indigenous People in your community and work in partnership with them to create empowerment" (TIES, 2015).

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for its significant contribution to achieving the Millennium Development Goas (MDGs) in developing countries, through generation of jobs and increased income among others (Ariel, 2012).

In different countries with different political, environmental and social climates, Ecotourism is defined and practiced in a different way. In Taiwan, the concept of ecotourism emphasizes more of the natural part and less of the livelihood of local people other than profit. This can be seen in how Taiwanese scholars define ecotourism: "The travel built on the basis of natural resources, humane history, and geographical relics while taking environment protection, environment education, and local profit as its final objective with the aim to achieve permanent development"

(Shiunn, Han & Ru, 2011). This is based on integration of relevant literature on ecotourism definitions.

It is important to remember that sustainable tourism is about applying sustainability practices to all aspects and segments of tourism. In Taiwan though, many identify sustainable tourism as ecotourism.

1.4.1.3. Community Based Tourism (CBT)

“Community-based tourism (CBT) is sustainable tourism that is run and managed by the community that is being visited by tourists” (Yamashita, 2011: 11). It is a type of sustainable tourism, which many times falls also under the category of ecotourism and as such, identified by many as ecotourism. However, community based tourism is not necessarily ecotourism. Although Community Based Tourism is often identified as a market segment, or a theme of tourism, CBT is not a tourism segment, but rather a model, a framework. Communities operating CBT can engage practically in any tourism them, such ecotourism, agro-tourism, adventure tourism, etc. based on their products, attraction, and available resources. However, the majority of CBT often involve ecotourism, nature-based tourism, and cultural tourism, which might cause the confusion.

CBT is seen by many as a way to bring economic development to marginalized rural communities hand-in-hand with nature conservation, due to the location of these communities. Indeed there is a vast literature on CBT as a development model of the community, often aimed for development agencies and tourism professionals. The International Centre for Responsible Tourism (ICRT) explains community based tourism to be "... consistent with alternative development and

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sustainable livelihood approaches, which focus on grassroots development and embrace participation, equity and empowerment ideas" (Lucchetti & Font, 2013). ⁶

CBT is a concept that means that “the local community has substantial control over, and involvement in, its development and management, and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community" (Denman, 2001). Unique cultural heritage as well as natural environment are the main attractions for CBT tourists.

Layla summarizes the definition of CBT in a holistic way: “CBT is the form of tourism which is organized, planned, developed and marketed with high level of direct participation of the local community(ies) of the area(s), where the main tourism products are developed and consumed and where the tourism services are provided, whereas significant part of the income generated from sales of such products and services remain in the given community(ies) in form of direct income and contributions to the community budget and/or community tourism fund.” (Lalayan, 2014: 12) Jones (2005) mentions Campbell (1999), Colvin (1996), and Loon and Polakow (2001) while stating that some scholars have questioned whether local communities indeed receive maximum benefits from the ecotourism industry. Most examples of community based tourism initiatives that are found in the tourism literature involve management and initiation by stakeholders outside the community where the CBT activities take place (Jones, 2005). In this regard, Schevyns (1999) emphasis the importance to have the local communities have some measure of control and share equitably in the benefits. When the community has a high degree of control, it will command a large, if not all, proportion of the benefits.

Therefore when Häusler & Strasdas (2003) define CBT, they emphasize the participatory role of the local community in the development and management of tourism in their community, and the distribution of the economic benefits from tourism. The main feature of CBT would be that the tourism is in the local community, by the local community, and for the local community (Lalayan, 2014).

6WWF explains in its Guidelines for community-based ecotourism development the main components and benefits of CBT:"... the local community has substantial control over, and involvement in, its development and management, and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community" (Denman, 2001).

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Lash (2003) categorizes CBT enterprises into three possible structure types. The first, the most ideal one, is where the enterprise is community-owned and operated. In such enterprise type, “the benefits, labor, and other costs are borne equally by all members of the community” (Lash, 2003:

25). Therefore, in a community-owned and operated enterprise, the the greatest amount of revenue stays in the community, compared to the next two types of CBT enterprises. The second type is the enterprise owned by a small group or a family. The family or group members usually work together with different financial compensation but with the same goal of bringing prosperity to the group as a whole. This is the most common type of CBT structure. The third type, which is also quite common, is a partnership or joint venture between outsider investors and/or operators and the community members. The whole community, or part of it, partner with an NGO, government, or private sector representative for a specified term or project. In this type, economic benefit stays outside the community as much as (if not more than) inside the community, due to economic leakage. However, this enterprise type makes CBT development easier as it links with markets and outside capital, and usually involve structured trainings and skill developments of the community (Lash, 2003).

Most scholar agree that to be successful, CBT should result in tangible benefits to the community and improvement in quality of life of the community. For this, CBT must involve active participation by broad representation as possible of the community members. It should also result in conservation of the environment and enhance the cultural heritage of the community (Hipwell, 2007; Lalayan, 2014).

Less has been written on CBT initiated by, developed by, and managed by, the community itself.

It is important to note the issue of participation in CBT. Whether it is an outside initiated or internally cultivated, in both scenarios, not all the community (i.e. 100% of the people belonging to community as it is defined) will participate. Therefore, it is important to remember that although it is called Community Based Tourism, there are non-participating community members.