Chapter 4 Data Analyses
4.2 Distributions of [s]% by Syllable Structures
4.2.1 General distributions of [s]% by syllable structures
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
are lower than those of Taoyuan subjects. Next, most of the subjects of older age is more fluent in Hakka than in Mandarin, but it is the opposite for subjects of younger age.
As for gender differences, it was noticed that the female subjects yield a more conspicuous gap between CON and RP than the male subjects. One possible
explanation is that female subjects, since most of them work in their hometown, use Hakka dialect more often than Mandarin and have higher proficiency in Hakka than in Mandarin. Therefore, in their production of /ɕ/, dialectal interference appears, which makes them use [s] more frequently. On the other hands, male subjects, since they have better competence in Mandarin and use it more frequently, they use far less [s] in conversation and even less in the two reading styles.
Lately, both education groups show mild stylistic difference in their use of [s].
As mentioned above, since many of the subjects of the lower education group are with high school degree, whose ability, currently in Taiwan, is not too different from that of those people with college degree, it is conjectured that the two education groups’
competence and performance in every aspect are not too different from each other.
4.2 Distributions of [s]% by Syllable Structures
The following table is going to show the total distribution of [s] by open and close syllables in general, by social/geographical factors, and by styles.
4.2.1 General distributions of [s]% by syllable structures The result of data analyses are given in Table 8.
35
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Table 8. General distributions of [s]% by syllable structures (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
According to Table 8, [s] is used more frequently in close syllable than in open syllable, with a gap of 9%.
4.2.2 Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures and formality
It was anticipated that situational formality would cast influences on the use of [s] across different syllable structures. Table 9 shows the distributions of [s] by syllable structures in three styles.Table 9. Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures and formality (for styles, CON= Conversation, RP= Reading passages, RC=
Reading characters ; numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
According to Table 9, the use of [s] in either one of the two syllable structures does not reflect stylistic difference. Next, although the subjects do use more [s] in close syllable than in open syllable, the gap between the two is not conspicuous in any
Syllable
% Structures
(freq)
#[s]+V# #[s]+V+N# Total
All 45.5% (628) 54.5% (754) 100% (1382)
Syllable structures Formality
#[s]+V# #[s]+V+N# Total CON 44.7% (333) 55.3% (411) 100% (744) RP 45.5% (232) 54.5% (278) 100% (510)
RC 47.6% (62) 52.4% (68) 100% (130)
36
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
of the three styles.
4.2.3 Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures and social/geographical factors
It was expected that the use of [s] in different syllable structures is related with the subjects’ social backgrounds. Table 10 presents the results of data analyses.37
‧
Table 10. Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures and
social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
According to Table 10, all social/geographical groups extend the same pattern: [s]
is used more frequently in close syllable than in open syllable. The result may because Syllable
Structures Social/
geographical factors
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
close syllable with nasal sounds will become more difficulties to subjects to pronounce than open syllable. Also, among those social/geographical groups, the younger age group presents the sharpest difference between using [s] in the two
syllable structures as sharp as (36.2%).
In comparing the two groups of each social/geographical factor, it is noticed that the influence of age is powerful with the gap of [s]% in cross-syllable structure comparison being large by the younger group (36.2%), but it is fairly small by the older group (5.6%). As for the others, the cross-group difference are low. In other words, among all external factors, age is the only one that is strongly related to the subjects’ use of [s] in either syllable structure.
4.2.4 Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures, formality, and
social/geographical factors
It was presumed that the subjects’ use of [s] is related with syllable structure,situational formality, and the subjects’ social backgrounds. Related data are given in Table 11.
39
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Table 11. Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures, formality, and
social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
According to Table 11, most groups (except the younger group) show no significant stylistic variation in their use of [s] in either syllable structure. As for the younger group, it is found that this group, in their use of [s] in either syllable structure, yields moderate stylistic difference.
Formality Syllable
Social/ Structures geographical
factors
Conversation Reading passages Reading characters
Open
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
4.2.5 Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures with the interactions of
social/geographical factors
This section examines the influences of syllable structure on [s]% by situational formality and the interactions of any two of the social/geographical factors. It was expected that the syllable structure would influence the phonetic manifestation of /ɕ/, with /ɕ/ being more likely to be realized as [s] in closed syllable than in open syllable.The result of data analyses are given in Table 12.
41
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Table 12. Distributions of [s]% by syllable structures and the interactions of social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
Syllable
Structure
Social
/Geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to Table 12, when the four social/geographical factors are taken into consideration individually, it is noticed (1) that syllable structure does not influence the speakers from either city in their use of [s], with either city showing almost identical [s]% in the two syllable structures; (2) that syllable structure does not cause significant change in either age group’s use of [s], with the older age group using mildly more [s] in open syllable than in closed syllable, while the younger group the opposite; (3) that syllable structure does not change either gender’s use of [s], with the male group using more [s] in open syllable than in close syllable, while the female group behaving reversely; and (4) that syllable structure gives insignificant impact on either education group’s use of [s], with either education group showing almost identical [s]% in the two syllable structures. Generally speaking, syllable structure is not influential to any social/geographical group’s use of [s].
When the interactions of any two of the four social social/geographical factors are taken into consideration, it is found, again, that for each subgroup, syllable structure is not an effective factor to change the speakers’ use of [s].
4.2.6 Distributions of [s]% by syllable structure, formality, and the interactions
of social/geographical factors
It was hypothesized that the subjects would show stylistic variation in their useof [s] in different syllable structures, and such differences would be related with the subjects’ social/geographical characteristics. Table 13 shows related data in
conversation, Table 14 those in reading passages, and Table 15 those in reading characters.
43
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Table 13. Distributions of [s]% in Conversation by syllable structure and interactions of social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
Syllable Structures
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low
‧
Table 14. Distributions of [s]% in Reading Passages by syllable structures and the interactions of social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
Syllable Structure
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender
Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low‧
Table 15. Distributions of [s]% in Reading Characters by syllable structures and the interactions of social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
Syllable Structure
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender
Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to Tables 13 to 15, only one contrastively more conspicuous difference is located: the speakers of lower education level in Chungli show more [s]% in open syllable (33.4%) than in closed syllable (23.0%). In sum, formality is not powerful in any social/geographical group’s and any subgroup’s use of [s] in the two syllable structures.
4.3 Distributions of [s]% by the Advancement of the Preceding Vowels
This section examines the influences of the advancement of the vowelspreceding /ɕ/. These vowels are categorized as [-back, +back] (including [i], [y], [e], and [a]), [-back, -front] (i.e.[ə]) , and [+back, -front] (including [u], [o], [ʅ], and [ɿ]).
4.3.1 General distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels
It was expected that the advancement of the following vowels would influenceson the phonetic manifestation of /ɕ/. To be specific, /ɕ/ is more likely to be realized as [s] when the preceding vowels are [-back,+front] or [-front,-back]. The results of data analyses are given in Table 16.
Table 16. General distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels (numbers in patterns are frequencies of [s] )
According to Table 16, the subjects as a whole use more [s] when the vowels preceding /ɕ/ are [-back] than when the preceding vowels are [+back] (66.6% vs.
33.4%, respectively). Further, among the vowels that are [-back], those that are
[-back] [+back]
[+front] [-front] [-front]
42.6% (374) 24.0% (210)
33.4% (291) 66.6% (584)
100% (875)
47
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
[+front] induce more [s] than those that are [-front] (42.6% vs. 24.0%,
respectively). These results indicate that the advancement of the vowels preceding /ɕ/
is influential to /ɕ/’s being realized as [s]. In other words, forward assimilation of place of articulation seems to be a persuasive explanation.
4.3.2 Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels and formality
The distributions of [s] by preceding vowels is expected to be controlled by situational formality. Since in reading characters there is no preceding vowels, in this section, only the use of [s] in CON and that in RP are analyzed. Related data are given in Table 17.
Table 17. Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels and formality (numbers in patterns are frequencies of [s])
According to Table 17, [s], in either style, as expected, appears more often after vowels that are [-back] than after those that are [+back]. Again, the
advancement of the preceding vowels is effective, despite stylistic difference.
Moreover, in conversation, [s]% is higher when after vowels that are either [-back, +front] or [+back, -front]; however, in reading passages, [s]% still
scores the highest after vowels that are [-back, +front], but [s]% is about the same
Formality Conversation Reading passages
Advancement
of Preceding vowels
[-back] [+back] [-back] [+back]
[+front] [-front] [-front] [+front] [-front] [-front]
[s]%
38.9%
(204)
22.3%
(118)
38.8%
(206)
49.1%
(170)
26.5%
(92)
24.4%
(85) 61.2%
(322)
75.6%
(262)
48
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
when /ɕ/ comes after the other two kinds of vowels. In here, situational formality is still effective.
4.3.3 Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels and social/geographical factors
This section examine the influence of vowel advancement to the use of [s]
under social controls: the four social/geographical factors. The results of data analyses are given in Table 18.
Table 18. Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the precedingvowels and social/geographical factors (APV= Advancement of the
Preceding Vowels; numbers in patterns are frequencies of [s]) APV
Social/
Geographical factors
[-back] [+back]
[+front] [-front] [-front]
Place Taoyuan 41.0% (78) 27.3% (52)
31.5% (60) 68.3% (130)
Chungli 43.2% (296) 23.0% (158)
33.7% (231) 66.2% (454)
Age Old 43.4% (333) 22.7% (174)
33.9% (259) 66.1% (507)
Young 37.6% (41) 33.0% (36)
29.3% (32) 70.6% (77)
Gender Male 40.9% (134) 25.9% (84)
33.3% (109) 66.5% (218)
Female 43.7% (240) 22.9% (126)
33.2% (182) 66.6% (366)
Education Level
Higher Education
44.0% (195) 23.7% (105)
32.2% (143) 67.7% (300)
Lower Education
41.4% (179) 24.3% (105)
34.2% (148) 65.7% (284)
49
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to Table 18, when both the advancement of the preceding vowels and the social/geographical factors are taken into considerations, it is found that all social/geographical groups, except the younger group, share a pattern: [s]% is higher when /ɕ/ comes after vowels of [-back] than when /ɕ/ follows vowels of [+back].
However, when both [back] and [front] are considered, most of the eight
social/geographical groups, except the younger group, show high [s]% when the preceding vowels are [-back, +front], less when the vowels are
[+back, -front], and the least when the vowels are [-back, -front]. It seems reasonable to think that for the sake of assimilation, [s]% is higher when the
precedings are [-back, +front] than when the preceding vowels are [+back, -front].
However, it is unclear why [s]% is the lowest when the preceding vowels are [-back, -front]. In other words, it seems not the case that the fronter the preceding vowel is, the higher the [s]%.
4.3.4 Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels, formality, and social/geographical factors
This section investigates the impact of vowel advancement on the distributions of [s] by the five external factors, (namely, formality, geographical factor, age, gender, and education level.) Related data are given in Table 19.
50
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Table 19. Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels, formality, and social/geographical factors (APV= Advancement of the Preceding Vowels; the number in patterns are frequencies of [s])
According to Table 19, several patterns are located. First, when when the vowels preceding /ɕ/ are categorized into [+back] and [-back], all of the Formality
APV Social/
Geographical factors
Conversation Reading passages [-back] [+back] [-back] [+back]
[+front] [-front] [-front] [+front] [-front] [-front]
Place Taoyuan City
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
social/geographical groups show conspicuous stylistic variation. Next, when /ɕ/
following vowels that are [-back], all groups score considerably higher [s]% in RP than in CON. These findings are opposite to the researcher’s expectation that the percentage of non-standard forms would be decreased when formality increases.
Moreover, when the preceding vowels are [+back], all of the eight groups, as expected, decrease considerably their use of [s] when formality increases. This result may be explained by the fact that the density of the target characters is much higher in RP than in CON. For example, in RP, there is a sentence containing 9 target
characters at the same time.
4.3.5 Distributions of [s]% by advancement of the preceding vowels and the interactions of the social/geographical factors
This section examines the relationship between the impacts of the advancement of the vowels coming in front of /ɕ/ and the interactions of the external factors on the emergence of [s]. It was expected that subjects of different social backgrounds would use [s] differently when the advancement of the preceding vowels changes. Related data are given in Table 20.
52
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Table 20. Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels and the interactions of social/geographical factors (APV= Advancement of Preceding Vowels; numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
APV
Social/Geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low
‧
Table 20 (continued)
APV
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan
‧
Table 20 (continued)
APV
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to Table 20, when the vowels preceding /ɕ/ are categorized by the feature of [back], it is noticed that none of the social/geographical groups and
subgroups show significant difference in conversation, as well as in their [s]% in front of the two vowel types. Exactly the same pattern is located when the vowels
preceding /ɕ/ are categorized as [+front] vs. [-front], and when the advancement of those vowels are grouped as [+front,-back], [-front,-back], and [-front,+back]. In other words, [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels is free from
social/geographical controls.
4.3.6 Distributions of [s]% by the advancement of the preceding vowels, formality, and the interactions of the social/geographical factors
This section examine the relationship between the use of [s], the advancement of the preceding vowels, and the interactions of social, geographical, and situational factors. Related data in CON are given in Table 21, and those in ready passages are listed in Table 22.
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Table 21. Distributions of [s]% in Conversation by the advancement of the preceding vowels and the interactions of social/geographical factors (
APV=
Advancement of Preceding Vowels;
numbers in parentheses are frequencies)APV
Social/geographical
factorsGeographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low
‧
Table 21 (continued)
APV
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan
‧
Table 21 (continued)
APV
Social/geographical
factorsGeographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan
‧
Table 22. Distributions of [s]% in Reading Passages by the advancement of the preceding vowels and the interactions of social/geographical factors (APV=
Advancement of Preceding Vowels;numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
APV
Social/geographical
factorsGeographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low
‧
Table 22 (continued)
APV
Social/geographical facotors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan
‧
Table 22 (continued)
APV
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender Education Level
Taoyuan
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to Tables 21 and 22, the advancement of the preceding vowels are found not to be effective in the productions of [s] by subjects of different social backgrounds, in different styles.
4.4 Distributions of [s]% by the Preceding Nasals
This section examines the relationship between the distribution of [s] by preceding nasals,(namely, [n] and [ŋ]) and the external factors.
4.4.1 General distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals
It was expected that the nasals preceding /ɕ/ would affect the subjects’ use of the nonstandard form [s], with [n] being more influential than [ŋ]. Related data are given in Table 23.
Table 23. General distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
According to Table 23, [s] is used more frequently when following [ŋ] than when following [n]. This finding is against the researcher’s expectation that [s]% would be higher when following [n] as a result of forward assimilation of place of articulation;
after all, [n] and [s] are both alveolar consonants. It is unclear why such result emerges.
4.4.2 Distributions of [s]% by preceding nasals and formality
When situational formality is taken into consideration, it was expected that [s]
would be used more often in CON than in RP, and this tendency would strengthened when [s] follows [n]. There is no RC due to no preceding nasals in it. The results of
Preceding
Nasals [n] [ŋ] Total
[s]% 46.1% (175) 53.9% (204) 100% (379)
63
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
data analyses are given in Table 24.
Table 24. Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals and formality (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
According to Table 24, in either style, [s]% is moderately higher when the preceding nasal is [ŋ]. Also, no significant stylistic difference is located.
4.4.3 Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals and social/geographical factors
It was predicted that the use of [s] by preceding nasals would change with the subjects’ social backgrounds. The results of data analyses are given in Table 25.
Style Conversation Reading passages
Preceding nasals [n] [ŋ] Total [n] [ŋ] Total
[s]% 46.8%
(101)
53.2%
(115)
100%
(216)
45.4%
(74)
54.6%
(89)
100%
(163)
64
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Table 25. Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals and social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
According to Table 25, all of the eight social/geographical groups share the same pattern in using [s]: [s]% following [ŋ] surpasses [s]% following [n]. Among all, Taoyuan group and the younger group show greater gaps between [s]% following the two nasals (21.0% and 23%, respectively), but the gaps are milder in the male the male group and the lower education group (11% and 13%, respectively); and the gap is even weaker in the other four groups. In conclusion, preceding nasals, in combination with subjects’ social backgrounds are not influential to subjects’ use of [s].
Preceding nasals Social/Geographical factors
[n] [ŋ] Total
Place Taoyuan City
39.7% (33) 60.3% (50) 100% (83) Chungli
City
47.9% (142) 52.1% (154) 100% (296) Age Old 47.5% (155) 52.5% (172) 100% (327) Young 38.5% (20) 61.5% (32) 100% (52) Gender Male 44.8% (64) 55.2% (79) 100% (143)
Female 47.0% (111) 53.0% (125) 100% (236) Education
Level
Higher Education 49.0% (90) 51.0% (94) 100% (184) Lower
Education
43.6% (85) 56.4% (110) 100% (195)
65
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4.4.4 Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals, formality, and social/geographical factors
It was predicted that [s]% would change when social/geographical factors and situational formality are taken into consideration together. The results of data analyses are given in Table 26.
Table 26. Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals, formality, and
social/geographical factors (numbers in parentheses are frequencies) Formality
Preceding Social/ nasals Geographical factors
Conversation Reading passages [n] [ŋ] Total [n] [ŋ] Total
Place Taoyuan City
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to Table 26, when formality and social/geographical factors are taken into consideration at the same time, it is found that when the preceding nasal is [n], Chungli group, the older group, the female group, and the higher education group decrease their use of [s] as formality increases; while the other four groups behave the opposite. However, when [s] comes after [ŋ], it is Taoyuan group, the younger group, the male group, and the lower education group that decreases their use of [s] when formality increases.
Moreover, increase (or decrease) of [s]% behind [n] or [ŋ] are always given by the Taoyuan groups, not by the others. To be specific, Taoyuan group significant decreases its use of [s] when the preceding nasal is [ŋ], but it increases its use of [s]
when the preceding nasal is [n], with a gap over 20% in between. The former result is expected, but the latter is against the researcher’s expectation. This can be explained that their awareness increase in RP, their pronunciation will follow ease of articulation more; otherwise, they will feel some difficulties to read the passages.
4.4.5 Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals and the interactions of social/geographical factors
It was anticipated that the subjects’ social backgrounds would modify the subjects’ use of [s] behind different nasals. The results of data analyses are given in Table 27.
67
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Table 27. Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals and social/geographical factors (PN= Preceding nasals; numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
PN
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender
Education Level
Taoyuan‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to Table 27, when the nasal preceding /ɕ/ is [n], age, geographical area, and gender, individually, are influential in inducing the nonstandard variant [s];
while education level shows no significant effect. To be specific, it is those speakers of older age, those speakers of Chungli City, and the female speakers that show extremely higher [s]% (88.5%, 81.2%, and 63.5%, respectively). Whereas, the two education groups yield almost identical [s]% (51.4% by higher education level, 48.6%
by lower education level). Also, among the three influential social factors, age overrides geographical area, which in turn overrides gender. Moreover, exactly the same patterns are repeated when the preceding nasal is [ŋ].
When any two of the four social/geographical factors interact with each other, the following patterns are located. (1) In Chungli City, older speakers, female speakers, and speakers of higher education level offer significantly higher [s]%
(73.7%, 51.5%, and 48.0%, respectively). (2) When age interacts with gender and education level separately, it is always the older speakers who show higher [s]%, with older females giving higher [s]% than the older males (54.8% vs. 33.7%); however the older speakers of higher education level yield only slightly higher [s]% than the older speakers of lower education level (48.0% vs. 40.5%). It seems that among the older speakers, gender is more potent than education level. (3) When gender and education level are taken into considerations together, it is noticed that despite the educational difference, it is always the females, not the males, who present higher [s]% (30.8% from females of higher education level and 32.7% from female of lower education level; for the two male groups, both close to 20.0%). Again, gender is verified to be more powerful than education level.
69
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
4.4.6 Distributions of [s]% by the preceding nasals, formality, and the interactions of social/geographical factors
The following two tables present [s]% under the interaction of the external factors. It was hypothesized that the interaction of situational formality and social factors would affect [s]% by different preceding nasals. The result of data analyses are given in Table 28 and Table 29.
70
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Table 28. Distributions of [s]% in Conversation by the preceding nasals and the interactions of social/geographical factors (PN= Preceding nasals; numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
PN
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender
Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low‧
Table 29. Distributions of [s]% in Reading Passages by preceding nasals and the interactions of social/geographical factors (PN= Preceding nasals; numbers in parentheses are frequencies)
PN
Social/geographical factors
Geographical Area Age Gender
Education Level
Taoyuan Chungli Old Young Male Female High Low‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Comparing the data presented in Table 28 and Table 29, it was found that
Comparing the data presented in Table 28 and Table 29, it was found that