A Study on Vocational Training Expectations and Experiences of Vietnamese Immigrant Women in Taiwan

全文

(1)A Study on Vocational Training Expectations and Experiences of Vietnamese Immigrant Women in Taiwan. by Pham Hong Bao Tram. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Chih-Chien Steven Lai, Ph.D.. Graduate Institute of International Human Resource Development National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June 2018.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Graduate Institute of International Human Resource Development (IHRD) – National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) with all the members, lectures and assistants for the knowledge and experiences that had been shared through many lectures, discussions, and exams. Next, I offer my sincerest gratitude to my advisor, Chih-Chien Steven Lai, Ph.D., who has supported me throughout my thesis with his patience and knowledge whilst allowing me the room to work in my own way. I attribute the level of my Master’s degree to his encouragement and effort and without him, this thesis, too, would not have been completed or written. Indeed, Dr. Lai was not only a true professional but he also played the role or caring mentor. One simply could not wish for a better or friendlier advisor. Much of the work could not have been done without the support of my committee members: Dr. Chang and Dr. Tsai, who encouraged me through the proposal meeting and provided me guidance. I also would like to send my thanks to Vietnamese immigrant women as well as the vocational training center, who help me a lot to complete my interviews, give me valuable experiences, information, advice for implementing my thesis. Lastly, I am deeply obliged to my family and my classmates, without their encouragement and support, it would be impossible for me to finish my thesis..

(3) ABSTRACT In recent years, a growing number of transnational marriage migration in many Asian countries reflects the phenomenon of globalization. It is the fact that Taiwan is one of the Asian countries which have a rapidly increasing of immigrant women have moved to Taiwan from Vietnam through commercially arranged marriages. With the desires of empowerment and enhancing the economic situation, Vietnamese women participate in the vocational training offered by the Taiwan government in order to improve their lives. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the expectations and experiences of vocational training from the perspectives of Vietnamese immigrant women in Taiwan. A qualitative approach is used to collect data from twelve married Vietnamese women living in Taiwan through a semi-structured interview. These interviews were analyzed by using the grounded theory approach to develop themes to understand and interpret the data. The findings were divided into three key areas which are training expectations, training experiences of immigrant women and the impacts of vocational training on their lives. Based on the results, some suggestions for some stakeholders who are policy makers, training practitioners, immigrant women and future researchers were provided. Keywords: immigrant women, vocational training, training expectation, training experiences, immigrants’ training. I.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. II LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................IV LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... V CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 1 Background of the Research .......................................................................................... 1 Problem Statement ......................................................................................................... 2 The Significance of the Research ................................................................................... 4 Research Purposes .......................................................................................................... 5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 5 Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................ 5. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................... 7 The Vocational Training of Immigrant Women in Taiwan ........................................... 7 Why Do Immigrant Women Need for Training? ........................................................... 8 Adult Development ...................................................................................................... 10 Adult Learning ............................................................................................................. 12 Immigrant Women as Adult Learners .......................................................................... 15. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................ 19 Research Method .......................................................................................................... 19 Participants ................................................................................................................... 20 Data Collection............................................................................................................. 22 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 24 Research Process .......................................................................................................... 27 Reliability and Validity ................................................................................................ 29 II.

(5) CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................... 33 Expectations When Participating the Vocational Training Program ........................... 33 Experiences During Participating the Vocational Training Program .......................... 40 Impacts from the Vocational Training Program .......................................................... 50 Summary of Findings ................................................................................................... 54. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ............................ 57 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 57 Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 59 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................... 63. REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 65 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS DESIGN .............................. 71 APPENDIX B1: INVITATION LETTER (ENGLISH VERSION) ........... 73 APPENDIX B2: INVITATION LETTER (VIETNAMESE VERSION) ... 77 APPENDIX C1: CONSENT FORM (ENGLISH VERSION) .................... 81 APPENDIX C2: CONSENT FORM (VIETNAMESE VERSION) ........... 83 APPENDIX D1: THE INSTRUMENT (ENGLISH VERSION) ................ 85 APPENDIX D2: THE INSTRUMENT (VIETNAMESE VERSION) ....... 87. III.

(6) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1. The Background of the Participants........................................................................ 21 Table 3.2. Outline and Shorten Key Sentences........................................................................ 25 Table 3.3. The Example of the Categorizing Process .............................................................. 27 Table 4.1. Data Display of Key Areas, Themes and Sub-themes ............................................ 55. IV.

(7) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. The research process.............................................................................................. 28 Figure 4.1. Themes related to the expectation of Vietnamese women toward the vocational training course .................................................................................................................. 33 Figure 4.2. Sub-themes of the expect to influence future employment ................................... 34 Figure 4.3. Sub-themes of the expect to develop personally ................................................... 36 Figure 4.4. Themes related to the experience of Vietnamese immigrant women during participating the vocational training program .................................................................. 40 Figure 4.5. Sub-themes of the overview of the vocational training program .......................... 41 Figure 4.6. The categories related to sub-theme the structure and content of the vocational training program ............................................................................................................... 42 Figure 4.7. Sub-themes of difficulties and hinders .................................................................. 45 Figure 4.8. Sub-themes of impacts from the vocational training course ................................. 50. V.

(8) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter explains the background of the current study. It also presents the research purposes and questions as well as the limitations and delimitations of the study. The last part of this chapter contains the definitions of some key terms used by the researcher.. Background of the Research The most recent two decades have seen a huge increment in the scale and unpredictability of worldwide movement in Asia (Hugo, 2003). It is fact that the development of the migration flows shares the feature of gender imbalance, women outnumber men. Research into this trend has focused emphatically on that connected with labor migration. (Lim & Oishi, 1996). Besides the purpose of work movement, there are a significant number of women migrating to different countries through marriage. Generally, this movement involves commercial transactions in which intermediaries are an essential part (Wang & Chang, 2002) and in that the majority are between men of wealthier countries marrying women from economically less developed countries. However, this trend has gotten fairly less consideration from researchers. Taiwan now has large immigrant groups in the workforce and the number of immigrant women through commercially arranged marriage accounted for more than 100,000. The report of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2014 noted that a higher share of marriage immigration compared to other forms of migration is related to slower labor market integration in all countries. In recent decades, Taiwan has received immigrants through transnational marriage to an extent that has had a considerable impact on society. The number of immigrants increases means that the responsibility of government, which helps them to integrate into the new society also grows. That process of integration of immigrants is not only taking place at the level of the individual immigrant, whose integration is then measured in terms of housing, employment, education, and social and cultural adaptation to the new society. It is the fact that employment is one of the most important stages which allow immigrants to integrate as well as not to be the burden to the society. As a result, the employment of the immigrant women after the marriage has been an issue of concern. Segendorf and Teljusto (2011) mentioned three reasons that give immigrants difficulties in relation to the labor market: devaluation of human capital (specific cultural knowledge, languages), thresholds of the market (e.g. high wages for simple jobs, discrimination), and lack of network. The success in achieving a place in the working life of the receiving country, thus 1.

(9) depends on the demands of the market in relation to the resources of the individual. For work performance and work training, individual variations in general mental ability, a construct introduced by Spearman (1904), has been shown to have the strongest influence (Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). The applicability, range, and adaptability of cognitive functions in new surroundings thus play an important part in the transfer of vocational skills. In Taiwan, substantial resources have been invested in the vocational training of crossborder marriage immigrant women as a solution to their needs for employment. Vocational training measures for unemployed immigrant women with insufficient work skills are planned and implemented using public and private resources. The Workforce Development Agency has adopted three approaches to implementing these training measures, including organizing training courses itself, commissioning other training institutions, and providing allowances and subsidies. These training measures enhance the practical skills of immigrant women and aid them in finding employment and having a stable life. This research will focus on one of the growing streams of marriage migration in Asia women from Vietnam moving to marry Taiwanese men. Vietnamese immigrant women, who integrate the desire of getting a better life into their expectations when moving to Taiwan and bring the culture of their original country into their experiences as adult learners when participating the vocational training in Taiwan, are potentially disadvantaged in the host country due to their complicated status. Understanding what immigrant women expect in the vocational training and investigating how they experienced their training courses will be the focus of this study. Therefore, this study sought to investigate the expectations and experiences of Vietnamese immigrant women toward the vocational training. Some suggestions for improving the vocational training would be discussed, with a focus on providing professionals information to utilize in the implementation of new support strategies for designing training courses to immigrant women.. Problem Statement Recently, the trend of women in developing countries wants to move abroad to more economically developed countries to pursue a better life is increasing, while the trend of socioeconomically disadvantaged men in wealthier Asian countries often seeks spouses overseas is also growing. Taiwan is one of the countries where these trends are rapidly developing. The proportion of transnational marriages that Vietnamese women married to Taiwanese men before 2016 is always in top places 5 among countries in Asia. According to 2.

(10) the report from Ministry of the Interior, there are more than 103,000 Vietnamese women immigrant to Taiwan through marriage and this number is forecasted to continue to increase in the next years. Most Vietnamese immigrant women were born in poor families and with the economic transactions at the time of marriage and remittances from the brides after marriage, crossborder marriages indeed improve the economic situation of the brides’ natal families and communities in Vietnam considerably. As a result, young women (and their families) aspire to find a foreign husband. However, most “foreign husband” who demand the transnational marriage are farmers and low-skilled manufacturing workers. Therefore, pursuing employment in the host country has become the most urgent need of female immigrants in order to support the economy of both natal place and immediate families (Wu, 2013). Nevertheless, due to the lack of marketable skills and be suffered the racism and sexism in the host countries, immigrant women are a disadvantaged group when seeking jobs. Therefore, the vocational training program offered by Taiwanese government is a good solution to help immigrant women, especially Vietnamese women to deal this problem. It also will be beneficial for their empowerment, improvement economic independence and their upward social mobility. Although there is sustainable resource have been invested on immigrant women, just a little number of late reviews have investigated the vocational training among immigrant women. The basic targets of these studies just were demonstrating the barriers of immigrant women when attending training programs include deficiencies in host-country such as language skills, financial constraints, and family responsibilities (Shan, 2009; Stephens & Bertone, 1995; Wong, Duff & Early, 2009). It is undeniable that the current reviews have given imperative findings, they have concentrated on the decontextualized parts of immigrant women’s training (such as the number of immigrant women participating in training and their incomes after training). However, there is an essential part of their training outcome, which is contextualized learning experiences. Moreover, these existing studies have conducted by researchers in America and Europe, so the research subjects were limited to the immigrant women living there (Palriwala & Uberoi, 2008). The generally constrained national mediations of vocational training and employment among immigrant women in the majority of the Asian host nations might be one of the reasons why studies on this issue in Asian countries were limited. Besides, in these Asian nations, women who move through marriage regularly get to be housewives instead of labor market members (Tang & Wang, 2011).. 3.

(11) Despite the issue of vocational training among Asian women who migrate to other Asian countries has been investigated by some researchers, these just focused on the cultural structural perspective or culturally responsive approach to research immigrant women’s learning experience on vocational training. According to a review of the author, only limited number of recently published studies have talked this topic in Taiwan, especially measuring the effectiveness of the vocational training. The number of Vietnamese immigrant women in Taiwan is growing strongly, it means that their demand of participating the vocational training also is increasing significantly. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the expectations and experiences of immigrant women as learners in vocational training to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of their lives in their host countries. Taking this into consideration, this study was trying to understand the immigrant women’s expectations and experiences and the impacts on their lives after completing the vocational training.. The Significance of the Research The general purpose of this study is to investigate the training expectations and training experiences of Vietnamese immigrant women for vocational training in Taiwan. Therefore, after completion of this study, the research would have permitted on one hand to better understand the vocational training for immigrant women in Taiwan. On the other hand, the findings of research would be a valuable basis for improving the immigrant women training conditions, the study contributed to helping to change the training which may more appropriate with immigrant females’ desire. Thanks to this, they will receive more benefits during the time of their participation as well as the better outcomes after finishing the training courses. In addition to that, this research may encourage the government to undertake more concerns for Vietnamese immigrant women, on the other hand, effective design of the vocational training course in a favor of Vietnamese women will boost their capacity so that they can contribute to the host country economic development. On other major contributions to this study concerns the literature, the findings of this research will add literature to research into the immigrant women through transnational marriage in Asia as well as the vocational training designed for them.. 4.

(12) Research Purposes The research focuses on the Vietnamese immigrant women participating the vocational training for immigrant organized by Taiwan government. The specific objectives of this research are: . To identify the expectations of Vietnamese immigrant women when participating the vocational training.. . To explore the experiences of Vietnamese immigrant women when participating the vocational training.. . To find out the impact of the vocational training on Vietnamese immigrant women.. . To propose suggestions and recommendation for stakeholders to the vocational training. Research Questions In order to obtain the purposes of the research, the author designed the following questions: 1.. What are Vietnamese immigrant women’s expectations for the vocational training?. 2.. What are immigrant women’s experiences during the vocational training?. 3.. What are the impacts of the vocational training on Vietnamese immigrant women?. 4.. What are the suggestions and recommendations for stakeholders to the vocational training?. Definition of Terms Immigrant Women There are many ways to define “immigrant women”, but in this study, the research subjects are women immigrate into the host country through marriage or can be called “foreign brides”. Therefore, in this study, “immigrant women” refers to are those women whose immigration was based on marriage to men who live in a relatively wealthier country (Chen, 2011).. Vocational Training Vocational training is generally defined as the part of vocational education that provides the specialized professional knowledge and skills, which attribute professional adequacy to the trainee and are the focus of every vocational training program. Vocational training can be seen as an activity or a set of activities designed in order to transmit theoretical knowledge and also professional skills that are required for certain types of jobs (Kotsikis, 2007). 5.

(13) Training Needs Training needs Training needs by itself is a shortfall between the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the employees, what is required by the job, or the demands of the organizational change (Itika, 2011). In the case of this study, training needs are the difference between what Vietnamese immigrant women can do and what the Taiwan labor market demand.. Training Expectations It is difficult to define “Training Expectations” because, in the different situations, it has different definitions. In this study, the researcher refers training expectation is what trainees desire the training can bring to them.. Training Experiences Training experience involves any activities in which training take places such as course, program, interaction, discussion meeting. It happens in both traditional scholarly settings (schools, classrooms) and nontraditional settings (outside of school areas, outdoor environment), or whether it includes conventional instructive collaborations (gaining from instructors and teachers or classmates and colleagues) (Mezirow, 1991).. 6.

(14) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides an overview of the literature on the theme of this study. The author begins by giving some information about immigrant women participating the vocational training as well as a short introduction of the vocational training programs, especially for immigrant women. The second part is the literature on the difficulties which immigrant women faced and their training needs. Research, specific to the expectations and experiences of immigrant women who participated the vocational training does not exist within the available literature. Therefore, this next part of this chapter reviews other scholarly bodies of literature that are relevant to the adult development and adult learning theories which would sustain the design of interview questions.. The Vocational Training of Immigrant Women in Taiwan According to the Taiwan Interior Ministry, in 2017, 21,097 immigrant women in Taiwan made up more than 4% of total Taiwanese populace. Most of them from Mainland China, Indonesia, Vietnam. The vast majority of the Taiwanese husbands of these women are sociomonetarily burdened (Ministry of the Interior, 2017, p.5). Fostering vocational training among immigrant women has been viewed as a conceivable solution to the financial issues of these families (Ministry of the interior, 2017, p.51). The Taiwanese government gives preemployment vocational training programs especially for immigrant women; these projects are offered by certain public and private vocational training institutions with financing from the government. The objectives of the vocational training program are to furnish immigrant women with fundamental work skills, to help them to be always available with the labor market’s requirement, to expand their income and to help them maintain their family life (Ministry of the interior, 2004, p.93). Based on employment market demands, the vocational training centers affiliated with the Council and local governments hold various types of vocational training, including cosmetics, hairdressing, mosaic textiles and apparel production, wedding planning, baking, health maintenance and stress relief, culinary arts, and nurse aide; everyone can choose their interests to work in, and they are counseled for employment after completion. The duration of the vocational training course is typically between 560 and 720 hours. Each course was designed focusing on three aspects: working knowledge, working skills and preparing for the professional certification exams. 7.

(15) Many benefits are provided to the immigrant women in order to encourage they participate the vocational training program. They do not have to pay the tuition fees. Moreover, when they participate in full-time vocational training sponsored or arranged by government agencies, they can apply to receive a living allowance during vocational training at 60% of the basic wages for a maximum of six months and supports for taking professional certification examinations after their training is complete. In order to be allowed to enroll in the training program, immigrant women have to take two exams: the first exam is that evaluating the ability to read and write Chinese, the second one is the interview assessing their inspirations for receiving vocational training program. However, to immigrant women with poor Chinese language ability, the Chinese proficiency exam is not an easy barrier which they have to overcome. (Shan, 2009).. Why Do Immigrant Women Need for Training? Many previous studies and reports have identified the importance of immigrant women in the labor market and their contributions to their family income. A number of authors have discussed the disadvantaged position of female immigrant workers in terms of job status and income (Boyd, 1992; Lee, 1999; Ng & Estable, 1987). According to Boyd, immigrant women, particularly those from Southeast Asian, are characterized by lower education, concentration in the lower echelons of service and processing occupations, and lower incomes. Furthermore, Lee emphasized the particular disadvantages of "racialized" immigrant women both when they are of working age and perhaps even more so when they are elderly and lack sufficient pension and other benefits. In addition, many immigrant women work a "double day" as they bear primary responsibility for household work and child care, and many do shift or night work so that they can juggle household and childcare duties. Other authors have focused on the difficulties faced by immigrant women in the workplace and their lack of opportunities for upward mobility in the labor market; this situation may be further reinforced by conservative social and cultural pressures from both outside and within immigrant communities that assume in-group solidarity, conformity, and loyalty, and that militates against moving out and up to higher levels of responsibility and authority (Goldstein, 1997). The literature, therefore, identifies the need for training to improve the longterm socioeconomic position of immigrant women and not just to equip them for short-term work that fulfills the immediate "requirements of industry" and little else (Jackson, 1991).. 8.

(16) Second, in recent years a number of studies have focused on the issue of immigrant women's access to language occupational programs (Cumming & Gill, 1992; Rockhill & Tomic, 1994; Tisza, 1997). Various types of barriers to accessing training programs have been identified such as eligibility barriers, organizational barriers, and social and personal barriers. The issue of access is especially crucial given the relationship between participation in training programs and immigrants' enhanced social and economic wellbeing. Some specific examples of access barriers include eligibility requirements that exclude many women who are classified as dependants, long waiting lists, lack of program supports (e.g., child care), funding sources for training, and personal barriers such as low self-confidence. Since immigration has traditionally been linked with Taiwanese economic and demographic needs, federal and provincial bodies designed educational programs for immigrants within the context of the objectives of immigration in Taiwan and the competing demands of an ever-changing economy. Educational programs for immigrant women were required to be instrumental, integrative, or both. For instance, acquiring the skills, usually language, to enter the job market or to go for further training in order to enhance performance in the labor market is instrumental. Integrative refers to the acquisition of Chinese for the purpose of functioning in Taiwanese society. Education and labor policies were linked with the aim of improving the quality of the labor resource of the country. In other words, the goals of education were not merely productive work but also the highly qualified workers that a modem industrialized state requires. Such education should benefit individuals and society. Education and training were symbiotically structured, designed to benefit trainer and trainee, without necessarily differentiating between native-born and immigrant workers. However, the education offered to immigrant women went beyond human resource development. It was also informed by theories of adjustment. Immigrants did not only need an education that would place them in jobs; they also needed to be equipped with the tools to effectively interact in society. Educational programs emphasized language skills as crucial for both economic and social adjustment. Consequently, school boards and community organizations, in conjunction with federal and provincial government agencies, initiated and/or supported language and other educational programs as a means of helping immigrants adjust and integrate into Taiwanese society.. 9.

(17) Adult Development One of the foremost thinkers concerning adult development was Erikson. Erickson significantly influenced understandings of adult development by postulating that individuals develop into adults through eight life stages (Erikson, 1950). Each life stage includes its own virtues or favorable outcomes. Erikson puts forth eight stages of development across the span of life: infancy, toddler, preschool, childhood, teenage, young adult, middle adult, and senior (Gross, 1987). The stages applicable to adult development such as young adult, middle adult, and senior provide a framework for understanding identity development of adults. During the young adult stage, generally ages twenty to forty, individuals seek to assimilate but also find their own individuality. The virtue associated with this stage is love as young adults seek intimate relationships. The stage that follows, middle adulthood, from about forty to sixty-five years old, is a time of work and family. For adult learners, this may mean a difficult balancing act between the commitments of home life and school life, and for dislocated workers, it can also mean a real disconnect generated by unemployment. The senior stage begins at sixty-five and involves a time of reflection and coming to terms with life and death (Gross, 1987).. Cognitive Theories of Adult Development From a cognitive standpoint, Jean Piaget provided additional knowledge about how adults develop with his theory of cognitive development. This theory posits four stages of mental development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Piaget, 1983). Children experience these stages in route to adulthood, and there are three principles that are maintained during each stage: organization, adaptation, and equilibration. According to Piaget, learners develop schemes as they progressively organize new information. When information is gathered, learners adapt it through two models, assimilation, and accommodation. Assimilation is the taking-in of new information, while accommodation involves change prior knowledge to account for new information. Finally, equilibration involves the learner finding a balance between assimilated and accommodated knowledge and between their individuality and society (Flavell, 1996). In the pattern of Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg envisaged adult development as cognitive. Kohlberg ‘s model describes the moral development and asserts that moral development is the premise of adult development (Kohlberg, 1971). The first stage in his model is Obedience and Punishment in which learners based ethical decisions on external consequences or ideologies of what is right and wrong. The model includes three levels of moral development with two. 10.

(18) stages in each level. The first level is pre-conventional morality in which individuals make decisions based on consequences to individuals. During the second level, conventional morality, individuals begin to view morality as doing good acts and involving others. By the third level, post-conventional morality, adults base morality on human rights and universal principles (Crain, 1985). However, Kohlberg also assumed that stages unfolded the same regardless of culture or context and that development, although it may be influenced by social activity, is a cognitive process. Adult development has been portrayed in phases also. Stages imply a step-wise, sequential configuration of development, whereas phases indicate that an individual may be at different levels of maturity or understanding in different areas of life. Phases also allow for the influences of emotions, culture, status, power, and society. “To be able to reason - that is, to assess evidence, make predictions, judge arguments, recognize causality, and decide on actions where no choice is evident - is often presumed to be a mark of adulthood” (Brookfield, 1991, p. 56). In phase-based adulthood, individuals may demonstrate adult qualities in some areas but not others. For example, one might be an “adult” as a supervisor who leads within the workplace and yet be child-like in their interactions at home. The view of development in phases supports the idea of development as influenced by social interactions.. Social Theories of Adult Development Gould (1978) described adulthood as dismantling illusions from childhood. In this way, adults learn new ways of thinking and construct new knowledge as they have new experiences, but social structures play a key role in this development. According to Dewey (1963), these experiences manifest by interactions between external conditions and an individual's needs and capacities. Development, therefore, occurs in a social context. However, how adults experience this interaction is influenced by how they make sense of the events that comprise the experiences. Culture, gender, class, and other contextual factors can shape how and what people know and thus their course of development. Dewey understood education to be lifelong and mediated by context and identity. Levinson, on the other hand, focused attention on the social nature of and influences on development. Levinson’s life structure model emphasizes the impact of family, work, personal, and social commitments on adult development (Levinson, 1986). While Levinson outlined six stages of adulthood from adulthood transition to late adulthood, the significance of his research relates to his ideas of stable periods and transition periods. During the stable period an adult 11.

(19) makes life choices; during a transition period, an adult undergoes change. One may go through stability and transition during different phases of adulthood (Sugarman, 2001). Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg viewed development as cognitively-based while Levinson’s model examines the external influences on development. The theory of adult development which formulated by Kegan in 1982, went further to incorporate feeling, impulses, the idea of transformation, and examines internal influences on learning. The theory developed by Kegan in 1982 placed a higher value on the person as knowledge constructor. Individuals become more open to the myriad of ideas as they mature through the five phases of incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional learning, and interindividual. During adulthood one may demonstrate institutionalized values such as universal principles, and if an adult reaches the inter-individual phase, the individual understands one’s own thinking as well as that there are many other perspectives (Merriam, Caferella, & Baumgartner, 2007).. Adult Learning Within the field of adult education, learning is viewed as a catalyst for development, and an individual that is continuing to learn is continuing to develop. Adult education emerged with influences from philosophers and educators such as Dewey. Dewey (1916) defined education as “reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and which increases one’s ability to direct the course of subsequent experience” (p.74). His comments uphold that learning, and therefore knowledge, is empirical - gained from experience, and is instrumental in providing an opportunity for change in one’s life. Dewey further asserted that learning is optimized when “pursued under conditions where the realization of the activity rather than merely the external product is the aim” (p. 297). Thus, adult education is viewed as centered on the unique needs of adults and on a dialectic educational relationship. Merriam (2010) suggested that “adult learning is a phenomenon at once deceptively simple, yet enormously complex” (p. 12). She went on to describe the knowledge base of adult learning as a mosaic of theories, models, and principles that identify and differentiate adult learning from that of learning in childhood. Distinguishing between education and learning, Jarvis (2014) suggested that a shift from the institutional phenomenon of education to the individual phenomenon of learning or acquiring knowledge and skills meant that the environment for learning went far beyond an educational institution setting. Merriam et al. (2007) described three types of settings where learning may occur for adults; formal within institutional settings, nonformal which is most often structured and community-based, and. 12.

(20) information which is embedded in daily life. But what is it that distinguishes adult learning from learning in childhood? Merriam (2008) acknowledged that “adult learning is a complex phenomenon that can never be reduced to a single, simple explanation” (p. 94). She went on to suggest that theories of adult learning are ever-evolving with a current focus on the contexts where learning occurs and the multidimensionality of the phenomenon. One of other scholars who is Jarvis also have echoed the complexity of adult learning: “Learning, then, is a much more profound phenomenon …. It is about the way that human beings are in the world and the world in them – it occurs at the intersection of humanity and society – it is more than experiential, more than physiological, psychological and so on. Understanding it more fully is a momentous integrated multi-disciplinary project” (Jarvis, 2006, p.6). Formerly, theories of learning largely focused on a cognitive psychological approach with Piaget’s cognitive development theory, albeit focused on childhood development, serving as the foundation for adult learning work (Merriam et al., 2007). Other early scholars were behaviorists including Watson, Skinner, and Pavlov, who believed that learning is simply a matter of changing external behaviors in response to factors or stimuli within the environment. Other traditional theories of adult learning include humanism, social learning theory, and constructivism. Often described as the founding father of adult learning, Knowles (1970) acknowledged the difference between learning in adults and children. He introduced the European concept of andragogy, “based on the Greek word anēr (with the stem and-), meaning ‘man, not boy’ or adult” (p. 42) to reflect the art and science of helping adults learn. He identified that in learning, adults are self-directed, using the experience as a resource for learning, are driven to learn by practical needs, and have a performance-centered orientation to learning versus subjectcentered (Knowles, 1970). In later works, Knowles (1990) further added that adults learn based on the need to know, and they demonstrate an internal responsibility for their learning. According to this model, adult learners choose to engage in learning activities under their own volition to improve themselves for practical purposes such as employment or advancement. Adult learning is not, however, limited to these purposes, as adults engage in learning for pleasure, interest, practical purposes and leisure and learning in adults is significantly more complex than this individualistic representation.. 13.

(21) There have been many critiques of model developed by Knowles over the years, related to the assumptions of individualism and intrinsic motivation and largely related to the North American bias that is entrenched within it. Notably, Lee (2003) presented a critical analysis of andragogy in relation to the specific context in which Knowles based his assumptions in 1970 and 1990, ignoring learning in populations other than white, middle-class, males. She suggested that for adult immigrant learners whose socialization occurred in different contexts, their views of learning may not align with views that andragogy portrays. She demonstrated, through a number of research examples, that particularly for immigrant adults, their learning and learning behaviors depended on the historical, cultural and sociopolitical contexts in which they were socialized and could not be encompassed within the universality of andragogy (Lee, 2003). Furthermore, she asserted that Knowles’ attribution of adult learner characteristics, as represented by the dominant culture, effectually marginalizes learners from other cultures. The concepts of socialization and culture are now maintained by scholars to weigh more heavily into the adult learning experience. Jarvis (2004) suggested that each society transmits its own culture, or combined knowledge, beliefs and values, through social interaction and education. Jarvis (1987) emphasized the importance of the social dimension of learning in adults and claimed that “all learning begins with experience” (p.16). While culture represents a collective belief system, the development of self, based on the integration of current experiences in the socio-cultural environment with past memories which are framed through a cultural lens, support meaning making and learning (Jarvis, 2010). Hansman (2001) suggested that the social context is central to learning in adulthood, considering interactions and intersections among people, tools, and context and in relation to the developmental needs, ideas and cultural context of the learning experience. This sociocultural context is a key consideration for this research as immigrant adult learners, and their values, identities and past experiences, may not align with the learning environment in Taiwan. As described by Merriam et al. (2007) “the sociocultural context, the accumulated life experiences, developmental concerns, and presumably the nature of ensuing learning experiences converge” (p. 434) and, in turn, impact the adult immigrant learning experience. Alfred (2002) suggested that “learning cannot be considered to be content-free or context-free, for it is always filtered through one’s culture and cultural identity” (p.5). Furthermore, she asserted that learning occurs within a particular context that extends beyond the physical environment, to include institutional, historical, cultural, and individual factors,. 14.

(22) all of which intersect and interact to influence meaning-making (Alfred, 2002). It is this sociocultural theoretical framework of adult learning that underlies this study.. Immigrant Women as Adult Learners Ginsberg and Wlodkowski (2010) described participation among adult learners to be at an unparalleled historical high with many middle-income adults especially, embracing education as the means for career advancement. While such participation is discussing as a global trend among adult learners (Tuckett & Aldridge, 2011), when this trend is further viewed with lenses of income, gender, ethnicity, lifespan phase, among marginalized or minority groups [such as immigrants], the poor, and those adult learners who are least formally educated; “troubling disparities” can emerge (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2010, p. 25). When adult learners are also involved in movements across borders (Kivisto and Faist, 2010) as immigrants, these challenges are further compounded (Suárez-Orozco, Bang, & Kim, 2011). Adult learners have different characteristics as compared to the traditional students. They have different experiences in learning that may affect their effectiveness as students (Hsu & Hamilton, 2010; Kimmel, Gaylor, Grubbs, & Hayes, 2012). For the case of immigrants in general, they also have different perspectives when compared to local learners. Immigrants learners have a dual frame of reference when it comes to assessing their different experiences. They can compare situations in their host country and their native land, and this assessment can have different effects to their situation, which commonly take the form of challenges or barriers to their growth (Lum & Grabke, 2012). For the case of adult immigrant learners, there is, therefore, a need to consider their characteristics as adult learners, their immigrant status, and the place they are in, especially when it comes to coming up with an effective educational strategy for these individuals (Carnevale, 2010; Lum & Grabke, 2012). Language and cultural barriers are the foremost challenges experienced by immigrant learners (Castro & Murray, 2010). These barriers exist because the native culture and language, which the immigrant adult learner is familiar with, may be different from the ones existing in the host country. According to Lum and Grabke (2012), immigrant adult learners see outside communities as the primary focus of social interaction, health care, and counseling. In a longitudinal study spanning two years (2009-2011), Margo (2012) explored pre, trans, and post-immigration experiences among immigrants. The author found that there was also the need to learn new skills that would allow effective navigation of new terrains, deal with. 15.

(23) isolation, financial hardship, housing, credential recognition, and among other challenges changing relations; thus showing that immigrant adult learners have unique paths of resettling. For immigrant adult learners, education whether from their native or the new foreign land is very important. The social and economic benefits are said to be directly proportional to prior education that an individual has acquired (Batalova & Frix, 2008). In the case of the United States and other countries with a significant number of immigrants, millions of immigrants consider adult education as the primary tool for language acquisition of the new country, cultural competence development, and knowledge and skill acquisition required for ongoing education. For example, adult immigrants, specifically those with limited language proficiency, perceive that gaining access to job training will pave the way to self-sufficiency (Wrigley, 2008). Wrigley also further mentioned that existing social, political, and economic concerns demand a system for adult immigrant education, which promises promotion of language proficiency, civic integration, and environmental adaptation while maintaining time-efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Credentials that are obtained in immigrants’ countries of origin also come under intense scrutiny in host countries. Based on the outcomes of these rigorous examinations, sanctioned qualifications may be rejected or given less credit than they are worth in one’s home country. In discussing this trend, Grant (2008) found that many foreign-trained immigrants are underemployed because potential employers and accreditation bodies that evaluate credentials are unacquainted with foreign qualification and unfortunately give them less credit than they are due. In light of this, immigrants may have to accept unskilled status to become employed and find him/herself needing to return to formal education to obtain recognized credentials. Immigrants may take the decreased value of their credentials as outright discrimination, even if this is not the intention of those who appraise their qualifications (Grant, 2011). Falasca (2011) and Kimmel et al. (2012) concluded that there is also the need to develop strategies to overcome these barriers. In addition, Guo (2009) argued that female immigrant experience even more difficulties than men in continuing with their learning path because of an unequal sexual division of labor within the home, which is often exacerbated by a loss of familial and social support upon migration. He further added that the conflicting demands of household responsibilities and learning commitments options for women.. 16.

(24) The current review showed that immigrants women as adult learners are extremely diverse, have varied acculturation paths, and adaptive outcomes. The barriers encountered and resources available as they participate in vocational training can also vary contextually. This makes female immigrant adult learners’ experiences and resilience trajectories as varied as the people of the world (Castro & Murray, 2010). Therefore, factors that impede or facilitate adjustment need to be understood (American Psychological Association, 2012). Psychologists, educators and other stakeholders are, and progressively will be, serving immigrant adult learners. Being cognizant of resilience across a variety of developmental adult stages and focusing on the context can lead to understanding this group and finding ways to not only enhance their resilience (American Psychological Association, 2012) and vocational training participation experiences but enabling their optimal participation in societies (Suárez-Orozco, M. M., Suárez-Orozco, C., & Sattin-Bajaj, 2010).. 17.

(25) 18.

(26) CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN This chapter describes the research design and research methods used in this study. It contains the research method, instrument, and sample. It also discusses the and data analysis and reliability and validity of this study.. Research Method The method which employed in this study was qualitative design. The qualitative research design is based on inductive reasoning and helps a researcher to understand the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied and situational constraints that form inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). Qualitative data like quantitative data is based on empiric investigation and evidence. However, the qualitative research explores information from the perspective of individuals and generates case studies and summaries rather than lists of numeric data. Therefore, qualitative methods provided the researcher with the opportunity to understand and interpret immigrant women’s expectations, and experiences when they participate the vocational training that would not have been easily handled by statistical procedures or questionnaires and surveys. The researcher learned what immigrant women expect from the vocational training and how they felt about their experiences in attending to this program. The researcher believed that monitoring the training of the immigrant women through the use of interviews could help her to provide added value in identifying and exploring intangible factors such as cultural expectations, religious implications, and individual feelings. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota. Semi-structured interviews were selected to carry out in this study. Semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to probe the choices, feelings, and experiences of participants in story form (Morse & Field, 1995). Therefore, the researcher designed the interview questions with the assistance of her advisor and translate the questions into Vietnamese because the research participants do not speak English, their native language is Vietnamese. Interviews based upon an interpretive narrative approach require the researcher to be open to the storied lives of the participants (Clandinin & Connely, 2000), and to utilize open-ended 19.

(27) questions (Holstein & Gubrium, 2002). The semi-structured interviews in this study relied on an interview guide but utilized open questions such that the interviews were dialectical. Interview techniques used included open-ended questions, follow-up questions, and metaphors to elicit stories (Hollway & Jefferson, 2000). Denzin (1989) suggests beginning interviews with a biographical analysis, thus the initial phase of interviews focused on capturing a biographical sketch of the participants’ lives. The interview continued with questions based on the major research questions guiding the study (Morse & Field, 1995).. Participants For qualitative studies, an appropriate sample size is the one which can answer the research question (Sandelowski, 1995). There is no set criterion for the accurate sample size in qualitative studies; it is more important to generate meaningful information from research participants and to elicit observational and analytical skills of the researcher rather than the size of the sample (Patton, 2002). For this study, the researcher used theoretical sampling in which data collection continues until sufficient data is gathered to answer the research questions and to allow a grounded theory to emerge (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007; Glaser, 1992). The researcher interviewed 12 participants using a semi-structured questionnaire and their responses helped her to work on developing various themes and sub-themes. Later, participants‟ responses were compared and contrasted with one another to explore further my research questions in regards to impacts of the vocational training on Vietnamese immigrant women. Participants needed to meet the following recruitment criteria: (1) Vietnamese women, (2) immigrating into Taiwan through marriage, (3) participating the vocational training offered by the Taiwanese government, (4) completing the vocational training within one year. Table 3.1 summaries the background of the participants. The average age of the participants was 31 years old. At the time of the interviews (2017), the interviewees had lived in Taiwan for an average of 8 years. Twelve of the participants had Vietnamese junior high school diplomas. Nine of the women had met their husbands through commercial marriage brokers.. 20.

(28) Table 3.1. The Background of the Participants Years Name (Age) in Children Taiwan Tan (25) 4 2. Education in Vietnam. Vocational Training Course. Senior high school. Taiwanese cooking. Huong (33). 14. 2. Senior high school. Taiwanese cooking. Xuyen (30). 10. 2. Senior high school. Taiwanese cooking. Giang (34). 4. 2. Junior high school. Baking. Hao (35). 9. 1. Junior high school. Hairdressing. Hang (32). 14. 2. Senior high school. Taiwanese cooking. Lan (36). 14. 1. Junior high school. Baking. Luong (26). 6. 2. Senior high school. Hairdressing. Thanh (26). 5. 1. Senior high school. Hairdressing. Nga (37). 10. 2. Senior high school. Baking. Ha (32). 7. 2. Senior high school. Taiwanese cooking. Tuong (28). 5. 1. Senior high school. Taiwanese cooking. Having a similar background helped researchers to establish the relationship with our participants. Based on the relationship which is come from the same country with all participants, it is considered that researcher from an insider perspective. This insider role allowed her to conduct research with a population of which she is also members. She shares a similar identity, language, and experiential base with the participants. This insider role also allowed her a more rapid and complete acceptance by participants. The participants were typically more open with us so that allowed for a greater depth of data to be gathered. Throughout the study, the researcher has developed a close friendship with the participants. She met participants at their homes or their working places; therefore, this relationship allowed participants easier to share their thoughts about the vocational training. The length of time which participants had finished training courses was less than one year in Taiwan. The length of time may also influence the participants’ thoughts, they can forget their feelings or not have a clear understanding about recently training programs, so this study focused on the immigrant women who newly participated in training programs and finished it within one year.. 21.

(29) Data Collection The Development of Interview Question The interview questions were designed based on what the researcher reviewed in chapter 2 and the research questions. The research questions that guided this study were: (1) What are Vietnamese immigrant women’s expectations for the vocational training? (2) How do immigrant experience during the vocational training? (3) What are the impacts of the vocational training on Vietnamese immigrant women? (4) What is the future training needs of Vietnamese immigrant women toward the vocational training? Based on these questions, the researcher implemented to design the interview questions. For example, the purpose of research question 1 is that to identify the expectations of Vietnamese women toward the vocational training. Therefore, the participants will be asked two following questions to help researcher get the detailed points: 1. Why did you decide to participate the vocational training? 2. What were some of the expectations you had toward the Vocational Training Program when participating it? For the specific interview questions design, please see Appendix A.. Peer Review and Pilot Interview After the design of semi-structured interview questions, the list of interview questions was reviewed and critiqued by the research thesis advisor. Finally, to see if the subject being investigated is adequately (or potentially adequately) captured by the proposed interview procedure and schedule of questions, the researcher invited two Vietnamese immigrant women who are qualified by the criterion of the research sampling to conduct the interview as the same with the interview process. Fundamental changes were not made in the questions, but after two pilot interviews, the researcher realized that the length of each interview which she anticipated (about 45 minutes) is not enough to exploit the whole story of participants. So, approximate time of each interview that researcher found quite reasonable in length is 90 minutes. An hour and a half are very appropriate for participants to reconstruct their experience, put it in the context of their lives, and reflect on its meaning. Two hours or more than seems too long to sit at one time.. 22.

(30) Recruitment Process Upon approval after thesis proposal defense from the National Taiwan Normal University, Graduate Institute of International Human Resource Development, the researcher started the recruitment process for her study. She used purposive sampling to include those participants who fit into the recruitment criteria as outlined above. The request for research participants was made through various sources such as local community centers serving immigrants, religious places, recreation centers, and markets. Among these sources, those who agreed to support the study by participating in the recruitment process were called “recruitment partners.” Copies of an invitation letter were sent to these recruitment partners for posting purposes (see Appendix B). These recruitment partners were asked to post the letters to connect the interested individuals with the researcher. Those who were interested in participating and/or needed more information were requested to contact the researcher. The detailed information of the research study was provided to them which included the benefits and risks of participation. The detailed information included: the purpose of the study, criteria of (voluntary) participation, confidentiality issues, and implications of participation in the study, such as risks and benefits of participation. Those who met the recruitment criteria and were interested in participating in the study after collecting detailed information were included in the next step of the recruitment process, making an appointment and signing the consent form. During the recruitment process, the researcher faced the challenge of building the relationship with participants. A lot of Vietnamese immigrant women did not want to share their lives with someone who they are not familiar with. Therefore, the researcher had to take a long time to engage with them as well as ask the help from the staff in vocational training centers and immigrant family service centers. The staff members in both centers are acquainted with some immigrant women. Finally, the researcher contacted to a Vietnamese woman who willing to join in the study, and she also helped to introduce other participants. With the assistance from her, the researcher was easier to engage with the participants and conduct the interview.. Interview Procedures The data was collected through the semi-structured interview as mentioned above. The interview was comprised of a set questions which was designed by the researcher. However, the researcher was opened to whatever additional information the interviewees are ready to. 23.

(31) provide. The interview time and date depend on the interviewees’ schedule and availability period. Interviewees were first sent the questionnaire before the interviews could take place. Each of the participant’s interview took about 75 minutes to 90 minutes and was recorded using a recorder. After a brief getting acquainted session, the researcher explained how the interview would proceed for the maximum of the 90-minute period and provided background information as to how the study evolved. The researcher explained the informed consent form and encouraged the participants to ask questions about any vocabulary or concepts they did not understand as they read the form. Before the participants signed the consent form, the researcher once again asks them if they need any clarified. When the participants were clearly with the purpose, procedures, and confidentiality of this study, they would sign the consent form and both the participants and the researcher kept a copy as a resource. The researcher began the interviews by collecting demographic information from the participants that include academic status, ages, the length of time at Taiwan, name, of course, they participated in. The researcher continued to ask the participants 7 focused interview questions. The questions were designed to obtain descriptive data about the expectations and experiences of the participants. Consistency was insured by conducting the interviews, in the same manner, each time and by asking the same focused interview questions, but the openended of the questions created variance in how each participant answer. The researcher emphasized asking the interview questions in a manner that encouraged descriptive answers, listening attentively to the participants and flexibility. During the interviews, if the participants did not understand questions or vocabulary word, the researcher explained the term by reading the definition of the word or giving a personal example of the concept, being careful not to prompt the participants to answer in a specific way. Once the researcher completely finished with each interview, brief observations (field notes) were made by the researcher regarding the interviews, the environment; and the length of the interview.. Data Analysis Qualitative research data analysis typically involves the analysis of the text from the interview (the transcript). The main goal of this process was to be able to clearly summarize. 24.

(32) the data and draw significant results. The different steps followed by the researcher for this research are as the following: Step 1: At this step, the researcher personally transcribed verbatim the interviews within a month of the interview to ensure accuracy. The researcher organized the interview transcripts and the supplemental questionnaires and assignments according to specific coding categories. The codes applied are keywords which are used to categorize or organize text and are considered an essential part of the qualitative research (Sarantakos, 1998). This step was illustrated in Table 3.2 below. Table 3.2. Outline and Shorten Key Sentences Code. Key Sentences. Manuscript R: What are your motivation for participating the vocational training?. A1-C-01-01. Get work to earn. I: I felt that I also need to take the. money and support the. responsibilities, I must learn a skill through. family. vocational training to get work to support my Taiwanese family and to send money back to my parents R: What are the barriers or difficulties during the Vocational Training?. A1-C-05-01. Cannot get an approval from mother-in-law. I: My mother-in-law used to not allow me to socialize with other Vietnamese women. As a result, when she heard about my decision of receiving the vocational training, she was not happy and did not approve. Note. R: Researcher, I: Interviewee. 25.

(33) In Table 3.2, the code A1-C-01-01 can be interpreted as the following: A1: refers to the first interviewee of the research C: refers the name of a training course which interviewee participated 01: the first 01 refers to the number of interview questions 01: the second 01 represents the first key sentence in the whole manuscript Such way of coding allowed the researcher to trace the original information in the manuscript easily. It can be identified that the first interviewee who participated the Cooking class answered the first question by the first answer, so coding as A1-C-01-01. Step 2: After identification of the specific major categories, the researcher identified themes that emerged from interviews. The researcher placed the key sentences within each major category based on the four main research questions. Themes were identified by analyzing words and meanings from the interviews. The words and meanings from each interview that fit within each major coding category were cut and placed into their specific major category folder. Themes based on Vietnamese women’s expectations and experiences will be placed into the perspectives held by participants' category. The researcher then proceeds to analyze each of the major code folders. After the researcher looked over the specific words and themes, they were placed into piles supporting each specific research question. The researcher then proceeded to make statements that related to the research question and use quotes from the interviews to support this statement. In doing this, the researcher was sensitive to the discrepancies that could be found between meanings presumed and those understood by the participants. Table 3.3 in below illustrates this step:. 26.

(34) Table 3.3. The Example of the Categorizing Process Key Sentences (Code). Key Areas. Themes. Sub-themes. I have to get work to support my Taiwanese family and to send money back to my parents [A1-C01-01] In Vietnam, I have a sister studying in university, my parents’ healthy are not strong enough to. Expectations when. The expect to. participating the. influence future. vocational training. employment. Gaining financially. work and earn much money. I must do something to help them. [A3-C-01-02]. Step 3: The final stage involved data verification, this process involves a process of checking the validity of understanding by rechecking the transcripts and codes again, thus allowing. the researcher to verify or modify hypotheses already arrived at previously. (Sarantakos, 1998). Research Process According to the research purpose, the process of the research covered seven steps. The Figure 3.1 below shows the research process:. 27.

(35) Reasearch background and purpose Literature review Research method and Sample. Data collection Data Analsysis Generalizations and Interpretatiion Findings, Conclusion and Suggestions Figure 3.1. The research process. Research Background and Purpose This step starts with choosing the research topic. The researcher based on her interests and listening to suggestion and advises from advisor to finalize the topic. After having the topic. The author focus on reading and researching to wrote the first chapter including research background and purposes.. Literature Review Study In this step, the researcher started with reading the articles as well as studies which relate to the topic. After getting an insight understanding of the topic, the research began to convey these reading into the second chapter.. Research and Sample Design After reviewing the literature, the researcher chose the research method to be used as well as the sampling criteria. Data Collection Based on the literature review, the researcher developed the interview questions in order to get the information needed. The researcher will play a role of interviewer to get the information from the target group.. 28.

(36) Data Analysis Using various coding techniques under the guidance of the thesis advisor, the researcher will use coding and categorize to analyze the data. With this step began the write-up of the fourth chapter of the thesis.. Generalization and Interpretation After analyzing the data, the researcher incorporated the different themes into the thesis. This step involves the interpretation of the responses gathered by the researcher.. Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations This last step includes writing the findings derived from the previous step into the final chapter of the thesis. In addition, the researcher was able to draw the necessary conclusions and make some suggestions to the Vocational Training Institute in Taiwan.. Reliability and Validity Issues of validity and reliability are of central concern to qualitative research (Kramp, 2004). This study employed three techniques to ensure validity: prolonged engagement, verification, and triangulation; as well as two methods to be sure the research is reliable: rick, thick description, and audit trails.. Validity Validity involves how congruent a researcher’s findings are to reality (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olsen & Spiers, 2002). Within constructivist study such as narratives, researchers understand that reality is fluid, socially constructed, and based on perspective (Crotty, 2003). Narrative research is not performed in search of a truth but seeks only to portray the retold, subjective experiences. Therefore, validity in interpretive narrative research concerns internal validity (Morse et al., 2002). Three key methods for establishing internal validity within the current study were intense engagement, verification, and triangulation Prolonged engagement. Qualitative research is an iterative process by which researchers seek to illuminate the lived experiences of participants (Merriam, 1998). To do so, researchers must spend quality time with research participants and elicit rich, thick descriptions (Merriam, 2002). Qualitative researchers work to establish entre, rapport, and understanding of a participant’s context and experience (Kramp, 2004). One way of establishing prolonged engagement in narrative studies is through the use of follow-up interviews and observations (Kramp, 2004). During this study, the researcher participated in primary and follow-up contact 29.

(37) with each participant. As well, she visited each vocational training class involved in the study to garner a sense of the environment in which the participants trained. Importantly in developing the narratives, the researcher grappled with the data persistently and in-depth. Verification. Another method of establishing validity within qualitative research is verification. Verification is the process of “checking, confirming, making sure, and being certain” (Morse & Field, 1995). An accepted technique of verification is member checks (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Member checks involve participants reviewing data themes, or research findings to determine if the narratives are congruent with their experiences. During this study, participants were provided the opportunity of reviewing the transcripts as well as the profiles. Emerging ideas from the initial interviews also were probed further and ideas clarified in the follow-up interviews. Triangulation. Triangulation, or the use of multiple sources, methods, or investigators, can be used as a means of confirming findings. In this research, multiple participants were interviewed as a means to identify common themes as well as particular individual experiences. Member checking was employed by having participants review their individual transcripts to confirm their accuracy. The interview process allowed for not only ample time for the participant to discuss any and all factors that positively and negatively impacted their training expectations and training experience but there was a further opportunity offered for follow-up should they wish to add or expand on the first interview. This allowed for adequate engagement in the data collection. As the results were analyzed and the report was written, three peer readers were engaged to review the findings to assess if they were reasonable based on the participant data collected. This process resulted in additional considerations and clarification of the findings. Finally, the inclusion of the researcher and philosophical orientation sections of this report clearly outline my worldview, assumptions, and experiences, allowing the reader to gain an understanding of the lens through which the findings were interpreted.. Reliability Another measure of rigor in qualitative research is its reliability. Reliability involves whether the findings might be replicated (Merriam, 2001). Narrative supports the use of methods of reliability including thick description, and audit trails. Rich, thick description. Thick description is a principle of reliable qualitative research (Merriam, 1998). Thick description creates what Creswell and Miller (2000) describe as “verisimilitude, statements that produce for the readers the feeling they have experienced or 30.

(38) could have experienced the events being described in the study” (p. 129). Thick description requires deep engagement and vivid detail to capture the essence of the experience. The researcher examined the constructed stories, tried to interpret the data to easy to follow. Audit trails. Audit trails are another method of ensuring reliability in a qualitative study. Audit trails “describe in detail, how data were collected, how categories derived, and how decisions were made throughout the inquiry” (Merriam, 1998, p. 172). The audit trail is a systematic process of accounting for the actions and choices of the researcher such that the audience might be able to understand how the researcher arrived at the findings. The audit trail for this study included participant demographic forms, audio recordings of interviews, transcripts of taped interviews, field notes, and a journal of the research project.. 31.

(39) 32.