社區旅遊中的共用資源管理與獲益分配：以台灣泰雅族司馬庫斯部落與鎮西堡-新光部落為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學應用經濟與社會發展英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program of Applied Economics and Social Development College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University. Master’s Thesis. 學 ‧. ‧ 國. 立. 治政碩士論文大. 社區旅遊中的共用資源管理與獲益分配：. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 以台灣泰雅族司馬庫斯部落與鎮西堡-新光部落為例. n. Common Pool Resource Distribution in a Management and Benefit v. i l C n U Community Based Tourism:h Two from Smangus and e n gCase c h i Studies Cinsbu-Xinguang, Atayal Indigenous Communities in Taiwan. Student: Roi Ariel Advisor: Da-Wei Kuan. 中華民國 107 年 6 月 June 2018 DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(2) 社區旅遊中的共用資源管理與獲益分配：以台灣泰雅族司馬庫斯部落與鎮西堡-新光部落為例 Common Pool Resource Management and Benefit Distribution in Community Based Tourism: Two Case Studies from Smangus and Cinsbu-Xinguang, Atayal Indigenous Communities in Taiwan. 研究生：岳湖. 立. 指導教授：官大偉. Roi Ariel 政治Student: 大. Advisor: Da-Wei Kuan. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. 國立政治大學. 碩士論文. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 應用經濟與社會發展英語碩士學位學程. Ch. e gchi An Thesis. i n U. v. Submitted to International Master’s Program of Applied Economics and Social Development National Chengchi University. 中華民國 107 年 6 月 June 2018 DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(3) Abstract Previous studies have discussed the importance of distribution of benefits from Community Based Tourism (CBT) in the community for its success. Scholars also agree that these distribution should be as far and as wide as possible. Many CBT enterprises are based on cultural heritage and natural environment as key tourism resources. In certain cases, the natural environment as a tourism resource is a Common Pool Resources (CPR). However, the issue of CPR in tourism has not been studied much in either the tourism or the CPR literature. This study explains the relationship between the tourism CPR management framework - when it is the key CBT tourism resource - and its relationship with benefit distribution from tourism. By conducting a mixed method approach. 治政 how perceived benefit distribution from CBT affects the satisfaction 大 with the way the Tourism 立 emerge from the study: (1) There are different “stages” CPR is managed. Two key understandings of questionnaires (quantitative) and interviews and observation (qualitative), the research analyzes. ‧ 國. 學. of benefit distribution from CBT result in different relationship with the CBT management. When the benefit distribution is relatively equal in the community, benefit distribution does not impact. ‧. the satisfaction of the Tourism CPR management. In such case, participation in managing the CPR is important to the community; (2) When the CBT is based on multiple family or group-owned. sit. y. Nat. enterprises, the perception of benefit distribution from CBT positively affects the satisfaction with. io. n. al. Keywords – Community Based. er. how the Tourism CPR is managed.. iv n C Tourism, Pool Resource, h e nCommon gchi U. Benefit Distribution,. Indigenous People, Taiwan, Atayal, Sustainable Tourism.. i. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(4) 摘要過去已有研究討論社區旅遊的利益分配和分享其成功案例，學者們也認同這些利益應該更廣泛地、長遠地被分配及使用；另一方面，在共用資源的研究上，許多社區旅遊組織的主要觀光資源以文化遺產或自然環境為主，在某些情況下其也可被視為共用資源，然而，與利益分配相關的議題，在以旅遊為對象之共用資源文獻中卻鮮少被提及。本研究探討當共用資源為觀光主要資源時，共用資源管理與其利益分配之間的關係。透過實地訪查、參與觀察、深度訪談等質性方法，以及問卷調查與統計之量化方法的交叉比對，進而分析社區旅遊的自. 政治大社區旅遊的利益分配有不同的“階段”，不同時期與社區旅遊管理的關係不立. 覺行動利益如何影響對旅遊共用資源管理的滿意度。從研究中可以暸解：（1）. 同。當獲利分配相對平等時，其對共用資源管理的滿意度影響較小。在這種情. ‧ 國. 學. 形下，社區共同參與和管理共用資源是重要的；(2) 若社區旅遊由數個家族或不同群體共同經營，社區旅遊對獲利分配的看法則會對旅遊共用資源的管理方. ‧. 式產生積極影響。. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. 關鍵字 - 社區旅遊，共享資源，利益分配，原住民，泰雅族，永續旅遊。. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. ii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(5) Acknowledgments I would like to thank Prof. Kuan Da-Wei (Daya Dakasi) for his guidance and supervision of this thesis, and for inspiring me since the first semester at NCCU. By providing me opportunities to further my study and understanding of Taiwan’s Indigenous Peoples topics, the path to writing this research paper was inventible. Discussions with Daya have always been an intellectual pleasure. Thanks also go to Prof. Lin Yih-Ren, who let me join a 10-day “Walking Workshop” in December 2014, which allowed me to learn first-hand of Taiwan Indigenous Peoples issues, and for sharing thoughts and knowledge from his long work with Atayal communities.. 政治大. Thanks also go to Prof. Tang Ching Ping for his initial advices on the thesis topic when I began writing. Even though his classes were on Friday night, I always looked forward to them, where we. 立. could learn and debate important environmental issues in Taiwan and Mainland China.. ‧ 國. 學. Thanks to Prof. Lien Hsienming, IMES Program Director, for his ongoing support even after he finished his term as the Program Director, and Prof. David Blundell, for increasing my curiosity. ‧. regarding the Austronesian people. Thanks should also go to Prof. Erik Cohen (whom I first interviewed for a radio show in 2012) for giving advices regarding my thesis when we held a. Nat. sit. y. meeting in Bangkok in 2015. Also thanks to Yayut Yishiuan Chen for her comments and help.. al. er. io. Thanks and appreciation go, of course, to the two communities, Smangus and Cinsbu-Xinguang. v. n. that allowed me to research them. They have welcomed me into their community, making me feel. Ch. i n U. as if I visit a family - wishing me success and supporting me in writing this thesis. As such, I would. engchi. like to thank Chief Masay, Elder Yuraw, and the other elders of Smangus. Thanks to Lahuy Iceh and Cumu Masay who helped me with coordination of my visits to Smangus and welcomed me in their homes. As well as thanks to all the people of Smangus. In Cinsbu-Xinguang, I would like to thank Elder Ataw and Elder Raha for taking me into their home and being supportive and helpful in my research. Thanks also go to Elder Tali that welcomes me with a big smile every time since we first met in 2014, as well as to Yapit Tali for her friendship and support (and her English skills). Last but not least, I would like to give appreciation to our common home, our planet, with the hope that humanity will change its way to a sustainable future. This paper is dedicated to the people of Smangus and Cinsbu-Xinguang. Mhway su balay! iii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(6) Table of Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 2 1.2. Expected Outcome of the Research ..................................................................................... 4 1.4. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................ 5 1.4.1 Community Based Tourism (CBT) ................................................................................ 5 1.4.2 Benefit Distribution in CBT......................................................................................... 11 1.4.3. Common Pool Resource (CPR) .................................................................................. 12. 政治大. 1.4.4. Tourism Common Pool Resource ............................................................................... 15. 立. 1.5. Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................................... 18. ‧ 國. 學. 1.6. Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 19 1.7. Research Method and Design ............................................................................................ 21. ‧. 1.7.1. Mixed Methods Approach .......................................................................................... 21. sit. y. Nat. 1.7.2. Case Selection ............................................................................................................. 21. io. er. 1.7.3. Permission and Access to the Sites ............................................................................. 23 1.7.4. Data Collection ........................................................................................................... 24. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. 2. Background to Case Studies .................................................................................................. 28. engchi. 2.1. Taiwan’s Indigenous Peoples ............................................................................................ 28 2.2. The Atayal People .............................................................................................................. 31 2.2.1. Geographical Distribution of Atayal People ............................................................... 32 2.2.2. Migration history ........................................................................................................ 33 2.2.3. Characteristics of Atayal Society ................................................................................ 33 2.2.4. Traditional Territory and Land Ownership ................................................................. 35 2.2.5. Christianity and the Church: ....................................................................................... 35 2.3. Location of the Two Case-study Communities ................................................................. 37 iv. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(7) 3. Cinsbu-Xinguang Case Study ................................................................................................ 39 3.1. Cinsbu-Xinguang Background........................................................................................... 39 3.2. The Characteristics of Cinsbu-Xinguang Community-based Tourism.............................. 42 3.3. Cinsbu-Xinguang Tourism Stakeholders ........................................................................... 45 3.4. The Cypress Forest as Tourism Common Pool Resource ................................................. 47 3.5. Management of the Cypress Forest as Tourism CPR ........................................................ 48 3.6: Cinsbu-Xinguang Community Participation in Tourism ................................................... 54 3.7: Cinsbu-Xinguang Perception of Benefit Distribution from Tourism ................................ 58. 政治大 4. Smangus Case Study ............................................................................................................... 65 立. 3.8. Impact of Perceived Benefit Distribution on Tourism CPR Satisfaction .......................... 62. ‧ 國. 學. 4.1. Smangus Background ........................................................................................................ 65 4.2. The Characteristics of Smangus Community-based Tourism ........................................... 70. ‧. 4.3. Smangus Tourism Stakeholders......................................................................................... 73 4.4. The Cypress Forest as Tourism Common Pool Resource ................................................. 74. y. Nat. io. sit. 4.5. Management of the Cypress Forest as Tourism CPR ........................................................ 75. n. al. er. 4.6. Smangus Community Participation in Tourism................................................................. 81. Ch. i n U. v. 4.7. Smangus Perception of Benefit Distribution from Tourism .............................................. 84. engchi. 4.8. Impact of Perceived Benefit Distribution on Tourism CPR Satisfaction .......................... 88 4.8.1. Impact of Perceived benefit distribution, Participation in tourism and CPR management participation on CPR management satisfaction............................................... 88 4.8.2. Correlations between CPR satisfaction, perceived benefit distribution and CPR management participation ..................................................................................................... 90 5. Analysis and Discussion.......................................................................................................... 91 5.1. The Characteristics of Community-based Tourism ........................................................... 92 5.2. Tourism Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 94 5.3. Management of the Cypress Forest as Tourism CPR ........................................................ 95 v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(8) 5.4. Community Participation in Tourism ................................................................................ 98 5.5. Perception of Benefit Distribution from Tourism............................................................ 100 6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 103 6.1. Limitation to the Study .................................................................................................... 105 6.2. Future Study ..................................................................................................................... 106 6.3. Operational Recommendations ........................................................................................ 107 7. References .............................................................................................................................. 108 Appendix I – Questionnaires Appendix II – Codebook Appendix III – Interviews. 立. Appendix IV – Pictures. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vi. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(9) List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: International tourists ........................................................................................................ 5 Table 1: Types of Goods and Services ......................................................................................... 13 Figure 2: Conceptual framework of the thesis .............................................................................. 18 Figure 3: Conceptual framework including the associated thesis sub-questions .......................... 20 Picture 1: Distribution of Taiwan's Indigenous People ................................................................ 29 Picture 2: Taiwan and Hsinchu County ........................................................................................ 37 Picture 3: Hsinchu County and Jianshi Township ........................................................................ 38 Table 2: General demographics of Cinsbu-Xinguang respondents .............................................. 41. 治政 Figure 5: Important factors for successful CBT (Cinsbu-Xinguang) 大 ........................................... 44 立discussing the Tourism CPR management (Cinsbu-Xinguang) Figure 6: Involvement in meetings Table 3: Cinsbu-Xinguang tourism characteristics ....................................................................... 44. ‧ 國. 學. ....................................................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 7: Being informed of major decisions regarding the Tourism CPR management (Cinsbu-. ‧. Xinguang) ..................................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 8: Satisfaction with current Tourism CPR management system (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ....... 53. sit. y. Nat. Figure 9: Division of roles in daily life (Cinsbu-Xinguang)......................................................... 54 Table 4: Involvement in tourism (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ................................................................... 55. io. er. Figure 10: Length of involvement in tourism (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ............................................... 55. al. n. iv n C U (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ............. 57 h e nconcerning Figure 12: Being informed of major decisions g c h i tourism. Figure 11: Involvement in meetings discussing the tourism development (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ... 56. Table 5: Tourism benefit distrbution statements (Cinsbu-Xinguang) .......................................... 58. Figure 13: Perceived sharing of benefit (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ........................................................ 59 Figure 14:Satisfaction with the economic benefits received from tourism in relation effort (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ....................................................................................................................... 60 Figure 15: Satisfaction with the social benefits received from tourism in relation effort (CinsbuXinguang) ..................................................................................................................................... 60 Figure 16: Satisfaction with the cultural benefits received from tourism in relation effort (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ....................................................................................................................... 61 Figure 17: Satisfaction with current distribution of tourism benefits (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ........... 61 Table 7: Regression ANOVA (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ....................................................................... 62 vii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(10) Table 8: Model coefficients (Cinsbu-Xinguang) .......................................................................... 63 Table 9: Correlations between CPR satisfaction, perceived benefit distribution and CPR management participation (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ............................................................................. 64 Table 10: General demographics of Smangus respondents .......................................................... 69 Table 11: Smangus tourism characteristics................................................................................... 72 Figure 18: Important factors for successful CBT (Smangus) ....................................................... 72 Figure 19: Involvement in meetings discussing the Tourism CPR management (Smangus) ....... 79 Figure 20: Being informed of major decisions regarding the Tourism CPR management (Smangus) ..................................................................................................................................... 80 Figure 21: Satisfaction with current Tourism CPR management system (Smangus) ................... 80. 政治大 Table 12: Involvement in tourism (Smangus) .............................................................................. 81 立 Figure 22: Division of roles in daily life (Smangus) .................................................................... 81. Figure 23: Length of involvement in tourism (Smangus) ............................................................. 82. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 24: Involvement in meetings discussing the tourism development (Smangus) ................ 83 Figure 25: Being informed of major decisions concerning tourism (Smangus) ........................... 83. ‧. Table 13: Tourism benefit distrbution statements (Smangus) ...................................................... 84 Figure 26: Perceived sharing of benefit (Smangus) ...................................................................... 85. y. Nat. sit. Figure 27: Satisfaction with the economic benefits received from tourism in relation effort. al. er. io. (Smangus) ..................................................................................................................................... 86. n. Figure 28: Satisfaction with the social benefits received from tourism in relation effort. Ch. i n U. v. (Smangus) ..................................................................................................................................... 86. engchi. Figure 29: Satisfaction with the cultural benefits received from tourism in relation effort (Smangus) ..................................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 30: Satisfaction with current distribution of tourism benefits (Smangus) ......................... 87 Table 15: Regression ANOVA (Smangus) ................................................................................... 88 Table 16: Model coefficients (Smangus) ...................................................................................... 89 Table 17: Correlations between CPR satisfaction, perceived benefit distribution and CPR management participation (Smangus)........................................................................................... 90 Figure 31: Results to the thesis research question (Cinsbu-Xinguang) ........................................ 91 Figure 32: Results to the thesis research question (Smangus) ...................................................... 92. viii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(11) Figure 33: Involvement in meetings discussing the Tourism CPR management (CinsbuXinguang and Smangus) ............................................................................................................... 97 Figure 34: Being informed of major decisions regarding the Tourism CPR management (CinsbuXinguang and Smangus) ............................................................................................................... 98 Figure 35: Division of roles in daily life (Cinsbu-Xinguang on the left; Smangus on the right) . 99 Figure 36: Satisfaction with the economic benefits received from tourism in relation effort (Cinsbu-Xinguang and Smangus) ............................................................................................... 100 Figure 37: Satisfaction with the social benefits received from tourism in relation effort (CinsbuXinguang and Smangus) ............................................................................................................. 101 Figure 38: Satisfaction with the cultural benefits received from tourism in relation effort. 政治大 Figure 39: Satisfaction with current distribution of tourism benefits (Cinsbu-Xinguang and 立. (Cinsbu-Xinguang and Smangus) ............................................................................................... 101. Smangus)..................................................................................................................................... 102. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 40: Satisfaction with current Tourism CPR management system (Cinsbu-Xinguang and Smangus)..................................................................................................................................... 102. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. ix. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(12) 1. Introduction The distribution of benefits from Community Based Tourism (CBT) settings is an important aspect for the success of CBT, and it has been discussed by many authors researching CBT. Although there are different ways to distribute incomes and benefits from CBT among the community, scholars agree that these distribution should be as far and as wide as possible (Armstrong, 2012; Lalayan, 2014). Many Community Based Tourism enterprises are based on the following two key tourism resources: (1) cultural heritage; and (2) natural environment and landscape. In certain cases, the natural environment as a tourism resource is a Common Pool Resources (CPR). However, the issue. 政治大. of CPR in tourism areas has not been studied much in either the tourism or the CPR literature. 立. (Briassoulis, 2002).. ‧ 國. 學. This study is aimed at understanding better the management framework of Tourism Common Pool Resource - when it is the key CBT tourism resource - and its relationship with benefit distribution. ‧. from tourism. The main research question of this thesis is: How the perception of benefit distribution from Community Based Tourism affects the satisfaction with the way the Tourism CPR. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. is managed in Atayal communities?. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(13) 1.1. Significance of the Study The academic resources on Common Pool Resources in tourism areas are quite limited, both in tourism literature and in CPR literature, and thus remains under-theorized (Briassoulis, 2002). With large sections of the growing tourism industry are moving to more sustainable practices of resource management, understanding the connection between the management of Tourism CPR and benefit distribution is more important than ever. In the community based tourism and ecotourism literature, the studies can be divided into two groups: one focuses on the demand side – the tourists; while the other focuses on the supply side – evaluating the tourism enterprises from different perspectives. This paper belongs to the second. 政治大 two Atayal Indigenous communities of Taiwan that has such settings of CPR and CBT. These 立 Atayal CBT case studies are unique and differ from common other most CBT cases in the literature: group, and looks into Community Based Tourism and CPR management with case studies from. ‧ 國. 學. (1) the majority of the tourists are domestic tourists, rather than international tourists; and (2) the local people established the local tourism industry, without outside development agencies. In the. ‧. ecotourism literature, it is rare to find discussions about community based ventures that are not managed, co-managed, or initiated by outsiders (Jones, 2005).. y. Nat. sit. Taiwan poses as an interesting focus for researching Community Based Tourism and Common. al. er. io. Pool Resource management. Taiwan has a unique population of Indigenous People that have. v. n. resided in Taiwan for thousands of years before the Han people migrated from mainland China.. Ch. i n U. The Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan have not been part of the main economic and social center for. engchi. the majority of the 20th century. In the late 1970’s movement restrictions were lifted which brought electricity to some mountainous indigenous communities. In 1990 the government released the alienable rights of the reserved lands back to the some of the indigenous people. In the second half of the 1990’s paved roads were constructed to connect the mountainous Atayal communities in Hsinchu to the outside world. During that time tourism started to develop, and in in past two decades, many Community Based Tourism initiatives and models were developed in the Communities of Indigenous People of Taiwan (Tang and Tang, 2010). Community Based Tourism is a popular and suitable model for many marginalized communities to diversify their income by offering tourism services. However, it is important to note that the CBT model is not appropriate for all communities. Copying successful products is not a warranty 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(14) of success and sometimes lead to an over estimation of the benefits which misleads the community. Many CBT initiatives are not successful, and sometimes even make damage the community (Meriles, 2014) 1 The two case studies in this paper contribute to understanding these issues, and hopefully will be useful for studying other Community Based Tourism initiatives, especially by indigenous people, as well as developing and implementing Community Based Tourism models. Besides contribution to the theoretical discussion on the ‘characteristics of Community Based Tourism’, ‘tourism resources as CPRs’, and ‘benefit distribution from tourism’, this study will help decision makers in the tourism sector to understand better what should be emphasized when. 政治大 useful in Indigenous Community Based Tourism settings, where many times there are unique CPR 立 institutions already based on traditional practices. In short, the study aims to contribute both to the designing or implementing changes to achieve better benefit distribution. This will be especially. ‧ 國. 學. theoretical literature and to the practical implementation of these issues.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 1. Juan René Alcoba Meriles is one of the only ones who wrote about failures of CBT initiatives, as most researches tend to write about successful cases only. It is easier to write about successful cases.. 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(15) 1.2. Expected Outcome of the Research Through desk research, field research, interviews and analysis of questionnaires in the two communities, the expected outcome of the research is as follows: (1) characteristics of Atayal Community Based Tourism will be explained, mostly the focus on the two key characteristics: cultural heritage and natural environment and landscape; (2) stakeholders involved in tourism will be detailed; (3) The example of the cypress forest area as a tourism resource will validate the possibility to look at such tourism resource as a Tourism CPR; (4) the way two Atayal communities manage the Tourism CPR will be explained; (5) the degree of community involvement in Community Based Tourism and the management the Tourism CPR will be measured and explained;. 政治大. (6) perceived fairness of benefit distribution from tourism will be looked at; and (7) the assumption that satisfaction of tourism benefit distribution influences the satisfaction of Tourism CPR. 立. management system (and the willingness to maintain it).. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(16) 1.4. Theoretical Framework In order to understand, first a number of definitions important for the theoretical framework of the thesis: Sustainable Tourism, Ecotourism, Community-based Tourism (CBT), and Indigenous Tourism.. 1.4.1 Community Based Tourism (CBT) For decades, tourism has experienced continued growth and deep diversification, becoming one of the most influential economic sectors on the planet. It is an extraordinarily dynamic and changing. 政治大 In recent years there has been a rapid growth in the number of international tourists, from 528 立 million in 1995, to 1.235 billion in 2016, and an expected 1.8 billion in 2030. Tourism is a huge activity.. ‧ 國. 學. industry and an important part of all modern economies, as it is a source for foreign and domestic investment, foreign currency circulation, entrepreneurial initiatives, service-based job creation,. ‧. and local social enhancement (UNWTO, 2018).. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 1: International tourists. 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(17) International tourism by itself has an increasingly significant role in international trade, having exceeded $ 1.5 trillion in operations attributable only to international tourism in 2015. Currently, tourism turnover equals or even exceeds that of oil exports, food products or automobiles. Its overall impact is particularly significant, contributing today to 9.8% of world GDP. A context in which the tourism industry has contributed with a total of 284 million direct jobs in 2015. These figures speak for themselves of the enormous impact of tourism on development policies at local, regional and global levels (UNWTO, 2018). As such, sustainability concepts apply to the tourism industry as well. Sustainability literally means the capacity to endure over time. Sustainability associates with balance and equity, which. 政治大. acknowledges our dependence on the health of natural systems for our survival and well-being, the limit carrying capacity of the Earth and the detrimental impact of unchecked human activities.. 立. Thus, sustainability strives for balance among the interconnected ecological, economic and social. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. systems. Sustainability must be integrated in all sectors. Including tourism.. 1.4.1.1. Sustainable Tourism:. Nat. sit. y. According to the UNWTO & UNEP, Sustainable Tourism is defined as follow: “Tourism that. io. er. takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities.” “Sustainability. n. al. i n U. v. principles refer to the environmental, economic, and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development,. Ch. engchi. and a suitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to guarantee its longterm sustainability” (UNEP & UNWTO, 2005: 11-12). Sustainable tourism takes into account issues of Energy and GHG emissions; water consumption; waste management; loss of biological diversity; and effective management of cultural heritage. Tourism's importance for sustainable development was also recognized, recently at 'Rio+20: The Future We Want" summit: "We emphasize that well-designed and managed tourism can make a significant contribution to the three dimensions of sustainable development […] We call for enhanced support for sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building in developing countries in order to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development" (UNCSD, 2012).. 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(18) Recently, the United Nations came together in 2015 to discuss how we must work together to help improve the lives of future generations. The purpose of this meeting was to implement a unique set of goals that will help ‘end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all’ as part of a new agenda for sustainable growth and development. These significant targets, are set to be achieved in the next 15 years. Tourism features prominently in the outcome document “Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” and is included as a target in three out of the 17 Goals, namely Goal 8.9, 12.b. and 14.7. 2 Under these circumstances the tourism industry itself is called in the coming years to become one of the fundamental engines and priority field of application of the 17 United Nations Sustainable. 政治大. Development Goals (SDG), with the declaration of 2017 is the Year of Tourism for Sustainable Development. The International Year aims to: (1) raise awareness on the contribution of. 立. sustainable tourism to development; and (2) mobilize all stakeholders in making the sector a. ‧ 國. 學. catalyst for positive change (International Finance Corporation, 2017).. Using the GSTC Criteria set by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) 3 would be a valid. ‧. way to recognize sustainability practices in tourism. “The GSTC Criteria serve as the global baseline standards for sustainability in travel and tourism. The Criteria are used for education and. Nat. sit. y. awareness-raising, policy-making for businesses and government agencies and other organization. io. er. types, measurement and evaluation, and as a basis for certification. They are the result of a worldwide effort to develop a common language about sustainability in tourism. They are arranged. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. in four pillars: Sustainable management; Socioeconomic impacts; Cultural impacts; and. engchi. Environmental impacts (including consumption of resources, reducing pollution, and conserving biodiversity and landscapes) (GSTC, 2018).. 2 Sustainable tourism is included under Goal 8 (Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all), target 8,9 (By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products); Under Goal 12 (Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns), target 12.b (Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products) and under; Goal 14 (Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development), target 14.7 (By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island Developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism) (International Finance Corporation, 2017). 3 In 2007, a coalition of 32 partners, initiated by the Rainforest Alliance, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Foundation, and the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), created the GSTC. The purpose was to foster increased understanding of sustainable tourism practices and the adoption of universal sustainable tourism principles (GSTC, 2018).. 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(19) 1.4.1.2. Ecotourism: Ecotourism is a niche segment of tourism, which is often referred to, especially in Taiwan. The term ecotourism emerged in the late 1980s as acknowledgment of sustainable and global ecological practices. As ecotourism has grown in popularity, its definitions have been expanded to incorporate ideas about ecotourism responsibility, environmentally friendly destination management, and sustainable development of local human (Coria & Calfucura, 2012). The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines ecotourism as "responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education" (TIES, 2015). "Education is meant to be inclusive of both staff and. 政治大 global communities, and are supported by extensive industry and academic research. Ecotourism, 立 when properly executed based on these principles, exemplifies the benefits of socially and guests". 4 Ecotourism represents a set of principles that were successfully implemented in various. ‧ 國. 學. environmentally sound tourism development (TIES, 2015). 5 Ecotourism has also been recognized. ‧. Nat. 4. y. sit. n. al. er. io. There are many other definitions of ecotourism. For example, Fennel, a well-known scholar of ecotourism defined in 1999 ecotourism as "a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, and which is ethically managed to be low-impact, non-consumptive, and locally oriented (control, benefits, and scale). It typically occurs in natural areas, and should contribute to the conservation or preservation of such areas" (Fennel 1999, 43). According to the UNWTO's definition, ecotourism refers to forms of tourism which have the following characteristics: (1) All nature-based forms of tourism in which the main motivation of the tourists is the observation and appreciation of nature as well as the traditional cultures prevailing in natural areas; (2) It contains educational and interpretation features; (3) It is generally, but not exclusively organised by specialised tour operators for small groups. Service provider partners at the destinations tend to be small, locally owned businesses; (4) It minimises negative impacts upon the natural and socio-cultural environment; (5) It supports the maintenance of natural areas which are used as ecotourism attractions by Generating economic benefits for host communities, organisations and authorities managing natural areas with conservation purposes; (6) Providing alternative employment and income opportunities for local communities; (7) Increasing awareness towards the conservation of natural and cultural assets, both among locals and tourists (UNWTO, 2002). 5 The principles of ecotourism were also updated in 2015 by the TIES: "Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who implement, participate in and market ecotourism activities should adopt the following ecotourism principles: (1) Minimize physical, social, behavioral, and psychological impacts; (2) Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect; (3) Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts; (4) Provide direct financial benefits for conservation; (5) Generate financial benefits for both local people and private industry; (6) Deliver memorable interpretative experiences to visitors that help raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climates; (7) Design, construct and operate lowimpact facilities; (8) Recognize the rights and spiritual beliefs of the Indigenous People in your community and work in partnership with them to create empowerment" (TIES, 2015).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(20) for its significant contribution to achieving the Millennium Development Goas (MDGs) in developing countries, through generation of jobs and increased income among others (Ariel, 2012). In different countries with different political, environmental and social climates, Ecotourism is defined and practiced in a different way. In Taiwan, the concept of ecotourism emphasizes more of the natural part and less of the livelihood of local people other than profit. This can be seen in how Taiwanese scholars define ecotourism: "The travel built on the basis of natural resources, humane history, and geographical relics while taking environment protection, environment education, and local profit as its final objective with the aim to achieve permanent development" (Shiunn, Han & Ru, 2011). This is based on integration of relevant literature on ecotourism. 政治大 It is important to remember that sustainable tourism is about applying sustainability practices to 立 all aspects and segments of tourism. In Taiwan though, many identify sustainable tourism as definitions.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. ecotourism.. 1.4.1.3. Community Based Tourism (CBT). y. Nat. sit. “Community-based tourism (CBT) is sustainable tourism that is run and managed by the. al. er. io. community that is being visited by tourists” (Yamashita, 2011: 11). It is a type of sustainable. n. tourism, which many times falls also under the category of ecotourism and as such, identified by. Ch. i n U. v. many as ecotourism. However, community based tourism is not necessarily ecotourism. Although. engchi. Community Based Tourism is often identified as a market segment, or a theme of tourism, CBT is not a tourism segment, but rather a model, a framework. Communities operating CBT can engage practically in any tourism them, such ecotourism, agro-tourism, adventure tourism, etc. based on their products, attraction, and available resources. However, the majority of CBT often involve ecotourism, nature-based tourism, and cultural tourism, which might cause the confusion. CBT is seen by many as a way to bring economic development to marginalized rural communities hand-in-hand with nature conservation, due to the location of these communities. Indeed there is a vast literature on CBT as a development model of the community, often aimed for development agencies and tourism professionals. The International Centre for Responsible Tourism (ICRT) explains community based tourism to be "... consistent with alternative development and 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(21) sustainable livelihood approaches, which focus on grassroots development and embrace participation, equity and empowerment ideas" (Lucchetti & Font, 2013). 6 CBT is a concept that means that “the local community has substantial control over, and involvement in, its development and management, and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community" (Denman, 2001). Unique cultural heritage as well as natural environment are the main attractions for CBT tourists. Layla summarizes the definition of CBT in a holistic way: “CBT is the form of tourism which is organized, planned, developed and marketed with high level of direct participation of the local community(ies) of the area(s), where the main tourism products are developed and consumed and. 政治大 sales of such products and services remain in the given community(ies) in form of direct income 立 and contributions to the community budget and/or community tourism fund.” (Lalayan, 2014: 12) where the tourism services are provided, whereas significant part of the income generated from. ‧ 國. 學. Jones (2005) mentions Campbell (1999), Colvin (1996), and Loon and Polakow (2001) while stating that some scholars have questioned whether local communities indeed receive maximum. ‧. benefits from the ecotourism industry. Most examples of community based tourism initiatives that. y. Nat. are found in the tourism literature involve management and initiation by stakeholders outside the. sit. community where the CBT activities take place (Jones, 2005). In this regard, Schevyns (1999). al. er. io. emphasis the importance to have the local communities have some measure of control and share. v. n. equitably in the benefits. When the community has a high degree of control, it will command a. Ch large, if not all, proportion of the benefits.. engchi. i n U. Therefore when Häusler & Strasdas (2003) define CBT, they emphasize the participatory role of the local community in the development and management of tourism in their community, and the distribution of the economic benefits from tourism. The main feature of CBT would be that the tourism is in the local community, by the local community, and for the local community (Lalayan, 2014).. 6. WWF explains in its Guidelines for community-based ecotourism development the main components and benefits. of CBT:"... the local community has substantial control over, and involvement in, its development and management, and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community" (Denman, 2001).. 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(22) Lash (2003) categorizes CBT enterprises into three possible structure types. The first, the most ideal one, is where the enterprise is community-owned and operated. In such enterprise type, “the benefits, labor, and other costs are borne equally by all members of the community” (Lash, 2003: 25). Therefore, in a community-owned and operated enterprise, the the greatest amount of revenue stays in the community, compared to the next two types of CBT enterprises. The second type is the enterprise owned by a small group or a family. The family or group members usually work together with different financial compensation but with the same goal of bringing prosperity to the group as a whole. This is the most common type of CBT structure. The third type, which is also quite common, is a partnership or joint venture between outsider investors and/or operators and the community members. The whole community, or part of it, partner with an NGO, government,. 政治大 outside the community as much as (if not more than) inside the community, due to economic 立. or private sector representative for a specified term or project. In this type, economic benefit stays. leakage. However, this enterprise type makes CBT development easier as it links with markets and. ‧ 國. 學. outside capital, and usually involve structured trainings and skill developments of the community (Lash, 2003).. ‧. Most scholar agree that to be successful, CBT should result in tangible benefits to the community. sit. y. Nat. and improvement in quality of life of the community. For this, CBT must involve active participation by broad representation as possible of the community members. It should also result. io. al. n. 2007; Lalayan, 2014).. er. in conservation of the environment and enhance the cultural heritage of the community (Hipwell,. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Less has been written on CBT initiated by, developed by, and managed by, the community itself. It is important to note the issue of participation in CBT. Whether it is an outside initiated or internally cultivated, in both scenarios, not all the community (i.e. 100% of the people belonging to community as it is defined) will participate. Therefore, it is important to remember that although it is called Community Based Tourism, there are non-participating community members.. 1.4.2 Benefit Distribution in CBT This paper is looking into the benefit distribution from tourism within the community. Most studies mention the importance of equitable distribution benefits, mostly financial benefits. 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(23) The distribution of benefits is an important issue which can be accounted for the success or failure of CBT initiatives development. It was identified and has been discussed by most authors researching CBT. It is important to clarify that “benefits” do not mean only direct economic benefit from sales of products and services, but also other benefits in the social, cultural, and environmental spheres. This means that the visitors have another role besides their regular role of generating income and enhancing the pride and dignity of locals that see outsiders interested in their environment and culture: “tourism is helping to protect the local culture in two ways. First, seeing tourists attracted and interested in their culture is making locals proud of their identity and more engaged in traditional folk customs. Second, money generated from these events provides reasons for the governments to protect previously neglected or even discouraged ethnic minority. 政治大. cultures” (Nyaupane, Morais, & Dowler, 2006: 1379).. 立. Although there are different ways to distribute incomes and benefits from CBT though the. ‧ 國. 學. community, scholars agree that these distribution should be as far and as wide as possible (Lalayan 2014; Armstrong, 2012). Simpson (2008) explains that the way the community sees an increase in net benefits from the CBT, is very important for the success of CBT projects. According to Hipwell. ‧. (2007: 880-881), scholars agree that for a successful CBT venture, “it must provide tangible. sit. y. Nat. benefits for the host as a whole, [and] it must bring about an equitable and (as nearly as possible). io. members should feel they benefit from the CBT venture.. n. al. Ch. er. universal improvement in the quality of life of residents.” This means that every community. i n U. v. Fair distribution is mostly achieved by community earnings and employment, but can also be. engchi. achieved in variety of ways, for example, contributions to a community development fund which allows sharing of financial benefits among community members regardless of their level of involvement in the CBT. (Schipani, 2008; Armstrong, 2012). “Failure in this respect can generate hostility and resistance from those who feel excluded” (Armstrong, 2012: 13).. 1.4.3. Common Pool Resource (CPR) Common Pool Resources (CPR) refer to “a natural or man-made resource system that is sufficiently large as to make it costly (but not impossible) to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use" (Ostrom 1990, 30). Unlike pure public goods, common pool 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(24) resources face problems of congestion or overuse, because they are subtractable. A common pool resource typically consists of a core resource (e.g. water or fish), which defines the stock variable, while providing a limited quantity of extractable fringe units, which defines the flow variable. While the core resource is to be protected or entertained in order to allow for its continuous exploitation, the fringe units can be harvested or consumed (Ostrom 1990). In other words, CPR is characterized by high subtractability, meaning that one individual’s use of it detracts significantly from another person’s ability to use it, and by low excludability, meaning that it is difficult to prevent any particular individual from using it. CPRs are different from the three other types of goods: (1) public goods (e.g. national defense. 政治大. services), that have low excludability but low subtractability; (2) toll goods (e.g. toll roads), that have low subtractability but high excludability; and (3) private goods (most products) that have. 立. both high subtractability and high excludability (Ostrom et al. 1994; Cronk & Steadman, 2002). Feasible. Private Goods. Nat. Toll Goods Public Goods. y. Common Pool Resources. io. sit. Infeasible. Joint Use. al. er. Exclusion. Jointness of Use or Consumption Alternative Use. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Table 1: Types of Goods and Services. n. The most common example of a CPR is a plot of grazing land shared by a group of farmers. When. Ch. i n U. v. a farmer adds an additional livestock to the common land it reduces its usefulness to the rest of the. engchi. farmers. However, it is difficult to exclude any particular individual farmer or its livestock from the land. Ostrom, who reshaped the way we look at the term Common Pool Resource, has debunked Garrett Hardin’s important essay on “The Tragedy of the Commons” (Hardin, 1968). Hardin’s key take was that CPRs are inherently prone to overexploitation. This is because, according to him, each individual will eventually try to exploit the CPR to the fullest, even though the ideal thing for all involved individuals might be to restrain themselves from doing so. Hardin’s essay gave the study of CPRs a pessimistic understanding. The common solution to the tragedy of the common problem was one of the following: (1) to turn the CPR into a private good by dividing it up, which was perceived to give the individuals an incentive to conserve the resource for the future; and (2) using 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(25) the mechanism controlled by the power of the state to enforce conservation of the resource. For more than 20 years, this were the solutions that policy makers were familiar with and perceived as good solutions to the problem raised by Hardin (Cronk & Steadman, 2002). Hardin concluded that valuable open-access common-pool resources would be overexploited, an inevitable tragedy. However, Ostrom showed that establishing effective governance arrangements on a local scale has proved as easier (Ostrom, 2008).. 1.4.3.1. CPR Management The message of Ostrom’s work was that groups are capable of avoiding the tragedy of the. 政治大 1990, 2010). In this case, it is needed 立 to understand the importance of renewability of the resource. commons without requiring top-down regulation, at least if certain conditions are met (Ostrom. ‧ 國. 學. units. When the resource units are renewable, it means that there is a way which they can be managed. This is what makes the management so important. Rosenbloom (2014: 12) writes that “the common pool resource definition attempts to capture both the dynamic ecological system and. ‧. the man-made system of rules and regulations, the complexity of the ramifications that stem from. io. y. sit. natural capital.”. Nat. the intersection of these two systems, and the proper division of rights among those seeking to use. er. Ostrom’s (1990: 90) message is that groups are capable of avoiding the tragedy of the commons. al. n. iv n C h e ndescriptive defined several characteristics or “principles” of local communities that developed gchi U. without requiring top-down regulation, if certain conditions are met. Ostrom had identified and. successful management institutions that allow individuals to achieve long-term productive outcomes in managing common-pool resources: (1) clearly defined boundaries; (2) congruence between appropriation and provision rules and local conditions; (3) collective-choice arrangements; (4) monitoring; (5) graduated sanctions; (6) conflict-resolution mechanisms; (7) minimal recognition of rights to organize; and (8) nested enterprises. In more details, these principles for successful CPR management are: (1) Clearly defined boundaries: Individuals or households who have rights to withdraw resource units from the CPR must be clearly defined, as must the boundaries of the CPR itself. In short, these are rules set up by the community that uses the CPR. 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(26) (2) Congruence between appropriation and provision rules and local conditions: Appropriation rules restricting time, place, technology, and/or quantity of resource units are related to local conditions and to provision rules requiring labour, material, and/or money. (3) Collective-choice arrangements: Most individuals affected by the operational rules can participate in modifying the operational rules. (4) Monitoring: Monitors, who actively audit CPR conditions and appropriator behavior, are accountable to the appropriators or are the appropriators. (5) Graduated sanctions: Appropriators who violate operational rules are likely to be assessed graduated sanctions (depending on the seriousness and context of the offence) by other appropriators, by officials accountable to these appropriators, or by both.. 政治大 cost local arenas to resolve conflicts among appropriators or between appropriators and 立. (6) Conflict-resolution mechanisms: Appropriators and their officials have rapid access to low-. officials. Provide accessible, low-cost means for dispute resolution.. ‧ 國. 學. (7) Minimal recognition of rights to organize: The rights of appropriators to devise their own institutions are not challenged by external governmental authorities.. ‧. (8) Nested enterprises: This is relevant for CPRs that are parts of larger systems. 7 Appropriation, provision, monitoring, enforcement, conflict resolution, and governance activities are. y. Nat. n. er. io. al. sit. organized in multiple layers of nested enterprises.. 1.4.4. Tourism Common Pool Resource. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Common-pool resource theory has mosty been associated with governance arrangements of natural resource utilization, especially fisheries, forestry, and water bodies) (Heenehan, H., Basurto, X., Bejder, L., Tyne, J., Higham, J. E., & Johnston, D. W. 2015). However, CPRs are not limited to natural resources. Any resource that has the key characteristics of high subtractability and low excludability is, by definition, a common-pool resource. Cronk & Steadman (2002) conclude that tourism resources, such as landscape and natural environment, can be addressed as a common pool resource (CPR). These resources are used by both tourists and locals. They clearly possess the characteristics of CPRs, as exploitation by one user reduces the 7. As the 8th principal is relevant for CPRs that are parts of larger systems, this principal will not be addressed in the case studies.. 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(27) amount available for others, but for which exclusion of additional users is difficult or impossible. Thus, the same problems arise: overuse and lack of incentive for individuals to invest in maintaining or improving the tourism CPR. However, the issue of common pool resources in tourism areas has not been studied much in either the tourism or the CPR literature (Briassoulis, 2002). 8 The situation in tourism is quite complex because of the plurality of stakeholders that are possible contributors to resource overexploitation - tourists, the private sector, local communities and governments. Tourism often exists as one of a range of complementary or conflicting uses of natural resources and nature-based tourism activities take place in physically and socioculturally dynamic settings. (Briassoulis, 2002; Holden, 2005; Heenehan, H., Basurto, X., Bejder, L., Tyne, J., Higham, J. E., & Johnston, D. W., 2015).. 政治大. Moore and Rodger (2010) use the common-pool resource theory to look into whale shark tourism. 立. in Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia. In their view, wildlife tourism can be regarded as a common-. ‧ 國. 學. pool resource because it is “difficult to exclude tourists, their experiences are affected by others’ activities; and adverse impacts on the wildlife occur” (Moore & Rodger, 2010: 831). Both dolphin conservation and tourism related to the dolphins depend on the successful management of the bays,. ‧. i.e. the CPR. Excluding potential users from the bays is difficult since they can be easily accessed. sit. y. Nat. by both marine animals and people (tourists and non-tourists) with a limited space in a bay. When. io. er. one used a certain space in the bays, it might eliminate the space it for someone or something else. The above case study of shark tourism shed light into an important aspect of Tourism CPR. Most. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. resources that have been studied are resources that are used for products such as food, timber, etc.. engchi. However, the bays become a common-pool resource only because of tourism, only because of the recreational activity and services provided in the bays to tourists. Without tourism, these bays would probably not be considered as CPRs. In other words, the human behavior affects the characteristics of the resource and turn it into a common-pool resource.Sama states that “redistribution of financial revenues deriving from ecotourism create economic incentives to. 8. It is important to note that unlike pure public goods, which are defined as non-excludable and non-rival, CPR, being subtractable, are affected by problems of congestion, destruction, overuse or pollution. Thus, notwithstanding its conservative and green nature, the evolution of ecotourism could dangerously aggravate and worsen the two problems underlined, by allowing to new entities, like tour operators, travel agencies and western tourists, to gain access to the common-pool, expanding as a consequence the total number of existing users.. 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(28) strictly control and manage the common-pool resources for the local communities, which are the only entities that can guarantee an environmental protection in the long period.” (Sama, 2011: 6). Uses of natural resources and nature-based tourism activities are sometimes conflicting. The complexity in managing community based tourism in such context, has brought attention to the valuable contributions of incorporating indigenous knowledge into the management structure. It is therefore important that the community members will discuss and regulate which cultural traditions and natural resources should be protected and used. To solve the CPR exclusion problem, the community needs to set clear rules on who should be entitled to access the common-pool and under what conditions, what should be the sanctions for the rule-breakers. (Sama, 2011; Heenehan,. 政治大 Tourism resources such as landscape and natural environment can be addressed as a common pool 立 resource (CPR). Basurto, Bejder, Tyne, Higham, & Johnston, 2015).. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(29) 1.5. Conceptual Framework The research questions are based on the conceptual framework, which is shown in Figure I. The three main concepts of the research are in the circles; Participation in Tourism, Benefit Distribution from Tourism, and Tourism Common Pool Resource Management.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. Figure 2: Conceptual framework of the thesis. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(30) 1.6. Research Questions The purpose of this research is to examine the links between satisfaction with perceived distribution of benefits from tourism and satisfaction with how the Tourism Common Pool Resource is managed. The main research question of this thesis is therefore: How the perception of benefit distribution from Community Based Tourism affects the satisfaction with how the Tourism CPR is managed in Atayal communities? The main question is supported by six sub questions, which are discussed below: 1. What are the characteristics of the Atayal Community Based Tourism? In this first question, the general nature of the tourism in each location is explored. This question. 政治大. is answered through secondary literature, observation of the author, interviews, and the questionnaire.. 立. 2. Who are the stakeholders that are involved in the local tourism industry?. ‧ 國. 學. The third sub-question details the actors that are involved in the local tourism industry and the management of the Cypress Forest as a tourism CPR. These actors range from local organizations. ‧. as well as the government. Observation of the author, interviews, and the questionnaire will help. sit. y. Nat. to answer this question.. 3. Can the Cypress Forest be regarded as a Tourism Common Pool Resource?. io. n. al. er. Based on Briassoulis (2002), tourism resources can be regarded as CPR. This sub-question is to. i n U. v. briefly explore this issue. This is a theoretical question that is answered though discussing previous studies on the matter.. Ch. engchi. 4. How is the Tourism CPR managed? In order to look into the main research question, it is important to understand how the Tourism CPR is managed in each case study. Besides description of the institutional framework, it will also be looked through Ostrom’s 7 CPR design principles. 5. What is the level of community participation in tourism? In the fourth sub question, participation of community members is studied. Communities should not be regarded as a homogeneous group, therefore household and individual participation will be studied. Results from the questionnaire will be used to answer this question.. 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(31) 6. How do locals perceive the distribution of benefits from tourism? The sixth sub question relates to the perceived benefit distribution from tourism in the community. It is measured through a questionnaire. It should be noted that the distribution of benefits is measured as the dependent variable through attitudes questionnaire, and not necessarily portray the objective distribution. It looks into the influence of the Tourism CPR management on the benefit distribution.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. Figure 3: Conceptual framework including the associated thesis sub-questions. i n U. v. 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(32) 1.7. Research Method and Design A comparison of two case studies from similar Atayal communities, Smangus and CinsbuXinguang, is used. The similarity of the two communities, in culture, language, location, etc, will allow to control some variables. While much has been written about Smangus in the English language, more work is needed to be carried to study Cinsbu-Xinguang. To research these two case studies, fieldwork was carried out which included interviews and questionnaires. These two research methods provide details to answer the main research question.. 政治大 To achieve greater validity and credibility, a mixed-method case study approach was applied. The 立 mixed-method approach involves qualitative and quantitative methods with the aim of taking the 1.7.1. Mixed Methods Approach. ‧ 國. 學. strengths of the two methods while counterbalancing the weaknesses of each approach when applied separately. (Hall & Valentin, 2005). (Punch, 2005).. ‧. In this research, the methods that were used were: questionnaires (quantitative) and interviews. y. Nat. (qualitative). These two methods will be further discussed in section 1.7.4. All data has been. sit. gathered by the researcher himself during sporadic fieldwork from December 2014 to June 2018.. al. n. visits.. er. io. In Cinsbu-Xinguang, 12 days total were spent in 5 visits. In Smangus, 11 days were spent in 4. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Observations were also made by staying within the two communities, including participation in their tourism activities. However, the author does not use the observations as an official method, although the observation plays a crucial role in shaping the understanding of the two communities. Documents and information from websites were also used as sources.. 1.7.2. Case Selection Case study is a detailed investigation of a single instance aiming is to create as many insights as possible about the case in order to develop theory and generalize the results. A case can be a person, a particular location, an event, an organization or a network, etc. Case study method is a common 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(33) method in social science disciplines such as sociology, political science, economy, business, and so on. As such, it is widely applied in tourism studies that encompasses social science disciplines. The approach offers a number of advantages for scholars to address their research questions, such as flexibility to present the findings and understand a holistic picture of the situation through an in-depth analysis of a part (Beeton, 2005; Ounmany, 2014). Along with the advantages of the case study approach comes criticism of it, especially that it cannot enhance external validity. The person who conducts the research might impose his own values which lead to biased results. However, biased results may occur in most researches. Another key disadvantage of the approach is the limited ability of the cases studied to be applied in other cases,. 政治大. given that small samples cannot represent the whole population. Having small samples may cause bias in selection and indeterminacy (Poteete, Janssen, & Ostrom, 2010).. 立. To tackle the mentioned criticism, comparative approach of case studies can be applied. This. ‧ 國. 學. allows the researchers to have flexibility to describe the results. As the results are not only limited in a single case study, the comparison with other cases enable researchers to formulate further. ‧. research questions. A common way to conduct comparative case studies would be to identify two cases that have common characteristics besides one aspect which is different between the two. Nat. sit. y. cases. That aspect is what interests the researcher. As a result, the findings and results are. io. er. generalizable with other cases (Newing, 2011).. al. iv n C second case is Cinsbu-Xinguang. The two communities, Smangus and Cinsbu-Xinguang, were hengchi U selected because of several reasons. First, both are Atayal communities in the same geographical n. In this research, two cases were selected for comparative purposes. The first case is Smangus. The. region of in Jianshi Township, Hsinchu County, Taiwan. Although they belong to two different Atayal sub-groups 9 (Smangus to Mrqwang and Cinsbu-Xinguang to Mknazi), they do share common modern historical memories, and similar culture (Zheng, 2006). Secondly, both communities have been involved in CBT development for more than two decades. This means that the people in the communities have had enough time to notice developments and changes in the management systems and benefit distribution. Another criteria that was essential in. 9. According to different migration and origin myths, Atayal peoples people developed local watershed based subgroups (Zheng, 2006).. 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(34) the selection of the communities, is that each community apply a different CBT model, which gives the opportunity to focus in this issue while controlling other variables.. 1.7.3. Permission and Access to the Sites To research Taiwan’s Indigenous Atayal communities, permission should be obtained first. Such permission should be given by the leading elders of the communities. In Smangus, I have spent a number of days in the community, befriending and casually talking with the community members, before presenting in front the council of elders my research proposal and request from them to permit me to research their community. Some of the elders have already met me in different events. 政治大 2016, with a sincere support of 立the community elders. After the permission was granted, two before my visit to request their permission. The permission to research Smangus was given in June. members of that are involved in education were assigned to help me and support my research. ‧ 國. 學. (accommodation, meals, coordinating interviews, etc).. ‧. Receiving a permission from community elders of Cinsbu-Xinguang was different. As I have visited there a number of times and had more personal connections with a number of community. sit. y. Nat. members and elders, the permission to research Cinsbu-Xinguang was given in July 2016. For. io. the elders (whose wife is also an elder) and owns a guesthouse.. n. al. Ch. er. studying Cinsbu-Xinguang, the contact person who supports the logistics of my research is one of. i n U. v. The identity of the writer as an Israeli national made gaining acceptance by the communities easier.. engchi. This is because I was considered as an outsider of Taiwan and not Han Taiwanese who is an outsider to the community but part of the majority in the country. Also, as most of the Atayal are Christians, they generally hold very positive views of Israel and Jews. In each visit, the community members asked and “interviewed” me as much as the other way round. Also, I showed that the research results will be shared with them, and could be useful for their interests.. Commuting between Taipei (where the author resides) and the two communities in Jianshi Township posed a “time challenge”, as it would take about half a day of commuting each direction. Without owning a vehicle, reaching the communities would include 3 different train lines, hitchhiking and walking, that would take 5-6 hours.. 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.

(35) 1.7.4. Data Collection All data has been gathered by the researcher himself during sporadic fieldwork from December 2014 to June 2018. In Cinsbu-Xinguang, 12 days total were spent in 5 visits: (1) December 19-20, 2014; (2) January 10-11, 2015; (3) July 30-31, 2016; (4) March 24-26, 2018; and (5) May 27-29, 2018.. In Smangus, 11 days were spent in 4 visits: (1) June 24-26, 2016; (2) October 1-2, 2017; (3) March 22-24, 2018; and (4) May 29 - June 1, 2018.. 1.7.4.1. Participant Observation. 政治大. Participant observation was carried out in each visit. Observation involves the use of all senses: seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching. Observation enhance the validity of the research. 立. findings, as the researcher compares the observed reality of social situation with the results of the. ‧ 國. 學. quantitative and qualitative studies (Flick, 2009).. Spradley & McCurdy (1980), describe that participant observation is divided into three stages:. ‧. descriptive observation, focus observation and selective observation. Descriptive observation is the first stage that the researcher observes a general picture of the field. This in turn helps the. y. Nat. sit. researcher to understand the complex of the case study and develop more specific research. er. io. questions. The second stage, focus observation, narrows down the attention to specific problems that were to be investigated. The last stage, selective observation, finds additional information. n. al. Ch. i n U. needed to confirm what has been observed in the second stage.. engchi. v. In the first fieldwork phase, I came to understand the broad picture of the tourism activities and the general characteristics of Smangus and Cinsbu-Xinguang through descriptive observation. I took part in tourism-related activities and had short stays in the community. While taking part in the activities, I had informal discussions with tour guides and community leaders to get additional insights and to create a closer relationship between the researcher and prospect respondents. This facilitated the implantation of the subsequent fieldworks. In the second fieldwork phase, I tried to narrow down the observation, to focus observation, by focusing on the research questions, especially the benefit distribution from tourism, as well as the. 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.005.2018.F06.