國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
74
Table 4 shows the difference of the leaders of the Big Three and their respective China policy. Except the Blair and Brown it is remarkably how a change of power also changes their countries foreign policy. This not also means that the bilateral relations to China are unstable and unpredictable but also has a huge impact on the EU policy making process.
As discussed before, the Big Three have significant means to influence the outcome of the EU internal process and a change of power of one EU Member State also means that the whole EU internal system has to react to this change.
The biggest responsibility for the failure to develop a coherent and effective EU approach lies with France, Germany and the UK. They are competing to become China’s closest ally and openly criticize EU’s trade policy to China. This “me-first strategy”
ignores the cost of this selfish, short-term oriented approach. Furthermore, their policy undermine each other and a coherent EU policy more generally. The dispute between these three states over whether the EU should lift its arms embargo on China was described by a senior European official in Beijing as “the classic counter-example of what you should not do – it should be taught in diplomatic schools”174.
6. Conclusion and Policy Implications
The study concludes that the EU’s foreign policy is weak and need to be changed.
174 John Fox and François Godement, “A Power Audit of EU-China Relations”, European Council on Foreign Relations, (April 1.2009): 28, accessed July 1. 2012,
http://ecfr.3cdn.net/532cd91d0b5c9699ad_ozm6b9bz4.pdf.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
75 Furthermore the consequential sub-propositions, which were given at the beginning of this paper, can be all described to be true.
Chapter 1 explained that the EU has implemented a weak China-policy of unconditional engagement which hindered the EU to implement an efficient foreign policy. The results of chapter 2 show that the US had a strong influence on EU’s decision making process. The case study of weapon embargo explained how Washington is able to push Brussels not to lift it. It is also discussed, what kind of policy China as implemented to deal which the EU. China adopted an effective policy, which exploits institutional shortcomings in the EU-system. Chapter 3 concludes that EU Member States follow a national, short term oriented policy rather than supporting a coherent EU China policy.
This creates a political situation which unable the EU to implement a strong China-policy.
In chapter 4 it was explained how EU Member States follow a national, short term oriented policy rather than supporting a coherent EU China policy.
The role of the national leaders of Germany, France and the UK and their different China-approaches is discussed in chapter 5 and explained, how they affected EU-China relations.
The two authors of “A Power Audit of EU-China Relations“, Fox and Godement, invented the term of “reciprocal engagement”. This policy is an approach of a new, stronger EU China-policy. They define reciprocal engagement as following:
“Reciprocal is a new interest-based approach with two principles and two criteria.
The principles: European offers to China should be focused on a reduced number of policy areas, and the EU should use incentives and leverage to ensure that China will reciprocate. The criteria: relevance to the EU, and a realistic expectation that a collective European effort will shift Chinese policy.” 175
175 John Fox and François Godement, “A Power Audit of EU-China Relations”, European
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
76 Interpreting Fox and Godement’s definition of “Reciprocal engagement” one can say that this policy is neither an aggressive strategy towards China nor any kind of a traditional containment policy.176 In order to tackle international issues the EU has no choice but to engage China as a global partner. Reciprocal engagement means to stiffen Brussels approach and to hold on EU’s interest while bargaining with Beijing.
It is suggested that the EU follows two main criteria.
First European confessions to China should be focused on a reduced small number of areas. Rather than confront China with the full range of European demands, it would be more appropriate to set clear priorities. Second: The EU should use sticks and carrots to ensure that China will stick to its commitments.
An example for the first principle is that the EU should focus on the opening of the Chinese market and the removal of important barriers. The market position and export opportunities for EU companies would be investors in particular, through an opening of services markets, the European Equal Treatment to improve the suspension and opening of public procurement.177
An example for the second principle could be awarding China the Market Economy Status in exchange for better investment rules for European companies. Since China already is already a WTO-member and a membership cannot be used as an incentive anymore, recognition of the market economy status is the main remaining
Council on Foreign Relations, (2008), 52, accessed July 1. 2012, http://ecfr.3cdn.net/532cd91d0b5c9699ad_ozm6b9bz4.pdf.
176 Pilko Alexey, America’s Policy of “Containment of China”,” Global Research, (April 16.2012), accessed July 1.2012,
http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=30354.
177 Hans G. Hilpert, „Chinas globale wirtschaftliche Herausforderung - für eine kohärente
Außenwirtschaftspolitik Europas,“ Deutsches Institut für Internationale Politik und Sicherheit, (Dezember 2010), accessed July 1. 2012,
http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/studien/2010_S29_hlp_ks.pdf.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
77 leverage the EU has. The value of this negotiation incentive however falls rapidly as the People's Republic will receive the confirmation of this status in 2016 anyway. At the same time the EU should stop its unrealistic demands for democratic progress and focus on economic areas.
As the fiascos over Mr. Sarkozy’s and Ms. Merkel’s meeting with the Dalai Lama showed, EU leaders also need to help each other rather than exploiting a bad situation of other EU Member States who was attacked by Beijing. A part of reciprocal engagement is that EU Member states acknowledge that only a coherent, common approach by all Member States would make a European China policy \more effectively. Furthermore it is important that the Member States quickly agree on certain points and adopt robust common positions on these sensitive issues. It is important that all EU Member States acknowledge the fact that Member States, who are seeking special privileged relations with China, undermining the legitimacy, credibility and commercial potential threat to the EU. Thus, on the one hand it would be necessary to be included Member States in the decision making process of the trade policy by the European Commission and on the other hand vote, three or five largest European trading partner of China among them closely.
Second, Europe's foreign trade policy should solely focus at facilitating access to the Chinese market. Better export opportunities for European companies would be particularly important. Key sectors are still not accessible by European companies and in other sectors European companies face severe market access restrictions and other form of economic discrimination.178Since all European Member States would have a great interest in abolishing the market access barriers and it would be easy to find a common standpoint of all states. A focus of the EU’s efforts on market access would be far more
178 Patrick A. Messerlin and Jinghu Wang, “Redesigning the European Union’ s trade policy strategy towards China,” Europe, vol. 32, no. 04, pp. 1-33, (April 2008).
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
78 effective than the common approach by the EU of addressing too many problems at the same time.
Certainly, the EU won’t be able to force China of opening its markets. Any punitive tariffs against China, import quotas, aggressive market-opening measures will primarily lead to strong nationalist backlashes. At the end those efforts by the EU would be contra productive and no improvement of the market position of the European companies would be reached. Obviously, a trade unilateralism is not a viable alternative to the difficult path of bilateral negotiations.
‧
1975 May Diplomatic relations established. Christopher Soames first European
Commissioner to visit China
1978 2 May Trade agreement EEC-China signed. Inter alia, establishes Joint Committee
1979 February Roy Jenkins visits China. First visit of a Commission President. Meets Deng
Xiaoping
July First meeting of the Joint Committee in Beijing 18 July (First) agreement on textile trade
1980 June 16-19 First inter-parliamentary meeting between delegations of the EP and of the
1983 Launch of first science and technology cooperation program 1984 First political consultations at ministerial level, in the context
of European
Political Cooperation
Launch of first cooperation projects in China (Management training and rural development)
1985 21-23 May Agreement on trade and economic cooperation signed
1989 June As a reaction to Tian An Men incidents of 4 June, EC freezes relations with
China and imposes a number of sanctions, including an arms embargo
1990 October Council and EP decide to re-establish bilateral relations step by step
1992 EC-China relations largely back to normal; arms embargo remains in place
June Launch of environmental dialogue
June June Establishment of a new bilateral political dialogue 1993 October Opening of Commission office in Hong Kong
1995 15 July European Commission publishes first Communication “A long-term
policy for China-Europe relations”
Launch of a specific dialogue on human rights issues
1996 1-2 March First Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM); China and EU are active participants
1998 25 March European Commission publishes Communication ‘Building a Comprehensive
Partnership with China”
2 April 1st EU-China Summit, London
‧
22 December Agreement on scientific and technological cooperation signed 1999 21 December 2nd EU-China Summit, Beijing2000 19 May Bilateral agreement on China’s WTO accession signed in Beijing
11 July Visit of Prime Minister Zhu Rongji in Brussels (first visit of a Chinese Premier to the Commission)
24 October 3rd EU-China Summit, Beijing
2001 15 May European Commission publishes Communication “EU Strategy towards
China: Implementation of the 1998 Communication and Future Steps for a
more Effective EU Policy”
5 September 4th EU-China Summit, Brussels 17
September
New Information Society Working Group launched 25 -26
October
Human Rights Dialogue, Beijing 13
November)
Ministerial Troika, New York (in the margin of UN General Assembly
30 November Political Directors Troika, Beijing 8 December Human Rights Seminar, Brussels 11 December
-
China becomes the 143’’ Member of the World Trade Organisation
2002 30-3lJanuary EC-China Joint Committee, Brussels
1 March Release of China country Strategy paper 2002-2006 5-6 March Human Rights Dialogue, Madrid
28 March-4 April Visit of Commissioner Fatten to China
16 May Launch of negotiations on Chinese participation in GALILEO June Exchange of letters strengthening the EU-China political
dialogue 24
September
5th EU-China Summit, Copenhagen
6 December EU-China maritime transport agreement signed 2003 14 February EU—China Ministerial Troika held in Beijing
5-6 March Human Rights Dialogue, Athens
10 March EC opens European Economic and Trade Office in Taiwan 3 June China formally requests market economy status under EU’s
anti-dumping instrument 30 June Ministerial Troika, Athens
‧
European Commission adopts policy paper “A maturing partnership: shared
13 October EU Council of Ministers endorses Commission policy paper
“A maturing partnership”
13 October China releases first ever policy paper on EU
30 October 6th EU-China Summit, Beijing: Agreements signed on’
- cooperation in the Galileo satellite navigation program - Industrial Policy Dialogue
- EU-China Dialogue on Intellectual Property 26-27
November
Human Rights Dialogue, Beijing 2004 10-11
February
EU-China Seminar on the two Policy Papers issued in October held in Beijing, leading to “Guidelines for Common Action”
12 February Signing of MOU on Approved Destination Status (the
“Tourism Agreement”) 26-27
February
Human Rights Dialogue, Dublin 26 February Political Directors Troika, Beijing
16 April Commission President Romano Prodi visits China
6 May Chinese PM Wen Jiabao visits Commission Headquarters, new dialogue
initiatives signed; customs cooperation agreement initialed;
political leaders
recommend that the “Guidelines for Common Action” are implemented
26 May 5th High Level Consultations on Illegal Migration and trafficking of human beings, Brussels
24
September
Human rights dialogue, Beijing 8 October Ministerial Troika, Hanoi
12 November Geographical Directors’ Troika, Beijing 8 December th7
EU-China Summit, The Hague: the EU and China signed - Joint declaration on Non-proliferations and Arms Control - EU-China Customs Cooperation Agreement
- Agreement on R&D cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy
2005 24-25 February Human Rights Dialogue, Luxembourg 11 May Ministerial Troika, Beijing
30 June-1 July
EU-China Civil Aviation Summit, Beijing
7 July First ADS Committee (“Tourism Agreement”) Meeting, Beijing
‧
14—18 July Commission President José Manuel Barroso visits China5 September 8th EU-China Summit, Beijing: the EU and China signed:
- M0U on labour, employment and social affairs
- Joint Statement on cooperation in space exploitation, science
& technology development
- Joint declaration on climate change 25-27
October
Human Rights Dialogue, Beijing 4 November EC-China Joint Committee, Brussels
20 December 1st EU-China Strategic Dialogue, London, UK 2006 January EU-China MoU on food safety is signed in Beijing
3 January Ministerial Troika, Vienna
20 February Commission and Chinese Government sign a MoU on cooperation on near
zero emissions power generation technology 27 March Political Directors Troika, Beijing
30 March The first EU-China bilateral consultations under the Climate Change
Partnership are held, Vienna
6 April Geographical Directors Troika, Brussels
15 May EU-China Dialogue on Regional Cooperation initialed 25—26 May Human Rights Dialogue, Vienna
6 June 2nd EU-China Strategic Dialogue
9 September 9th EU-China Summit, Helsinki: the EU and China agree on opening
negotiations for a new comprehensive framework agreement 11 October Official launch of China-EU Science and Technology Year 19 October Human Rights Dialogue, Beijing
24 October Commission adopts Communication “EU-China: Closer Partners, growing
responsibilities” and a policy paper on trade and investment 7 November EC-China Joint Committee, Beijing
7 December The first Macroeconomic Dialogue is held
11 December The Council endorses the Commission Communication and adopts related
Council Conclusions 2007 16—18
January
Commissioner for External Relations Ferrero-Waidner visits Beijing: launch of negotiations on a Partnership and
Cooperation Agreement
5 March Geographical Directors Troika, Beijing
3 May Commission and ECB discuss economic policy issues with Chinese
‧
8 May Political Directors Troika, Brussels
15-16 May Human Rights Dialogue, Berlin, Germany 11-12 June EC-China Joint Committee, Brussels
22 June 1st Meeting of the EU-China Civil Society Round Table, Being, China
17-18 October Human Rights Dialogue, Beijing, China 25 October 3rd EU-China Strategic Dialogue, Lisbon
14 November 2nd Meeting of the EU-China Civil Society Round Table, Brussels
28 November Euro-zone Troika and Chinese counterparts, Beijing, China 28 November 10th EU-China Summit, Beijing: the EU and China
- established High Level Economic and Trade Dialogue - agreed to enhance cooperation on climate change 2008 11 March Geographical Directors’ Troika, Brussels
24—25 April President José Manuel Barroso and nine Commissioners meet with their
counterparts in Beijing
25 April 1st EU-China High Level Economic and Trade Dialogue, Beijing
15May Political Directors’ Troika, Beijing 15 May Human Rights Dialogue, Brdo, Slovenia 9 June EU-China Ministerial Troika, Ljubljana
11 June Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi visits Brussels 23-26 June 3rd Meeting of the EU-China Civil Society Roundtable,
Beijing, China
4th Meeting of the EU-China Civil Society Roundtable, Paris, France
28 November Human Rights Dialogue, Beijing 2009 19 January 4th EU-China Strategic Dialogue, Beijing
30 Januar CommissIoner B. Ferrero-Waldner’s visit to China 7-8 May 2nd EU-China High Level Economic and Trade Dialogue,
Brussels, Belgium
18-19 May 5th meeting of the EU-China Civil Society Round Table, Tianjin, China
20 May 11th EU-China Summit, Prague, Czech Republic: the EU and China
- addressed the issues of the financial crisis and climate change.
14 May Human Rights Dialogue, Prague, Czech Republic 27 May EU-China Ministerial Troika, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
84 28 October 6th meeting of the EU-China Civil Society Round Table,
Stockholm, Sweden
18 November Political Directors’ Troika, Stockholm, Sweden 20 November Human Rights Dialogue, Beijing, China
29 November Euro-zone Troika and Chinese counterparts, Nanjing, China 29 November EU-China Ministerial Troika, Nanjing, China
30 November 12th EU-China Summit, Nanjing, China: the EU and China - agreed to speed up the negotiations on the Partnership arid Cooperation
Agreement
- agreed to strengthen people-to-people exchanges and cultural cooperation
17 December 5th EU-China Strategic Dialogue, Stockholm, Sweden
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
85 Bibliography
Archick, Kristin and Richard F. Grimmett, Shirley Kan, “European Union’s Arms Embargo on China: Implications and Options for U.S. Policy,” CRS Report for Congress (April 15, 2005), accessed July 1.2012,
http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/45458.pdf.
Baker, Philip , “Human Rights, Europe and the People's Republic of China,” The China Quarterly, (Volume 169 2002 ): 47, Eberhard Sandschneider, “China’s diplomatic relations with the states of Europe”, China Quarterly (169 March 2002): 33–45.
Barboza, David and Paul Meller, “China to Limit Textile Exports to Europe,” New York
Times (June 11 2005), accessed July 1. 2012,
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/11/business/worldbusiness/11textile.html.
Barysch, Katinka and Charles Gran, et al., “Embracing the dragon The EU’s partnership with China,” Center for European Reform, (May 2005).
Bauer, Sybille and Eric Remacle. “Theory and Practice of Multi-Level Foreign Policy:
The European Union’s Policy in the field of Arms Export Controls,” in B. Tonra and T.
Christiansen, Rethinking European Foreign Policy, (Manchaster Manchester University Press), 2004.
Bromley, Mark and Paul Holtom et. al. “Recent Trends in the Arms Trade,” SIPRI
Background Paper, (April 2009), accessed 1 July 2012,
http://books.sipri.org/files/misc/SIPRIBP0904a.pdf.
Burkar, Eberlein and Abraham L. Newman, “Escaping the international governance
dilemma? Incorporated transgovernmental networks in the European Union,” Governance:
An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions, (vol. 21, no. 1, January 2008): 25–52.
Callahan, William A., “Future imperfect: The European Union’s encounter with China (and the United States),” Journal of Strategic Studies, Volume 30, Issue 4-5, (2007): 777-807.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
86 Caruso, Raul, To Lift or not to Lift? A Few Notes on theLifting of the European Arms Embargo on China, Crossroads, (Vol. 5, n. 1), accessed 1 July 2012,
http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=raul_caruso.
Casarini, Nicola, “Remaking Global Order: The Evolution of Europe China Relations and Its Implications for East Asia and the United States”.(Oxford: Oxford University Press 2009): 24.
Casarini, Nicola , “October 2006 The evolution of the EU- China relationship: from constructive engagement to strategic partnership,” Political Science, (vol. 33, no. October 2006), accessed July 1.2012. http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/occ64.pdf.
Chen, Shaohua and Martin Ravallion, “The Developing World Is Poorer Than We
Thought, but No Less Successful in the Fight Against Poverty” The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, MIT Press, vol. 125(4), (2010): 1577-1625.
European Commission “EU-China relations: a maturing partnership,” (2003), accessed July 1.2012,
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2003:0533:FIN:EN:PDF.
Commission of the European Communities “EU – China: Closer partners, growing responsibilities,” (2003), accessed July 1.2012,
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2003:0533:FIN:EN:PDF.
Council of The European Union, “Declaration by the Presidency on behalf of the European Union on the decision of the Taiwanese leader regarding the NUC,” (March 6.2006), accessed 1 July 2012,
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/cfsp/88561.pdf.
Dayaratna-Banda, O.G. and John Whalley, “After the Multifibre Arrangement, the China Containment Agreements,” Asia-Pacific Trade and Investment Review, Vol. 3, No. 1, ( June 2007), accessed July 1.2012.
Hill Christopher, “European Foreign Policy: Power Bloc, Civilian Model – or Flop” in R.
Rummel (ed.), The Evolution of an International Actor, (Boulder Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992): 84.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
87 Hix, Simon and Bjorn Hoyland, “The political System of the European Union,” 2nd ed.
(London Palgrave 2005), Hazel Smith, “European Union Foreign Policy,” (London Pluto 2002).
Eberlein, Burkard and Abraham L. Newman, “Escaping the international governance
dilemma? Incorporated transgovernmental networks in the European Union,”Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions, (vol.
21, no. 1, January 2008): 25–52.
Erixon, Fredrik and Patrick Messerlin, “Containing Sino-European Protectionism,”
Economic Affairs, Vol. 29, Issue 1, (2009), 83-85.
European Commission, “A maturing partnership - shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations and the Chinese government,” (August 9.2003), accessed July 1.2012, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2000:0552:FIN:EN:PDF.
European Commission, "A long-term policy for China-Europe relations” accessed July 1.
2012, http://eeas.europa.eu/china/docs/com95_279_en.pdf, 2005.
Fox, John and François Godement, “A Power Audit of EU-China Relations”, European
Council on Foreign Relations, 1. accessed, April 1.2009, July 1. 2012,
http://ecfr.3cdn.net/532cd91d0b5c9699ad_ozm6b9bz4.pdf.
Fraser, Cameron (2009: The Development of EU-China Relations, European Studies, Volume 27, (2009), 57-58.
Hilpert, Hans G., Strategischer Wirtschaftsdialog der EU mir China,” SWP-Aktuell, 43, 1-4 (May 2008), accessed July 1.2012.
http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/aktuell/2008A43_hlp_ks.pdf.
Hilpert, Hanns G., „Chinas globale wirtschaftliche Herausforderung Für eine kohärente Außenwirtschaftspolitik Europas,“ (2010): accessed 1 July
2012,http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/studien/2010_S29_hlp_ks.pdf.
Hilpert, Hans G., „Chinas globale wirtschaftliche Herausforderung - für eine kohärente Außenwirtschaftspolitik Europas,“ Deutsches Institut für Internationale Politik und Sicherheit, (Dezember 2010), accessed July 1. 2012,
http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/studien/2010_S29_hlp_ks.pdf.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
88 Hughes, Alex, “France/China: Intercultural Imaginings” Legenda (London: MHRA and Maney Publishing, 2007 – Legenda Series Research Monographs in French Studies, 22 2007), 45.
European Commission, "A long-term policy for China-Europe relations,” (2005) accessed July 1. 2012, http://eeas.europa.eu/china/docs/com95_279_en.pdf.
European Commission, “European Council, National Indicative Programme 2005-2006 –
European Commission, “European Council, National Indicative Programme 2005-2006 –