Policy entrepreneurs for policy innovation

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter elaborates four issues on the basis of literature review. First, who is a policy entrepreneur? In terms of policy formation, the role of a policy entrepreneur is introduced in the first section. Secondly, where is a policy entrepreneur located? Influential contextual elements for policy entrepreneurs are discussed in the second section. In the third part, why we need policy entrepreneurs? This study discusses why policy entrepreneurship can be taken as an alternative of university autonomy in Asia. Last, the development of policy formation in Taiwan is introduced.

2.1.0 Role of policy entrepreneurs in policy formation

In terms of policy formation, policy entrepreneurs have played critical roles in policy innovation (Brouwer, 2008; Botterill, 2013; Crow, 2010; Hammond, 2013; Mintrom, 2000;

Mintrom, 2013; Wampler, 2007; Zhu, 2008), networking governance (Lu, 2009; Mintrom, 2013; Wang Hsung, 2012) and citizens’ participation (Avritzer, 2002; Grindle, 2000; Heller, 2000; Shah, 2007). Relevant research findings are discussed in following sections.

2.1.1 Policy entrepreneurs for policy innovation

Base on research findings from 1997 to 2015, policy entrepreneurs have transformed conventional policies in various fields, inclusive of urban vagrant management (Zhu, 2008), participatory budget (Wampler, 2007), water management (Brouwer, 2011; Crow, 2010), prevention of drought crisis (Botterill, 2013), and solution of urban poverty (Hammond, 2013). In comparison to traditional policy makers, policy entrepreneurs adopt innovative patterns of communication, unprecedented strategies and new combination of task force to deal with conventional public issues.

Extant literature identified innovative communication patterns of policy entrepreneurs. As table 2 illustrates, Zhu (2008) found policy entrepreneurs adopted ‘‘technically infeasible strategy’’ in China, an authoritative regime, to appeal political leaders’ attention successfully.

Further, Botterill (2013) indicated policy entrepreneurs make progress incrementally as opportunities arise. As to unprecedented strategies, Huitema, Lebel Meijerink (2011) through a multi-national research, identified policy entrepreneurs’ unique strategies on policy change. Furthermore, Wampler (2007) analyzed the reason why policy entrepreneurs are willing to propel innovative strategies; he identified that policy entrepreneurs are more likely

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to make efforts in innovative policies than their policy advocates and pro forma adopter counterparts due to the specific payoffs to them.

The rest of research focuses on the new combination of task force. By researching policy water rights in Colorado, Crow (2010) found policy entrepreneurs with profession play an influential role in policy change within their area of expertise. In an authoritative regime, Hammond (2013) explored public officers initiated to act as innovative policy entrepreneurs to solve urban poverty.

Table 2 Literature on policy entrepreneurs who transform conventional policies

No. Topic Author Research findings Country

1

Strategy of Chinese policy entrepreneurs in the third sector: challenges of

‘‘Technical Infeasibility’’

Zhu

Policy entrepreneurs adopted

‘‘technically infeasible strategy’’ to appeal political leaders’ attention.

China

2

Are policy entrepreneurs really decisive in achieving policy change?

Drought policy in USA and Australia

Following the footsteps of policy entrepreneurs:

policy advocates and pro forma adopters

Wampler

Policy entrepreneurs are more likely to make efforts to innovative policies than their policy advocates and pro forma adopter counterparts.

Brazil

4

The strategies of policy entrepreneurs in water diverse strategies to lead policy change on water transition.

15 countries

5

Policy entrepreneurs, issue experts, and water rights policy change in Colorado

Crow

Policy entrepreneurs with profession play an influential role in policy change within their area of expertise.

U.S.

6

Policy entrepreneurship in China’s response to urban poverty

Hammond

In an authoritative regime, public officers initiated to act as innovative policy

entrepreneurs to solve urban poverty.

China

Source: Adapted from (Botterill, 2013; Crow, 2010; Hammond, 2013; Wampler, 2007; Zhu, 2008)

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In addition to transforming conventional policies, policy entrepreneurs are also emerging leaders to conduct new social issues as well, such as knowledge economy (Mintrom, 2013), stem cell research (Mintrom, 2009) and school choices (Heise, 2012; Mintrom, 1997). As table 3 illustrates, knowledge economy, stem cell research, and school choice prevail in public policies nowadays, but those issues are unprecedented to most policy makers. First, new issues emerge from changing context; extant researchers indicated policy entrepreneurs master interacting with their context. Mintrom (2013) explored policy entrepreneurs’

initiatives of knowledge economy in Australia; he indicated policy entrepreneurs are more competent than political actors in negotiating their context. Moreover, Mintrom (2009) also researched the role of policy entrepreneurs in the human embryonic stem cell research in Italy and the United Kingdom; he found policy entrepreneurs could propose appropriate strategies for those high tech issues.

Not only handling new issues in time, policy entrepreneurs are also capable of diffusing new ideas. As to the diffusion of school choice, Heise (2012) found Republican governors, defined as policy entrepreneurs in his research, increased a state’s likelihood of passing charter school legislation by successful diffusion. As to diffusing creative ideas among team members, Mintrom (1997) found policy entrepreneurs significantly raise the probability of legislative consideration and approval of school choice. As relevant research findings demonstrate, policy entrepreneurs master conducting and diffusing those innovative issues.

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Table 3 Literature on policy entrepreneurs leading unprecedented issues

No. Topic Author Relevant research findings Country

1

Policy entrepreneurship, creative teamwork and policy change

Mintrom

Some policy entrepreneurs are more competent than others at negotiating their operating interact with the operating context well and can propose appropriate strategies for those high tech issues.

Italy and UK

3

Law and policy entrepreneurs:

empirical evidence on the expansion of school choice policy

Heise

Republican governors

increased a state’s likelihood of passing charter school

legislation.

U.S.

4 Policy entrepreneurs and the

diffusion of innovation Mintrom

Policy entrepreneurs significantly raise the probability of legislative consideration and approval of school choice.

U.S.

Source: Adapted from (Heise, 2012; Mintrom, 1997; Mintrom, 2009; Mintrom, 2013)