Chapter II Theoretical Framework
2.3 Operationizing cultural soft power
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language courses. The number of CIs has also been growing. In spite of China’s efforts to build a favorable image, its reputation in the U.S. still suffers. Public opinion polls reveal that more than 50% of Americans have negative views toward China.79 However, this does not mean that the increasing presence of Chinese soft power institutions is unimportant. As China continues to pour its efforts on its soft-power resources, we might expect China’s cultural image in the U.S. to gradually improve.80
The CI is a tool of cultural diplomacy designed to improve China’s soft power.81 Cultural exports can promote Chinese culture abroad and bolster its national strength.
This language institute has been viewed by many scholars and mass media as China’s most successful story to craft its cultural soft power strategy. Consequently, Hanban has continuously enriched and diversified its programs.
2.3 Operationizing cultural soft power
Since the language education and cultural activities are the two key functions of CI, the demonstration of China’s cultural soft power rests on language teaching and on cultural programs of overseas CIs.82 To operationalize the above variables, the subsequent section examines Chinese language and cultural dissemination programs in CI and analyzes how these programs contribute to China’s cultural soft power.
2.3.1 Promotion of language
79 Efthymiou, “Chinese Soft Power: Sources and Implications for the US,”
<http://theriskyshift.com/2012/12/chinese-soft-power-sources-andimplications-for-the-us/>(accessed April 4, 2014).
80 Gill and Huang, “Sources and Limits of Chinese Soft Power,” pp. 30-31.
81 Stephen J. Hoare-Vance, The Confucius Institutes and China’s Evolving Foreign Policy (University of Canterbury Master Thesis, 2009), p.2.
82 Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics, p. 11.
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Language, an essential part of culture, is the most effective tool for spreading culture and can determine the way individuals perceive the world around them.83 Although English remains the most dominant language in the world, Mandarin Chinese language has the largest number of speakers, and it is growing in popularity as China ascends in economic power.84 Now that the importance of Mandarin Chinese has been recognized, those who have this language skill can equip with better access to huge Chinese markets.
Teaching Chinese, which is mainly the responsibility of Hanban, is of strategic significance.85 Hanban aims to make teaching resources and services available to the world.86 In October 2004, the PRC State Council approved Hanban’s proposed “Chinese Bridge Project,” which includes standardizing requirements for Chinese teachers and the setup of the overseas Confucius Institutes.87 Hanban assesses applications for setting up new Institutes, provides aid and teachers, formulates rules, and approves annual programs
83 Ding and Saunders, “Talking up China: An Analysis of China’s Rising Cultural Power and Global Promotion of the Chinese Language,” East Asia, No.2 (Summer 2006), p. 6.
84 Sheng Ding, The Dragon’s Hidden Wings: How China Rises with its Soft Power (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2008), p. 117.
85 Jeffrey Gil, “The Promotion of Chinese Language Learning and China’s Soft Power,” Vol. 4, No. 10 (October 2008), Asian Social Science, pp.116-120.The CI division is one part of Hanban, which includes an Examination Division, focusing on Chinese proficiency tests; a Teaching Quality and Evaluation Division, which is responsible for teaching materials; and a Communications Division, which handles international cooperation and exchange activities. Please see James F. Paradise, “The Role of Confucius Institutes in Bolstering Beijing’s Soft Power,” Asian Survey, Vol. 49, Issue 4 (2009), pp. 647-669.
86 Members from 12 state ministries and commissions make up the NOCFL: the General Office of the State Council, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the State Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Commerce, the Ministry of Culture, the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television, the State Press and Publications Administration, the Information Office and the State Language Committee. Please see Gil, “The Promotion of Chinese Language Learning and China’s Soft Power,”
pp.116-120.
87 Hanban, “Liu Yandong Attends the Awarding Ceremony of the Fifth “Chinese Bridge” Chinese Proficiency Competition for International Students in China,” Confucius Institute Bimonthly, Vol. 22, No.
5 (Beijing: Editorial Office of Confucius Institute, 2012), pp. 5-6.
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and budgets.88 It has restructured CI’s education system and gathered resources that include the following: 1) Transitioning from simply teaching Mandarin Chinese to an international promotion of language. 2) Shifting from being guided by government while strengthening market operation. 3) Extending teaching from textbooks to other means including multimedia and the internet.89 Hanban also provides scholarships for teachers and foreign students to enroll in the “Master of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages” (MTCSOL) program in China.90 China counts the language promotion through Hanban as one of its essential cultural soft power tools.
With the aid and resources provided by Hanban, the CIs have expanded quickly.
Each Institute is essentially a cooperative partnership between a Chinese educational institution and its counterpart in the host country.91 By 2014, there were more than 440 Confucius Institutes and 646 Confucius Classrooms in 120 countries and regions — with more than 850,000 registered students — across the globe (For annual numbers of CIs and CCs see Table I and for numbers of students’ enrollment see Table II ).92 There are
88 CIs have offered the following services: 1) develop Chinese language courses for various social sectors;
2) train Chinese language instructors for local institutions and providing them with Chinese language teaching resources; 3) establish local facilities for the holding of the HSK Examination (Chinese Proficiency Test) and for the administration of procedures for the certification of the Chinese language teachers; and 4) provide information and consultative services concerning Chinese education, culture, economy, and society. Please see “Introduction to the Confucius Institutes,” August 29, 2009,
<http://college.chinese.cn/en/article/2009-08/29/content_22308.htm>(accessed September 25, 2014).
According to Hanban, China aims to open one thousand CIs by 2020. Every three days a CI was born, said a Chinese source. Just in the U.S. alone, about 75 CIs and 285 CCs were established between 2004 and 2011. Each year the Chinese government spent about $145 million to support CIs (including Confucius Classrooms) worldwide.
89 Hanban, 2006 Annual Report (Beijing: Hanaban, 2006), p. 5.
90 Hanban, 2009 Annual Report (Beijing: Hanaban, 2010), pp. 4-5.
91 Hanban would offer a seed grant of US $100,000, and provide teaching staff, textbooks, and other educational materials to facilitate Chinese teaching. Please see Young Deng, “The New Hard Realities:
Soft Power and China in Transition,” in Li, ed., Soft Power: China’s Emerging Strategy in International Politics, p. 70.
92 Qu Yingpu, Zhao Huanxin and Cheng Yingqi, “Confucius Institutes Go beyond Borders,” China Daily,
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still more than 400 universities in 76 countries on the waiting list for CIs.93 Confucius Institute Online has been completed; and the brand new website, available in 45 foreign languages, has been built up.94
Among China’s rapid expansion of CIs around the world, the U.S. has the largest number of institutes, with 456 Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms.95 This study’s focusing on the U.S. is apparent—the Chinese government considers its relations with the U.S. as the top priority in its foreign policy; Beijing has expended more resources for American CIs than for any other country.96
Director General of Hanban Xu Lin stated in 2010 that Hanban will carry out “Three 800 Projects” in the U.S.—namely, inviting 800 U.S. high school and college students to participate in the “Chinese Bridge” summer camp; offering 800 U.S. teachers and students scholarships; and inviting 800 elementary and middle school district leaders to visit China.97 The scale of student enrollment into U.S. CIs has quickly expanded. For example, there were only 49 registered students at the CI of University of Pittsburgh in
December 2, 2012,<http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-12/02/content_15978436.htm>(accessed September 25, 2014).
Joshua Eferighe, “GW Opens Doors to China with Confucius Institute,” The Washington Times, April 10, 2013,
<http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/apr/10/gw-opens-doors-to-china-with-confucius-institute/
>(accessed September 25, 2014).
93 Qu, Zhao, and Cheng, “Confucius Institutes Go beyond Borders,”
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-12/02/content_15978436.htm(accessed September 25, 2014).
94 Hanban, 2011 Annual Report (Beijing: Hanaban, 2011), p.7.
95 “China Says U.S. Directive on Confucius Institutes May Harm Friendship,”
<http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2012-05/24/c_123187293.htm>(accessed September 25, 2014).
96 Peter Mattis, “Reexamining the Confucian Institutes,” August 2, 2012 , The Diplomat,
<http://thediplomat.com/china-power/reexamining-the-confucian-institutes/>( accessed March 3, 2014).
97 Hanban, “The 3rd National Chinese Language Conference Held in Washington,” p.15.
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2007, but by 2011 the number increased to 2,993.98 There are increasing number of first-tier universities such as the University of Michigan and Stanford University setting up CIs.99
The courses of CIs have become more diversified with more than 40,000 courses offering a multitude of teaching styles. There are currently 837 Chinese test centers in 104 countries and regions, 215 of which are located at CIs. The Chinese Proficiency Test (HSK) takers increased remarkably, reaching 5,020,000 in 2013 (annual numbers of the Chinese Proficiency Test takers see Table III).100 Regarding the courses’ designs, each Institute adopts flexible teaching patterns and adapts to suit local conditions.101 CIs hold different language programs. For example, the CI at the University of Maryland offers language courses ranging from beginner to advance. Beginner I courses are geared to students with no prior study of the language; Beginner II courses are designed for students with the equivalent of one semester of college Chinese. Intermediate classes focus on reading and writing skills; Intermediate Business Chinese courses prepare the students for business interactions. Advanced courses focus on newspaper reading skills,
98 Hanban, 2011 Annual Report, p. 6.
99 Hanban, “The 3rd National Chinese Language Conference Held in Washington,” p.15.
100 Hanban, 2010 Annual Report, p. 7.
101 Taking the CI of the University of Kansas for example, their “2011 Chinese Language and Culture Classes” are divided into four levels. The elementary level includes an introduction to Chinese characters as well as instruction in the standard, “pinyin,” spelling system. Intermediary level includes practical, conversational structures and new characters. The high intermediary level is a continuation of Chinese II, with more complex sentence structures in Chinese. The advanced level is a continuation of Chinese III, with more complex sentence structures and situations in Chinese. Please see Confucius Institute, “Spring 2011 Chinese Language and Culture Classes,”
<http://www.confucius.ku.edu/language_classes_spring_2011.shtml>(accessed March 3, 2014). The Confucius Institute of University of Pittsburgh, 2011 ANNUAL Report 2011 (Pittsburgh: The Confucius Institute of University of Pittsburgh, 2011), p. 9.
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business contexts, and translation skills.102 The CI at the University of Minnesota conducted a summer training program for Mandarin elementary immersion teachers to improve their instructional skills.103
The increasing number of CIs and students’ enrollment and the diversity of language courses are signs of the growing popularity of the Chinese language. This study looks first at the annual number of CIs and students’ enrollment (data from Chinese government in a macro perspective). It then ascertains and evaluates relevant data from participants through interview.
Annual numbers of setup of CIs and CCs (Table I)
Year CIs (No.) Increase (+) CCs (No.) Increase (+)
2006 122 4
2007 226 104 19 15
2008 249 23 56 37
2009 282 33 272 216
2010 313 31 369 97
2011 353 40 473 4
2012 400 47 535 63
2013 435 35 644 144
2014 440 5 646 2
Sources: Hanban, (2006) 2006 Annual Report (Beijing: Hanaban); 2007 Annual Report; 2008 Annual Report; 2009 Annual Report; 2011 Annual Report; 2012 Annual Report; 2013 Annual Report; and 2014 Annual Report.
102 “Chinese Language Courses,” Office of International Affairs at University of Maryland Website,
<http://www.international.umd.edu/cim/246>( accessed March 3, 2014).
103 Confucius Institute of Minnesota, 2008–2009 Annual Report (Minnesota: University of Minnesota, 2011), p.13.
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Annual numbers of students’ enrolment (Table II) Year Numbers of students’ enrolment Increase (+) 2006 13,000
2007 46,000 33,000
2008 130,000 84,000
2009 260,000 130,000
2010 360,000 100,000
2011 500,000 140,000
2012 655,000 155,000
2013 850,000 195,000
Sources: Hanban, (2006) 2006 Annual Report (Beijing: Hanaban); 2007 Annual Report; 2008 Annual Report; 2009 Annual Report; 2011 Annual Report; 2012 Annual Report; and 2013 Annual Report.
Annual numbers of the Chinese proficiency test takers (Table III)
Year Numbers of test taker Increase (+)
2006 72,942
2007 138,000 65,058
2008 310,000 172,000
2009 548,000 238,000
2010 689,000 141,000
2011 2,010,000 1321,000
2012 3,520,000 1510,000
2013 5,020,000 4668,000
Sources: Hanban, (2006) 2006 Annual Report (Beijing: Hanaban); 2007 Annual Report; 2008 Annual Report; 2009 Annual Report; 2011 Annual Report; 2012 Annual Report; and 2013 Annual Report.
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2.3.2 Cultural dissemination programs
China has embarked upon cultural diplomacy to defuse mounting external concerns over a rising China; using CIs to enhance its global reputation, Chinese government has taken initiatives to promote Chinese culture overseas. Sun Jiazheng, the PRC Minister of Culture, declared that culture has become the third pillar, after economy and politics, of China’s diplomacy. Li Changchun stated that China should aim to establish brand names in cultural exchange.104 In conducting cultural diplomacy, China takes advantage of the perception that it is a culturally rich nation. For example, the Chinese government has sponsored “Years of Chinese Culture,” Chinese cultural festivals, and Chinese New Year celebrations worldwide. It also promotes cultural exports, especially movies, arts, music, and sports. Famed actresses, actors, concert musicians, and classical dancers also act as cultural ambassadors for China. Chinese movies have won prestigious international awards or nominations. Some of Chinese actresses (Zhang Ziyi, and Gong Li) and directors (Chen Kaige, and Zhang Yimou) have become international superstars.105 Culture has indeed become the essence in China’s diplomacy.
Given the importance of overseas CIs in shaping China’s image, Hanban has held many workshops to improve its functions; and top leaders have visited the Institutes to forge close relationship been China and other countries. For example, the Second Executive Workshop for CI Directors 2010 was held at Xiamen University, where there were 70 directors from 25 countries in attendance. During the one-week workshop, the
104 Lai Hongyi, “China’s Cultural Diplomacy: Going for Soft Power,” EAI Background Brief, No. 308 (October 26, 2006), p. 6.
105 Ibid., pp.i, 2.
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participants took part in discussions on China-foreign cultural exchanges, foreign policies, and economic policies.106 Chinese leaders’ visits to CIs augment the importance of the Institutes. For example, Hu Jintao visited Confucius Institute in Chicago in January 2011.
On December 24, 2011, Xi Jinping visited the Confucius Institute at Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Xi stated that CIs have drawn wide attention from young students and all sectors of Thai society and played an important part in deepening the friendship between the two peoples.107
The major cultural activities initiated by CIs are varied such as arts performances, cultural exhibitions, film festivals, and community outreach aiming at cultural exchange.
Hanban selects teams from domestic universities to cooperate with overseas CIs to launch cultural activities. According to Hanban 2013 Annual Report, to that date CIs have launched 20,000 cultural activities, with 9.2 million participants. More than 30,000 educational officials, headmasters, teachers, and students worldwide were invited to China for exchange.108 Some heads of state, like the President of Greece, the Chairman of Laos, and the Prime Minister of Belgium, attended cultural activities of local CIs.109 These cultural activities have become an important showcase for China to introduce the modern China to the outside world.
Chinese government has enriched cultural programs in the U.S. Taking the CI of
106 XMU Newsletter, “The Second Executive Workshop for Confucius Institute Directors 2010- Learning from Each Other and Making Progress Together,” April 26, 2011,
<http://ice.xmu.edu.cn/english/showletter.aspx?news_id=2830>(accessed March 3, 2014).
107 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of PRC, “Xi Jinping Visits Confucius Institute at Chulalongkorn University, Thailand,” December 24, 2011, <http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx/t891076.htm>(accessed March 3, 2014).
108 Hanban, 2013 Annual Report (Beijing, Hanaban, 2013), p. 2.
109 Hanban, 2009 Annual Report, p. 17.
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Minnesota University as an example, Joan Brzezinski, the director of the CI, stated that this Institute with the help of Hanban held Chinese culture summer camps annually for children. Campers studied tai chi and kung fu, learned about the art of shadow puppetry, and created their own puppets. Other activities include Chinese cultural dances, film watching, and celebration of the Chinese New Year and the Dragon Boat Festival.110 George Mason University CI organizes and sponsors a variety of events on campus and in the community highlighting Chinese culture, artists, and performers. Activities have included performances by artists from the National Academy of Chinese Theater Arts, musicians from Nanjing, and lectures by Chinese scholars.111 The CI at the University of Kansas has held the Chinese celebrations in Kansas City, with more than 1,300 participants. “The CI at the University of Michigan has sponsored a credit-giving performance class on playing Chinese music instruments. The Institute has presented Chinese gourmet cooking class series to University of Michigan undergraduates,” said by assistant director Jiyoung Lee.112 The CI at the University of Utah helps local citizens understand China’s culture through programs like arts performances, music concerts, film watching, and speech competitions.113
This study concentrates the CI’s development and use in the U.S. (CIs originated in the U.S. in 2004) It will include presentation of activities sponsored by the CIs,
110 Interviewee 2.
111 “About Us,” Confucius Institute at Mason,
<http://confucius.gmu.edu/aboutus.cfm#culturalActivities>(accessed March 3, 2014).
112 Interviewee 3.
113 The Confucius Institute at the University of Utah, Confucius Institute at the University of Utah 2010
Annual Report,
<http://confucius-institute.utah.edu/_documents/docs/organization-1721-1311089133.pdf>(accessed March 3, 2014).
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examinations of program purposes, and evaluation of the program’s result.