王維送別詩意象英譯之研究─以五首送別詩為例

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學翻譯研究所碩士論文 A Master’s Thesis Presented to the Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation National Taiwan Normal University 指導教授：胡宗文. 博士. Advisor: Dr. Daniel Hu. 王維送別詩意象英譯之研究─以五首送別詩為例 On the Translation of Imagery in Wang Wei’s Farewell Poems: An Analysis of Five Poems. 研究生：馬嘉徽 Advisee: Chia-Hui Ma 中華民國 106 年 6 月 June 2017.

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(3) Ma i. Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation for allowing me to finish my degree, and all of the faculties and staff who have enriched my academic life. I would especially like to thank Dr.Hu, my advisor, for guiding me through all of the challenges and difficulties faced during the completion of this thesis. He is truly a wonderful and patient teacher. To my committee, Dr. Tsai and Dr. Chien, I am extremely grateful for all of your assistance and suggestions in perfecting the contents of this thesis.. Throughout this whole process, I want to thank my mother for putting up with me, guiding me, and always being there for me. I also want to thank all of my close friends, classmates, and colleagues, Aaron H., Sherry C., Roya H., Roman I., Peter C., Hui-Teng T., Sandra T., Janet L., and many more, for the encouragement and assistance they have provided. Without all of you, I wouldn’t have been able to get through this.. These past few years have truly been an adventure, and without these experiences I would not be where and who I am today. Here is to the next chapter and brand new challenges of the future.. Chia-Hui Ma Taipei, Taiwan 2017.

(4) MA ii. Abstract Farewell poetry plays an essential role in Chinese literature, and flourished during the Tang Dynasty (唐朝; 618-907 CE). Tang poets combined emotions with nature, creating the poetic beauty of farewell poems of this time. Among famous poets of the Tang dynasty, Wang Wei (王維; 692-761 or 699-759 CE) was best known for his ability of producing picturesque poems. More than one fifth of his poems still known today contained the theme of farewell. Wang Wei often used imagery to convey his ideas; such images include those of color, auditory, the seasons, animals, and plants. These images are combined to represent the emotions and sentiments of the poet and the atmosphere of the poem, which then fills the mind of the reader to recreate the scenario or sentiment the writer wished to convey.. Due to differences in culture and connotations, an image can be translated in many ways. Therefore, the selection of the translated word or sentence is very important in conveying the meaning and emotions of the original writer. Through the introduction of farewell poems, farewell imagery, and translation analysis of the five selected farewell poems by Wang Wei from the Three Hundred Tang Poems (〈送綦毋潛落第還鄉〉, 〈送元二使安西〉, 〈山中送別〉, 〈送別〉, and 〈送梓州李使君〉), this thesis hopes to aid translators tasked with the challenge of translating images in poetry, especially those with a farewell theme.. Keywords: Farewell Poetry, Wang Wei, Imagery.

(5) Ma iii. 中文摘要「送別詩」在中國文學中有著重要地位，且於唐朝（618－907 年）時期發展蓬勃。唐代詩人結合情感與大自然，造就唐代送別詩之詩意美。唐代著名詩人王維（692－761 年，一說 699－759 年）「詩中有畫，畫中有詩」，保留至今之詩作逾五分之一以上包含送別的主題。王維擅長使用「意象」表達情意，常用意象共可分為顏色、聲音、季節，動物和植物等五大類。不同類別意象之組合不僅可傳達詩人情感，更能夠刻畫並創造詩歌之氛圍。讀者透過閱讀，可從中體悟詩人欲傳達之情意與場景。. 由於文化和內涵之差異，中西文化對於「意象」的解讀略有不同。因此，譯者務必慎選翻譯時使用之單詞與字句，以便準確傳達詩人之原始情感。本文透過送別詩、送別意象，以《唐詩三百首》中，五首王維的送別詩（〈送綦毋潛落第還鄉〉、〈送元二使安西〉、〈山中送別〉、〈送別〉、〈送梓州李使君〉）為核心比較，並以三個英譯版本做論述，期盼能夠提供譯者進行送別詩意象翻譯之參考依據。. 關鍵詞：送別詩、王維、意象.

(6) MA iv. Contents Acknowledgements Abstract 中文摘要 Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Prologue 1.2 Purpose of This Study 1.3 Research Criteria 1.4 Structure of the Thesis Chapter 2 Farewell Poetry of Tang Dynasty and Wang Wei 2.1 Farewell Poetry before Tang Dynasty 2.2 Farewell Poetry of the High Tang Period 2.3 Life of Wang Wei 2.4 Wang Wei and Farewell Poetry Chapter 3 Imagery in Wang Wei’s Poetry 3.1 Introduction to Imagery in Chinese Literature 3.2 Imagery in Wang Wei’s Poetry 3.2.1 Color Imagery 3.2.2 Auditory Imagery 3.2.3 Season Imagery 3.2.4 Animal Imagery 3.2.5 Plant Imagery 3.3 Manipulations of Imagery 3.3.1 Metaphor 3.3.2 Imagination 3.3.3 Transference Chapter 4 Translation of Wang Wei and Farewell Imagery 4.1 Translation of Wang Wei 4.2 Translation of Farewell Imagery 4.2.1 Plant Farewell Imagery 4.2.2 Animal Farewell Imagery 4.2.3 Natural Farewell Imagery Chapter 5 Translation Analysis 5.1 The Three Translations 5.1.1 The Jade Mountain: A Chinese Anthology 5.1.2 300 Tang Poems: A New Translation 5.1.3 Poems by Wang Wei 5.2 Translation Analysis 5.2.1 〈送綦毋潛落第還鄉〉 and Three Translated Versions 5.2.2 〈送元二使安西〉 and Three Translated Versions 5.2.3 〈山中送別〉 and Three Translated Versions 5.2.4 〈送別〉 and Three Translated Versions 5.2.5 〈送梓州李使君〉 and Three Translated Versions Chapter 6 Conclusion 6.1 General Findings 6.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study Works Cited. i ii iii iv 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 11 15 19 19 21 22 26 30 33 36 39 39 40 40 43 43 44 46 47 47 49 49 49 51 52 54 54 68 75 82 92 101 101 103 105.

(7) Ma v. Appendix Appendix 1 List of Poems by Wang Wei Appendix 2 Poems in Chinese 2.1 《詩經‧國風‧邶風‧燕燕》 2.2 《詩經‧國風‧秦風‧渭陽》 2.3 李陵〈別歌〉 2.4 曹植〈送應氏二首〉 2.5 應瑒〈別詩二首〉 2.6 陶淵明〈於王撫軍座送客〉 2.7 謝脁〈臨溪送別〉 2.8 王維〈哭孟浩然〉 2.9 王維〈凝碧詩〉 2.10 王維〈送沈子福歸江東〉 2.11 王維〈送張判官赴河西〉 2.12 王維〈送邢桂州〉 2.13 王維〈送楊少府貶郴州〉. 111 111 127 127 127 127 127 128 128 128 129 129 129 129 129 129.

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(9) Ma 1. Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Prologue Angus C. Graham states that “the element in poetry which travels best is of course concrete imagery” (13), and that imagery is “the essence of poetry” (15). According to Gary Palmer, culture and imagery are inseparable from each other (1), and imagery is structured by culture and the personal history of the poet (49). The long and rich development of the Chinese literary culture creates great difficulty when attempting to translate Chinese poetry and the images within. This study aims to examine English translations of imagery in Chinese farewell poetry, focusing mainly on the writings of prolific Tang poet Wang Wei.. Farewell poetry, which plays an essential role in Chinese literature, can be traced back to the Book of Songs (《詩經》)1. The farewell genre flourished during the Tang Dynasty (唐朝; 618-907 CE). Tang poets combined emotions with nature, which created the poetic beauty of farewell poems of this time. According to Zhang Lili2, while poets from previous dynasties portrayed mostly the emotions of sorrow, pain, and friendship, Tang poets included personal attitudes and opinions towards society and state (1). Cheng Fangwu states that a poem “is made of three components: content, emotion and form” (208). Zhu Hui3 claims that “images are selected through the poet’s aesthetic experience, then combined with the poet’s ideals and emotions, and. 1. “The Book of Songs was believed to have been compiled by Confucius himself, and was the first collection of Chinese poetry in Chinese literary history” (Qiu 2). According to Stephen Owen, the Book of Songs also laid the foundation for Chinese poetic traditions and prescribed poetry’s function as “a social act” (“An Anthology” 371). 2 Zhang, Lili. [張麗莉], 《帕爾默文化語言學視角下唐詩英譯意象轉換探析—以送別詩為例》. 遼寧師範大學, 2010. Print. 3 Zhou, Hui. [朱徽], 《中英詩藝比較研究》. 成都市: 四川大學出版社, 2010. Print..

(10) MA 2. expressed through the medium of language” (9)4, which corresponds with the notion by Palmer that imagery is structured by the personal history of the poet (49). Therefore, in order to convey these components through words, imagery often functions as a basic means for poets to express their experience, emotions, and ideals. Farewell poetry from the Tang dynasty was rich in images, such as the willow, wine, water, grass, sunset, clouds, and horses. Regarded as “the soul of poetry” by Arthur Waley (“A Hundred and Seventy” 33), images were used by poets to express their emotions when parting with friends or family members. When translating such elements, translators often need to devote much effort into recreating those sentiments in the target language correctly.. Among famous poets of the Tang dynasty, Wang Wei (王維; 692-761 or 699759 CE) is best known for his ability to produce picturesque poems. According to Shih Changtai5, amongst Wang’s poems that are still known today, more than one fifth of them contain the theme of farewell (259)6. Wang used few but concise words to convey his ideas, and utilized mostly simple items, plants, animals, or just a time during the year or day in his poems. These elements were written for specific reasons, as they were elements he used to create an image. These images represented his emotions or ideas at the time of the poem’s creation. The translation of imagery, which may seem simple in form but complex in nature, can be difficult for translators to process and find suitable translations.. 1.2 Purpose of This Study The translation of poetry from one language to another has always posed a challenge for translators throughout the ages. According to Bai Hongai, “Chinese poetry has the characteristics of universality, impersonality, absence of time, and absence of subject, which create ambiguity (58). Stephen Owen also states that “Chinese poetry uses fewer words than English poetry. One inevitable result is that in a line of Chinese, there are fewer determinations of the relations between words.” 4. “意象是經過詩人審美經驗的篩選，再融入詩人的思想感情、用語言媒介表現出來的物象。” (H. Zhu 9). 5 Shih, Changtai. [師長泰], 〈論王維的送別詩〉. 《王維研究》. Vol. 1: 中國工人出版社, 1992. 259-73. Print. 6 See appendix 1 for list of Wang Wei’s Poems..

(11) Ma 3. (“Traditional Chinese” 213). Combining the above statements with Herbert Giles’ observation that “brevity is the soul of a Chinese poem” (145), it is apparent that imagery can be difficult to decipher and translate. One simple Chinese character or a combination of words may be interpreted into a longer English sentence. A sentence in classical Chinese poetry may seem short in length, but it still contains complete sentiments and scenarios, thus Burton Watson writes the sentence in Chinese poetry consists of “a series of compact utterance or images” (9). Although succinct, these words often come together to create an “imagery”. This imagery fills the mind of the reader and recreates the scenario or sentiment the writer conveyed.. An image can be translated in many ways. One image could be a combination of multiple images; it could stand on its own, or correspond with images from other lines. Therefore, the selection of the translated word or sentence becomes very important in conveying the meaning and emotions of the original writer. In order to aid translators tasked with the challenge of translating images in poetry, especially those with a farewell theme, this study will examine basic characteristics of farewell poetry, images that often appear in Wang Wei’s poems. It will also provide an analysis of translated farewell poems of Wang Wei, in hopes of providing reference and helpful suggestions.. 1.3 Research Criteria For the purpose of exploring the translations of imagery within poems with the theme of farewell by Wang Wei, the Chinese source materials have been narrowed down to farewell poems written by Wang Wei that were included in the Three Hundred Tang Poems (《唐詩三百首》). The Three Hundred Tang Poems7 is an anthology of poems from the Tang Dynasty, first compiled around 1763 CE by Sun Zhu (孫洙; 1711-1778 CE), a Qing Dynasty (清朝) scholar. The first complete 7. The Three Hundred Tang Poems contained 310 poems by 77 Tang poets, arranged by subdivision of the form, including ancient verses of five or seven characters, quatrains of five or seven characters and folk songs. This anthology has remained the most popular anthology of Tang poetry and a great source of material for gaining preliminary conception of ancient Chinese literature (Mei, Zhang 755)..

(12) MA 4. translation of the Three Hundred Tang Poems into English was published as The Jade Mountain, translated by Witter Bynner (1881-1968 CE) and Kiang Kang-hu (江亢虎; 1883-1954 CE).. Among poems written by Wang Wei that were included in the Three Hundred Tang Poems, the following five poems with a farewell theme were selected for comparison: 〈送綦毋潛落第還鄉〉, 〈送元二使安西〉, 〈山中送別〉, 〈送別〉, and 〈送梓州李使君〉. The producers of the English translations are Witter Bynner (The Jade Mountain: A Chinese Anthology), Xu Yuanzhong, Loh Beiyei, and Wu Juntao (300 Tang Poems: A New Translation), and Chang Yin-nan and Lewis C. Walmsley (Poems by Wang Wei). For each of the selected poems, three translated versions are examined in order to compare different possible methods and results in translation. This study will conduct an analysis of the Chinese poems and of the English translations. This process will involve a preliminary introduction and exegesis of the Chinese text, an analysis of imagery components of the Chinese text, and individual comparison of the Chinese text to the English translations. In order to aid readers unfamiliar with Chinese to have a better understanding of the poems, this thesis will provide a word-for-word English translation of each Chinese character according to the content of the poems.. 1.4 Structure of the Thesis This thesis is divided into six chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction; it includes the thesis statement, research criteria, and an outline of the entire thesis. Chapter two explores farewell poetry in Chinese literature, farewell poetry of the High Tang period (712-775 CE), the Tang poet Wang Wei, and farewell poetry of Wang Wei. Chapter three begins with a brief introduction of imagery in Chinese literature, followed by an introduction to images that often appear in Wang Wei’s poems. Chapter four contains a brief history of the translation of Wang Wei in western literature, and the translation of farewell imagery in Chinese poetry. Chapter five contains a brief introduction to the three translators, followed by an analysis of the five selected poems and their English translations. Chapter six makes a summary of findings from chapter five, concluding with suggestions for future studies..

(13) Ma 5. Chapter 2 Farewell Poetry of Tang Dynasty and Wang Wei Stephen Owen describes parting as “one of the most important social situations for which poetry was composed” (“An Anthology” 374). Farewell poems were often “exchanged among friends at times of parting” (Watson 3), and are a form of selfexpression. In Chinese literature, the occurrence of farewell poetry can be attributed to its cultural background, geographical characteristics, and the conditions of life in ancient China. While discussing the emotional effects of parting on the ancient Chinese people, Cheng Nahsin8 describes the size of the continent of China as being considerably large, noting that horses and boats were the main means of transportation. Cheng states that although horses are relatively fast, there are terrains they cannot traverse. Rest and food are also needed by horses every so often. Boats sail on seas, and the safety of the trip depended on the waters and weather, which were unpredictable. In addition, the chances of confronting pirates were also high (N.H. Cheng 78). Due to the inconveniences and dangers in transportation, travelling from one location to another could take days, weeks, months, even years, lengthening the time between meetings and allotting time for unpredictable incidents. Emotional factors can also have an impact. Cheng further explains that since China was a farming society, the ability to “settle down” on a piece of land was very important (79). The prospect of uprooting or relocating was intimidating to Chinese people in the past, and perhaps even in the present. Although the prospect of relocating was disfavored, there are still reasons for the occurrence of separation. According to Feng Huazhan9, there were three main reasons: attending a government post, demotion, and enlisting in the army (50-51). Separation is an emotional event, and can be summarized by a rhapsody of late Southern dynasty scholar Jiang Yan (江淹; 444-505 CE) where, “Of the things that bring gloom and dissolve the soul, [n]othing can match separation”10 (Xiao 201, trs. Knechtges). 8. Cheng, Nahsin. [鄭納新], 〈送別詩略論〉. 《學術論壇》.3 (1997): 78-82. Print. Feng, Huazhan. [豐華瞻], 《中西詩歌比較》. 北京: 三聯, 1987. Print. 10 “黯然銷魂者，唯別而已矣！”. This poem is from Jiang Yan’s Rhapsody on Separation (〈別賦〉), which was included in the Sorrowful Laments section of the Wen Xuan (《文選‧哀傷》), which was compiled by Southern dynasty scholar Xiao Tong (蕭統; 501-531 CE). 9.

(14) MA 6. 2.1 Farewell Poetry before Tang Dynasty Farewell rituals were a part of ancient Chinese traditions, where a ceremony would be held to sacrifice to the God of the roads (Owen, “An Anthology” 375). According to Dai Yan11, these ceremonies that were typically held on the outskirts of town were to bless the traveler on their journey (147). Owen further states that “although partings often occurred under less formal conditions, in one standard pattern, the traveler’s friends accompanied him on the first stage of a journey, then held a banquet (sometimes staying overnight), after which came the parting” (“An Anthology” 374). During these exchanges, poems would be written and gifted to those departing. Stemming from this custom, the writing of farewell poems became a social tradition, and at earlier times was considered to have stemmed from etiquette rather than from sentiments.. Although not many farewell poems from ancient times survived, according to Tsai Linwan12, two poems, both of which are included in the Book of Songs, are considered to be the earliest of farewell poems (22-24). The Book of Songs is comprised of 305 works dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. According to Yeh Dangchien13, Yan Yan (〈燕燕〉)14 from the Odes of Bei (〈邶風〉) in the Airs of the States (〈國風〉), was considered to be the first farewell poetry by Qing scholar Wang Shizhen (王士禛; 1634-1711 CE), in his book, Talk on Fengan (《分甘餘話》)15. The content of Yan Yan focused on the emotions of parting. It spoke of a monarch sending his daughter away to be wed, and used “swallow” as an imagery to convey and represent the emotions of the monarch. The emotion that was behind the poem was the reluctance to part with one another. The other first farewell poem was considered by another Qing scholar, Fang Yu-Run (方玉潤; 1811-1883) to be Wei Yang (〈渭陽〉)16 from the Odes of Qin (〈秦風〉). Wei Yang was written by Duke. 11. Dai, Yan. [戴燕], 〈祖餞詩的由來〉. 《南京師範大學文學院學報》.4 (2003): 144-53. Print. Tsai, Linwan. [蔡玲婉], 《盛唐送別詩研究》. 國立高雄師範大學, 2002. Print. 13 Yeh, Dangchien. [葉當前], 〈萬古送別詩之祖—《詩經‧邶風‧燕燕》賞析〉. 《文史知識》.10 (2010): 30-33. Print. 14 See appendix 2.1 for the poem in Chinese. 15 清王士禛《分甘餘話》卷 3 便說：”《燕燕》之詩，許彥周以為可泣鬼神。合本事觀之，家國興亡之感，傷逝懷舊之情，盡在阿堵中。黍離、麥秀未足喻其悲也，宜為萬古送別詩之祖。” (qtd. in D.C. Yeh 30) 16 See appendix 2.2 for the poem in Chinese. 12.

(15) Ma 7. Kang of Qin (康公; ruled from 620 BC-609 BC) in memory of his mother, and the poem was filled with the sadness of losing her (to death). However, Huang Qianzu17 claims that “it cannot be determined which came first, Yan Yan or Wei Yang (42). What can be determined and characterized, according to Tsai Linwan, are the overall “theme, style, and expression of farewell poetry presented in the Book of Songs“ (24).. The number of farewell poems continued to grow during the Han dynasty (漢朝; 206 BCE-220 CE) and Cao Wei (曹魏; 220-265 CE) from the Three Kingdoms period (三國; 220-280 CE), though not many pieces were preserved. One of the earliest farewell poems of the Han dynasty was Li Ling’s (李陵; d. 74 BCE) Song of Farewell (〈別歌〉)18, which was included in the Su Wu Biography (〈蘇武傳〉) of the Book of Han (《漢書》). Song of Farewell describes the events of parting between Su Wu and Li Ling. Su Wu was asked to return to Chang An (長安) by Emperor Wu of Han (漢武帝; 156-87 BCE). Before Su’s departure, the two men drank together and Su was gifted this poem by Li. The poem spoke mostly of Li's own encounters, and his lament of life in contrast with Su’s heroic return. According to Tsai Linwan (29-31), Cao Zhi’s (曹植; 192-232 CE) Two Poems of Seeing off Mr. Ying (〈送應氏二首〉)19 and Ying Yang’s (應瑒; d. 217 CE) Two Poems of Farewell (〈別詩二首〉)20 from the Cao Wei dynasty were classic examples of farewell poetry during the Cao Wei period. The Two Poems of Seeing off Mr. Ying were written by Cao Zhi to the brothers, Ying Chang (應場) and Ying Qu (應璩). The first poem of the Two Poems of Seeing off Mr. Ying described the scenery seen from Luoyang (洛陽), and the desolation caused by war and social chaos. The second of the Two Poems of Seeing off Mr. Ying describes how war and the deployment of troops prevented friends from keeping each other company for long. In 17. Huang, Qianzu. [黃千足], 《東坡送別詞意象探析》. 國立臺灣師範大學, 2008. Print. See appendix 2.3 for the poem in Chinese. 19 See appendix 2.4 for the poem in Chinese. 20 See appendix 2.5 for the poem in Chinese. 18.

(16) MA 8. Ying Yang’s Two Poems of Farewell, Ying used metaphors to express emotions. The poems utilize images such as clouds, the sunset, mountains, and rivers to signify a sense of unreturning, like the poet who has not returned home.. In earlier farewell poems, such as those that appeared in the Book of Songs, the title of the poems typically are named from the first two characters of the poem. Therefore, the title had little or nothing to do with the content, and the only way of determining whether if it was a farewell poem was from examining the content and historical background. According to Tsai Linwan, Two Poems of Seeing off Mr. Ying and Two Poems of Farewell were the first two farewell poems to have the words “send” (送) and “part” (別) in the title (2002:31). Tsai also summarized the finding of Hong Shunlong21 (L.W. Tsai 32-33), stating that during the Six dynasties (六朝; 222589 CE), there were three basic components in the titles of farewell poems: Zhu (祖, ancestor), Chien (餞, farewell banquet), and Bie (別, to part). Zhu are farewell poems that focused on worshiping ancestors and deities in order to bless the departing. The title of these poems contained keywords such as Zhu Dao (祖道, ancestor road or way) and Zhu (祖). Chien are poems that focused on the parting banquet that was held for the departing. The title of these poems contained keywords such as Hui (會, gather or meeting), Chi (集, gather) and Chien (餞). Bie are farewell events that only focused the event of parting. The title of these poems contained keywords such as Sung (送, to send), Sung Bie (送別, send off), Sung…Bie (送...別, to send …off), Li (離, to leave), and Bie (別, to part). There are also titles with a combination of the three. Zhu Chien (祖餞) is a combination of worshipping and banquets, with titles such as Zhu Hui (祖會) and Zhu Chien (祖餞). Chien Bie (餞別) is a combination of banquets and the parting event, with titles such as Chien Bie (餞別), Chien…Li (餞...離), Chi Bie (集別), and Sung…Chien (送...餞). There are also poems that do not contain any of the above mentioned keywords, and need to be categorized according to the content.. The number of farewell poems grew during the Six dynasties. During the Jin dynasty (晉朝; 265-420 CE), poets continued to produce farewell poems, some of. 21. Hong, Shunlong. [洪順隆], 《論六朝祖餞詩群對文學原理的背離》. 1996. Print..

(17) Ma 9. which were written at imperial command (應制詩). Compared to farewell poems that were written purely out of sentiment, poems written at imperial command were a display of the poet’s emotions but mainly served social purposes (L.W. Tsai 35-36). The main theme of poems written at imperial demand was to celebrate the departing ones’ merits and the grand occasion of the parting banquet. These poems were gifted most often to kings and noblemen. The poem would typically begin with praise for the imperial court, followed by celebration of the political achievements and character of the departing, and reasons for their departure and the scene of the parting banquet, ending with the poet’s reluctance to part with the departing. Near the end of East Jin dynasty (東晉; 317-420 CE) dynasty, Tao Yuanming (陶淵明; 365-427 CE) used scenery and animals to portray and contrast the emotions of parting. In Seeing Guests Off at Governor Wang's (〈於王撫軍座送客〉)22, for example, the first eight lines describe the autumn scenery in order to represent the traveler’s emotions and the reluctance of parting.. During the Northern and Southern dynasties (南北朝; 420-589 CE), poets focused more on the emotions in the poems, and utilized scenery to convey sentiments, such as those written by Xie Tiao (謝脁; 464-499 CE) (L.W. Tsai 38-39). For example, in his Farewell by the Creek (〈臨溪送別〉)23, Xie portrayed the traveler’s emotions while traveling down the creek with desolated scenery around him. Aside from the use of scenery to convey emotions, more farewell poems were written for non-social purposes during the Six Dynasties. In the Southern Qi (齊; 479-502 CE) and Liang dynasties (梁; 502-557 CE), due to the growing popularity of mountain and stream poetry (山水詩), or landscape poetry, an increasing number of poets began to incorporate scenery into their farewell poems (L.W. Tsai 40), prompting this element to become an important focal point. However, the tone of the poems was still melancholy. This characteristic could be due to the inconvenience in travel and communication, constant changes in dynasties and ruler, and the feeling of lament 22 23. See appendix 2.6 for the poem in Chinese. See appendix 2.7 for the poem in Chinese..

(18) MA 10. caused by parting.. 2.2 Farewell Poetry of the High Tang Period The early Tang period (618-712 CE) was a relatively peaceful era compared to the turbulence of the previous dynasties, and the need for farewell poetry was low. Court literature (宮廷文學) blossomed during this time, and farewell poems were typically written from one court official to another (L.W. Tsai 87). Near the end of early Tang, due to the ruler’s emphasis on poetry writing and the increasing number of commoners becoming court officials, the number of farewell poems increased. Due to the poems being exchanged between court officials, a structure was typically followed while writing these farewell poems. In this structure there is a top, middle, and end section. The top section states the reasons for parting, the middle section illustrates scenery related to parting or predictions for the future, and the end section closes with the poet’s emotions or blessings for the departing (L.W. Tsai 47).. The High Tang period (712-775 CE) was a time when the poetic tradition was most celebrated. According to Lin Yichun24, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (唐玄宗; 685-762 CE) also wrote farewell poems and created the trend (10). Therefore, from the court’s emphasis on the writing of poetry, to the increase in numbers of poets, various poetic genres blossomed during this time. Farewell poetry was amongst the blossoming genres. Whether due to deployment with troops, dispatch for office, or demotion and dismissal, farewell poetry during the High Tang period focused on the emotions of parting. In order to set the tone and atmosphere, poets would often incorporate scenery from their travels and items from the parting banquet into their farewell poems. The location of the parting event was also often included to convey the historical connotations and allusions of these geographic locations. Wang Yachun25 states that in addition to the integration of emotions into scenery and utilizing scenery to express emotions, the aesthetic beauty of farewell poetry during the high Tang period is another important attribute that sets it apart (65). 24. Lin, Yichun. [林怡君], 《韓愈送別文學研究》. 國立中正大學, 2005. Print. Wang, Yachun. [汪亞君], 〈略論唐代送別詩的抒情藝術〉. 《安徽教育學院學報》 19.2 (2001): 64-66. Print. 25.

(19) Ma 11. Tsai Linwan (343-351) writes that from an internal perspective, farewell poetry of the High Tang period reflects the personal style of the poet. From a language perspective, the connotations and spirits within farewell poems reflect the integrity and moral of the period. Finally, from an emotional perspective, the farewell poetry of this period conveys the abundance of emotions poets had towards friends and colleagues through simple yet realistic style of writing. Through the device of poetry, Tang poets expressed the beauty of humanity, beauty of character, and the beauty of scenery (L.W. Tsai 27-41).. 2.3 Life of Wang Wei Wang Wei, painter, musician, writer, was one of the leading poets of the High Tang period (Watson 197). Thomas Yuntong Luk states that there are two recorded dates of his birth: according to the Old Book of Tang (《舊唐書》; or the Book of Tang, Old Tang History), Wang was born in 699 CE; however, according to the New Book of Tang (《新唐書》; or the New History of the Tang, New Tang History), his birth year was 701 CE (Luk 1). The year of his death is also undetermined, with Pauline Yu stating that “the Old Tang History says he died during the second year of the Chienyuan (乾元26) reign period (759 CE), the New Tang History places his death during the first year of the Shanyuan (上元27) reign period (760 CE)” (“The World” 50). Despite controversies over the year of his birth and death, all sources agree that Wang Wei was born to a respectable family in the Qixian County of Shanxi province (山西祁縣). His father was a local official and “his mother member of a family of distinguished litterateurs” (Robinson 13). Wang Wei was the eldest of five brothers, and began writing poetry at the age of nine, and produced eight poems between the ages of 15 to 19 (Walmsley, “Poems” 24).. 26. Chienyuan was the era name of the Emperor Suzong of Tang, specifically from February of 758 to April of 760. 27 Shanyuan was also the era name of the Emperor Suzong of Tang, specifically from April of 760 to September of 761..

(20) MA 12. Wang Wei set off for the imperial capital at the age of 19 to take part in the Imperial Examination (京試)28. He passed the examination with the First Class Award, Zhuangyuan (狀元), at the age of 21 (Walmsley, “Poems” 25), which began his civil service career. At the age of 23, he was appointed by the Court as the Assistant Secretary for Music (太樂丞) (Robinson 14). However, he was demoted due to a breach in etiquette and sent to resume the position of Keeper of Granary (司倉參軍) in the small city of Chizhou in Shantung province (山東省濟州) (Walmsley, “Poems” 26). This demotion was only a minor setback to his career and allowed him to travel out of the capital.. His wife passed away when he was 31, and he never remarried. After a period of solitude due to this loss, Wang continued his public service (Robinson 14). At the age of 33, Wang again entered the public service due to “the personal intervention” of his friend Zhang Jiuling29 (張九齡) and was appointed Commissioner of the Right in the Government Department of the Secretariat (在東都任右拾遺) (Walmsley, “Wang Wei” 60). Three years later, Wang was promoted to the position of Censor of Inspection (監察御史) in the Censorate (御史台 ) for Ho Hsi (河西), the present province of Kansu (江蘇) (Walmsley, “Wang Wei” 61). Wang Wei had the opportunity to travel quite often during this post to the borders where Chinese and foreigners met (Walmsley, “Wang Wei” 61-62). Wang Wei later returned to Changan (capital of the Tang dynasty), and became friends with another great poet of the time, Meng Haoran (孟浩然; 691-740 CE)30. Later, while Wang was not attending any official post, he took the opportunity to explore the countryside to the south of the capital. First, he stayed in the Zhongnan Mountains (終南山), then later in the Lantian (藍田) area of the Zhongnan Mountains. According to Yoo Sungjoon 31, this was the place where he made friends with Pei Di (裴迪; ?-?), with whom Wang has written many exchanges in dialogic poems. (16) 28. The Imperial Examination was a civil service examination system in Imperial China to select candidates for the state bureaucracy. 29 According to Chang Yin-nan and Lewis C. Walmsley, Zhang Jiuling, was a prominent governmental minister, poet, and literary scholar, Zhang was made prime minister by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Chinese: 唐玄宗) (“Poems” 60). 30 Meng Haoran had traveled to the capital to take part in the Imperial Examination. 31 Yoo, Sungjoon. [柳晟俊], 《王維詩研究》. 台北市: 黎明文化事業股份有限公司, 1987. Print..

(21) Ma 13. From 740 to741 CE, Wang resumed his governmental career, which meant traveling through Xiangyang (襄陽) to conduct examinations to local students. During one of these travels, he visited Meng Haoran’s grave and delivered the poem Mourning Meng Haoran (〈哭孟浩然〉)32. Barnstone describes the poem as “a quest for the meaning of his friend’s death, who now is nowhere. The river flows, time flows, but not the life time of his friend” (Barnstone, Barnstone, and Xu xxxvi). One year later, Wang resumed the position of Zuo Bujue (左補闕), a low-level advisory official at the examination bureau of government at Menxia Province (門下省). Wang was later promoted by Pei Yaoqing (裴耀卿; 681-743 CE), whom he had met during his time in Chizhou, to the position of Kubu Langzhong (庫部郎中), a supervisorial official at the ministry of defense (兵部) (S.J. Yoo 15).. In his early 40’s, Wang Wei acquired an estate in Lantian33, known as Wang Chuan (輞川). By 750 CE, although he was still in office, Wang escaped as often as he could from political pressure to his Lantian estate. While there, Wang devoted most of his time to writing poetry and painting. His mother passed away when he was 50 years old, and Wang spent three years mourning her death at this location, away from his official post. After this mourning period Wang resumed his official duties.. The events of the An-Shi rebellion (安史之亂) began in 755 CE. In 756 CE, Wang Wei was residing in the capital of Changan, where he was captured by the rebels when they took the city of Luoyang (洛陽). Wang Wei was unable to escape to Sichuan (四川) with Emperor Xuanzong (唐宣宗) and Xuanzong’s court due to dysentery. Wang was taken by the rebels to Luoyang, where they sought his collaboration. Wang tried his best at resisting the rebels. However, he was “given a position in the rebel government” (Barnstone, Barnstone, and Xu xxxvii), which kept. 32 33. See appendix 2.8 for the poem in Chinese. This estate was formerly owned by poet Song Zhiwen (宋之問)..

(22) MA 14. him in court though “he had no intention of debasing his literary talents in favor of the rebellion” (Walmsley, ”Wang Wei” 70). A year later, the rebels were defeated, and Wang Wei was deemed a traitor for serving the rebels. In 757 CE, with the ascendency of Suzong (肅宗; 711-762 CE), Wang Wei was arrested and imprisoned for being a suspected traitor. The charges were eventually dropped due to two reasons: the intercession of his brother, Wang Jin (王縉, 700-781 CE), and a poem Wang Wei wrote in protest against An’s usurpation, the Song of Crystalline Blue (〈凝碧詩〉)34.. After his exoneration, Wang was first promoted by the Emperor Suzong of Tang (唐肅宗) to the Office of Instructor of the Heir Apparent (太子中充), in the court of the crown prince, then he was promoted to Grand Secretary, the secretarial position of Jishizhong (給事中). The following year he became the Deputy Prime Minister of the Executive Branch of the Administration (尚書右丞), a position next to that of Prime Minister (Walmsley, “Wang Wei” 71-72). The abovementioned governmental positions were in the city of Changan, which were not far from his private estate at Lantian where he often visited. During this time, Wang Wei continued the artistic endeavors of writing poetry and painting. Before his death at the age of 60, Wang Wei wrote several letters to his brother and his friends. He was later buried at his Lantian estate.. His literary works were collected by his brother, Wang Jin, under orders of Emperor Daizong (唐代宗; 726-779 CE). Wang Jin was able to collect about 70 percent of the manuscripts, amounting to about four hundred poems, to present to the Emperor. Unfortunately, the rest of the hand-written copies were lost (Walmsley, “Wang Wei” 73). Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang describe Wang Wei as “the classical ideal of the cultured scholar-official” adding that “[t]he majority of his poems was about nature and written in a restrained, exquisite and deeply symbolic style” (7). One common quote about Wang’s work from Su-Shi, where there was a picture in his poems and a poem in his pictures35, is an accurate description of the way in which Wang Wei 34 35. See appendix 2.9 for the poem in Chinese. After appreciating one of Wang Wei’s painting (藍關煙雨圖), Shu shi commented that the works of.

(23) Ma 15. identified poetry and painting, the two major efforts of his life (S.Y. Chen 240).. 2.4 Wang Wei and Farewell Poetry As a prolific poet of the Tang dynasty, the theme of farewell is quite prominent in Wang Wei’s poems. According to Zhao Diancheng36 in Wang Youcheng Ji Jian Zhu (《王右丞集箋注》), roughly 70 of the 420 extant poems of Wang Wei have the theme of farewell (C.T. Shih 259)37. In his introduction, Zhao states that the farewell poems of Wang Wei’s are “elegant with minimal signs of grievance or gripe”38 (D.C. Zhao 1). This description is one of many reasons why Wang’s farewell poems are highly regarded. Wang Wei was also a great poet of the Shanshui (or landscape) genre, which began with the work of Tao Yuanming (Hinton, “The Selected Poems” xvi). The characteristics of this genre can be seen in Wang’s farewell poems as well, where his emotions were integrated into the scenery to enhance the atmosphere of the poem. While discussing the poetic styles of Wang Wei, Wang Tingting states that “landscape is everything, and nature contains everything, including the poet, who is often simply an entranced, silent watcher” (11). The characteristics of Wang Wei’s farewell poems are his use of nature and the expression of emotions. The emotions of Wang’s farewell poems emphasize those felt at the event of the parting. Wang also used nature and the scenery around him to reflect his emotions. In Wang’s early years, he thought that achievements in the imperial court were of utmost importance. In his late years, when he was more connected to nature, his mind and horizons broadened. By this time, the center of his farewell poems was mostly that of the Confucian ideals, where a man’s morals are as important as his achievements. Therefore, Wang’s farewell poems became rich in. Wang Wei was" a poem with pictures in it " and " a picture with poems in it" (味摩詰之詩，詩中有畫，觀摩詰之畫，畫中有詩). 36 Zhao, Diancheng. [趙殿成], 《王右丞集箋注》. 上海: 上海古籍出版社, 1998. Print. 37 Number of poems was provided by C. T. Shih; for list of poems by Wang Wei and those with a farewell theme see appendix 1. 38 “即有送人遠適之篇，懷古悲歌之作，亦復渾厚大雅，怨尤不露。” (D.C. Zhao 1).

(24) MA 16. elegance and integrity.. As mentioned before, the emotions of his farewell poems were often integrated with the scenery around him. The language he used was simple, but was brimming with emotions. In his farewell poems, Wang does not use complicated words or sentence structure. He uses common imagery to form the scene and to convey his emotions. Wang had two ways of expressing emotions. One was direct expression, allowing the reader to understand his thoughts without too much guesswork. The other was utilizing scenery to express his feelings, which he often used imagery to achieve this effect. In Sending Shen Zifu back to Jiangdong (〈送沈子福歸江東〉)39, Wang used the imagery of “willow” (楊柳) in the opening of the poem, and “springtime” (春色) to finish setting up the scene in the last line. He connected springtime to the emotions of “longing” (相思), where during the scene of the poem, springtime was all around and following Shen all the way back to his native land. Shih Changtai divides the main themes of Wang’s farewell poems into three major categories: sending someone off to a military or government post; comforting someone who has failed the Imperial Examination or been demoted; and sending a friend off into retreat (260). According to Zhao Li40, the number of Wang Wei’s poems with the theme of sending someone off to a military or to post is around 30 pieces, comforting those who have failed the Imperial Examination or have been demoted around 10, and sending someone off into retreat at around 20. There are also around 10 pieces of miscellaneous farewell poems written to family, Taoist priests, teacher of Wang’s, and foreign friends (L. Zhao 66). In Wang Wei’s poems with the theme of sending someone off to the military or to the borders, the tone is typically grand, optimistic, and hopeful. For example, in Sending Judge Zhang off to Ho Xi (〈送張判官赴河西〉)41, the first two lines describe the poet himself who has been to the borders with a single hope of serving his country, which serves as an encouragement to judge Zhang. The second line is a. 39. See appendix 2.10 for the poem in Chinese. Zhao, Li. [趙莉], 〈王維送別詩略論〉. 《和田師範專科學校學報》 28.1 (2009). Print. 41 See appendix 2.11 for the poem in Chinese. 40.

(25) Ma 17. remembrance of great generals by the borders. The elements of “flat sand” (沙平), “white snow” (白雪), “horseweed” (蓬), and “yellow clouds” (黃雲) are imagery that are associated with the borders, and a representation of the grand landscape of the surroundings creating a sense of openness (L. Zhao 66). The final line is the sentiment displayed for the departing, where the poet describes himself as a warrior wielding the sword, and singing loudly to send off his friend (C.T. Shih 260).. In his farewell poems to those resuming a governmental position, the central tone is typically that of expectation. For example, in Sending a Friend to Xin Guei Province (〈送邢桂州〉)42, it begins with the imaginary scenery of the friend’s trip and ends with the poet’s encouragements. The poem begins with a sound imagery, “cymbals” (鐃吹), which is an instrumental imagery, most often used in military music. The cymbals are played during the parting event of the friend, and thus his journey begins. The poet writes of the friend journey sailing (風波) down from the pier of Jin Ko (京口) pass Dongting (洞庭), finally arriving at Chian (赤岸). The imagery of the “sunset” (日落) and the “coming tide” (潮來), combined with the “green of the sky and land” (天地青), creates a magnificent landscape up on which the friend travels. In the final line, the poet uses allusions to encourage the friend to be an upright government official (C.T. Shih 262). Wang’s poems written for those who have failed exams or been demoted were often combined with poems of seeing a friend off into retreat. In these poems Wang Wei would express how, like the friend, his ideals were not being fulfilled. The tone of these poems focused often on encouragement and slight envy for the life of leisure in retreat. For example, Sending Qiwu Qian off to His Native Land after Failure in the Examination (〈送綦毋潛落第還鄉〉)43 was a poem for sending off a friend who has failed the Imperial Examination into retreat/native land. During his reign, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (唐玄宗) wished to have many capable court officials. 42 43. See appendix 2.12 for the poem in Chinese. See section 5.2.1 for the poem in Chinese..

(26) MA 18. However, due to the vast number of talented participants, there were some who were capable but failed to pass the imperial examination. This can be seen in the first two lines, where Wang Wei described the fluctuation of gifted individuals of the period. The first attempt at comforting Qi can be seen in the third and fourth line, where Wang Wei described the journey Qi took to get to where he is right now. In the fifth and sixth line, Wang describes the occasion and location of the parting. In the final two lines, Wang describes Qi’s journey back into retreat/his native land, and also attempts to encourage Qi again by saying that it was just not his time.44. Sending Official Yang off who has been Demoted to Chenzhou (〈送楊少府貶郴州〉)45 is an example of Wang’s poems for a friend who has been demoted. The poem opens with the imaginary journey of official Yang, and the sound imagery of the “ape” (猿聲) is an indication of the sadness of parting. The next two lines continue with Yang’s journey to Chenzhou. In the final line, Wang used the allusion of Jia Yi (賈誼), and as Zhao Li pointed out, the allusion of Jia Yi is typically associated with negative connotations. Wang Wei transformed the negative connotations into encouragement. Wang Wei suggests that Yang’s many talents will not be overlooked for long by the imperial court (L. Zhao 66).. Although Wang Wei has written farewell poems that served social purposes or at imperial command, according to Shih Changtai, the numbers are few. The farewell poems of Wang Wei reflect the historic beauty of High Tang period, which nurtured the authentic and sincere relationship between people. Wang does not abandon a friend due to demotion or failure. It is from his emotions and respect for his friends that he writes and connects with colleagues and friends (C.T. Shih 264). Furthermore, the aesthetic beauty of Wang Wei’s farewell poems is summarized by Liu Yan46: the techniques of elongating time, conversion of space, use of imagery, and integration of emotions into scenery (75). The beauty of nature and the use of natural images are most prominent in Wang Wei’s poems.. 44. Further analysis of this poem and the imagery within will be discussed in chapter four. See appendix 2.13 for the poem in Chinese. 46 Liu, Yan. [劉燕], 〈含蓄蘊藉道別離—試論王維送別詩藝術特色〉. 《內蒙古民族大學學報》 27.3 (2001): 73-75. Print. 45.

(27) Ma 19. Chapter 3 Imagery in Wang Wei’s Poetry 3.1 Introduction to Imagery in Chinese Literature The word “imagery” in Chinese is composed of two characters, “yi” (意) and “xiang” (象). According to the Book of Songs, yi has similar connotations with “meaning”, “concept”, or “idea”. Stephen Owen describes “concept” as something which can be grasped by the human mind; therefore, it is closer to “what is meant” than “meaning” (“Chinese Literary Theory” 31). According to the Book of Changes (《易經》),the definition of xiang, or “image” is as follows:. The Sages established the Images (象) [of the Book of Change] to give the fullness of the concepts in their minds, and they set up the hexagrams to give the fullness of what is true and false in a situation (情); to these they appended statements (辭) to give the fullness of what was said...47 (trs. Owen, “Chinese Literary Theory” 30-31). During the Cao Wei dynasty, the philosopher Wang Bi (王弼; 226-249 CE) elaborated on the connections between yi (concept), xiang (image), and yen (言; language) in the Elucidation of the Image (〈明象〉):. …“Image” is what brings out concept; language is what classifies the Image. Nothing can equal image in giving the fullness of concept; nothing can equal language in giving the fullness of image. Language was born of the Image, thus we seek in language in order to observe the Image. Image was born of concept, thus we seek in Image to observe concept. Concept is 47. “聖人立象以盡意，設卦以盡情偽，繫辭焉以盡其言。變而通之以盡利，鼓之舞之以盡神。” (qtd. in Q.Z. Wu 1). This quote is from the Appended Remarks (〈繫辭〉) in the Book of Change, and was allegedly written by Confucius (孔子; 551-479 BC)..

(28) MA 20. fully given in Image; Image is overt in Language.48 (trs. Owen, “Chinese Literary Theory” 32-33).. The characters yi and xiang were first combined into one word in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (《文心雕龍‧神思篇》), where the aesthetics of “yi xiang” (imagery) was discussed. The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons was written by Liu Xie (劉勰; 465 CE-?), one of the most influential literary critics in Chinese history. Liu stated that imagery does not represent what is seen, but rather the image in the poet’s mind. Poets would absorb the visual and auditory sensations around them, depict the atmosphere or paint the appearance of things according to their changing aspects, and express their perceptions with linguistic and tonal patterns (X. Liu 477-479)49.Tang poet Wang Changling (王昌齡; 698-756 CE) proposed in his Principles of Poetry (《詩格》) that poetry had “three realms” (三境): the realm of things (物境), the realm of emotions (情境), and the realm of idea (意境); no matter what form a poem assumes, there must be a harmonious interaction between the subjective mind and the objective reality. (qtd. in Tang 189). Sikong Tu (司空圖; 837-908 CE), poet and literary critic of the late Tang period, stated that the subjective emotions of the poet must be in harmony with the objective scenery (qtd. in Tang 189). The language used to portray the image must not overly extravagant, for that will distract the reader from appreciating the imagery; but it also must not be underwhelming, for the reader may not be able to experience the emotions50.. Externally, imagery is the outer appearance; internally, it is the emotion of the subject. One is the method, the other is the purpose. According to Yuan Xingpei51, yi and xiang are in convergence, as they are the subjective emotions of the poet and the objective form of the image52 (53). In other words, through the artistic conception of the poet, imagery refers to individual physical objects or beings that have acquired 48. “夫象者，出意者也。言者，明象者也。盡意莫若象，盡象莫若言。言生於象，故可尋言以觀象；象生於意，故可尋象以觀意。意以象盡，象以言著。” (《周易略例‧明象》). 49 “是以詩人感物，聯類不窮，流連萬象之際，沈吟視聽之區，寫氣圖貌，既隨物以宛轉，屬采附聲，亦與心而徘徊。”(劉勰《文心雕龍‧物色》). 50 “是有真跡，如不可知。意象欲出，造化已奇。水流花開，清露未晞。/ 要路愈遠，幽行為遲。語不欲犯，思不欲癡。猶春于綠，明月雪時。”(司空圖《詩品‧縝密》). 51 Yuan, Xingpei. [袁行霈], 〈中國古典詩歌的意象〉. 《中國詩歌藝術研究》. 北京: 北京大學出版社, 1996. Print. 52 “意象是融入了主觀情意的客觀物象，或者是藉助客觀物象表現出來的主觀情意。” (Yuan 53)..

(29) Ma 21. human sentiments to denote the poet’s feelings (Tang 195), from which readers may deduce the history, metaphor, and morality (W.X. Wang53 120).. 3.2 Imagery in Wang Wei’s Poetry Wang Wei was a famous poet and painter. G.W. Robinson described Wang’s style as “inwardly passionate” and “contemplative” (13). Su Shi (蘇軾, 1037-1101 CE), a great poet of the Song Dynasty (宋朝, 960-1279 CE), regarded the poetry of Wang Wei as "a poem with pictures in it " and " a picture with poems in it"54. As was mentioned in the previous chapter, Wang Wei was known for his works in the Shanshui poetry genre, the landscape school of poetry. In Wang’s works, instead of expositions, he often used imagery to portray and express emotions, the subject, or the purpose of the poem. Pauline Yu comments that “the poet can apparently transcend his personal concerns by objectifying them, discovering the external equivalents for his internal state of mind” (Yu, “The World of” 30). In other words, the use of imagery allowed Wang Wei to express himself objectively, and not draw attention to the existence of the poet but the emotions that generate from within the poet.. The use of imagery can liven up a poem, leave a lasting impression on the reader, and expand the connotations of a poem (H.Z. Feng 132-134). Pauline Yu describes the style of Wang Wei as “a style that attempts to efface the overt and commenting presence of the poetic subject to yield the initiative to objects.” (“The Reading of” 187). David Hinton states that Wang’s poems are “incredibly concise” and “often turn on the sparest of images” (“Classical Chinese Poetry” 157). Hinton also states that the essence of Wang Wei’s poetry was having the ability to “capture a kind of inexpressible inner dimension” and develop a “tranquil landscape poem in which the poem goes far beyond the words on the page” (“The Selected Poems” xiii).. 53. Wang, Wanxiang. [王萬象], 〈余寶琳得中西詩學意象論〉. 《第三屆中國文哲之當代詮釋學術研討會會前論文集》 (2007): 95-136. Print. 54 “味摩詰之詩，詩中有畫，觀摩詰之畫，畫中有詩。” (《東坡題跋·書摩詰〈藍關煙雨圖〉》)..

(30) MA 22. While discussing the imagery of Wang Wei, Wu Qizhen55 categorizes Wang’s imagery into the following: color imagery, auditory imagery, seasonal imagery, animal imagery, and plant imagery (27-28, 68-399). For the purpose of examining images within Wang Wei’s poetry, this chapter will discuss Wang’s images according to the above categories.. 3.2.1 Color Imagery Color is of the visual senses. Although people may comprehend colors differently, it is overall an intuitive sense. The color of plants can represent the change in seasons, and the color of the sky can represent different weather or time of day. Seeing color is an intuitive act. In poetry, color can set the tone or atmosphere. Therefore, a poet must choose wisely when incorporating colors in poetry. Mentally, color imagery is of transference nature, where the poet will connect a color to an emotion. In literature, colors are able to evoke emotions, but which emotions are evoked will depend on the receptor’s experience. Huang Yongwu56 provides a few examples of the connection between color and emotion:. the emotions and association that colors bring to people has been categorized by many as chromatist and esthetician. Shades of red emit the feeling of blood, fire, warmth, passion, happiness, outgoing, heat, excitement, and thrill. It symbolizes celebration, progression, bravery, activeness, love, prestige, fortune, danger, and alert. A darker red can represent irascibility or catastrophe, while pink symbolizes health and love. Shades of yellow emit the feeling of sunlight, warmth, lively, smoothness, luxury, and seduction. It symbolizes light, fortune, prestige, ideals, and many more. A lighter shade of yellow can mean weakness, peace, honest, lasting, knowledge, pride, and mercy57 (23).. 55. Wu, Qizhen. [吳啓禎], 《王維詩的意象》. 台北市: 文津出版社有限公司, 2008. Print. Huang, Yongwu. [黃永武], 《詩與美》. 4th ed. 台北市: 洪範書店有限公司, 1984. Print. 57 “每種色彩給予人類的感覺和象徵，色彩學家與美學家已歸納得很細微、很具體，例如紅色系給人的感覺是血、火、溫暖、熱情、歡快、活潑、酷熱、刺激、興奮，而其象徵著喜慶、進步、勇敢、積極、博愛、莊嚴、吉祥、危險、警覺。暗紅有暴躁、災害的意味，粉紅則象徵健康和愛情。黃色系給人的感覺是陽光、溫和、輕快、爽滑、華貴、誘惑，而其象徵著光明、幸運、 56.

(31) Ma 23. Due to the diverse connotations of color, the poet must use them wisely. Wang Wei will often pair colors to show contrast. Yoo Sungjoon states that “in Wang Wei’s early and middle years, he preferred using colors that were golden, rich, or extravagant; in his later years, Wang Wei preferred to colors that were seen in nature, such as blue, green, yellow, white, red, and most often used white and blue” (125126). According to Peng Zhengde58, in 133 of Wang’s poems, the color white appears 33 times, cyan 12 times, red 11 times, green 10 times, and yellow 6 times (qtd. in Q.Z. Wu 83-84). Wang Wei’s preference for using colors may be attributed to his other celebrated achievement, which was painting.. Color can reflect the characteristic or nature of the poet, both of which are affected by life experience. It is also a reflection of the poet’s mind, which can be affected by emotions, his state of mind, or the situations he finds himself in. Color can convey the beliefs of the poet, such as religion, or reflect the poet’s age. Lin Shuyao 59 states that color preference is connected to one’s personality and values; it can be affected by one’s age, education, social environment, ethnicity, weather, economic status, and profession (175). Wu Qizhen discovered that out of 425 pieces of poems by Wang Wei, the most frequently used are white (白) (26.9%), followed by blue (青) (25%), yellow (黃) (21.5%), red (紅) (13.5%), green (綠) (8.8%), purple (紫) (2.2%), and black (黑) (2%) (100).. According to Wu, the most common forms of white to appear in Wang Wei’s poems include: white (白), plain (素), snow (雪), frost (霜), bright (皓), and silver (銀) The most common words containing white are: white cloud (白雲), white sun (白日), and white hair (白髮、白首) (Wu, 2008:100). According to the content of the poem,. 莊嚴、理想、權威、和包羅萬有。淺黃表示柔弱、和平、誠實、永久、知識、光榮和慈悲。” (Y.W. Huang 23). 58 Peng, Zhengde. [彭政德], 《王維禪詩創作技巧與藝術風格之研究》. 玄奘人文社會學院, 2003. Print. 59 Lin, Shuyao. [林書堯], 《色彩認識論》. 4th ed. 台北市: 三民書局, 1983. Print..

(32) MA 24. white may represent a feeling of ease, for example in 天命無怨色，人生有素風。 (〈送綦毋秘書棄官還江東〉), there is a “plain color” (素色) in the subject’s life, suggesting a simple life. This is also seen in “新買雙溪何定似，餘生欲寄白雲中” (〈問寇校書雙溪〉), where the subject lives the rest of his life in “white cloud” (白雲), which is a life of ease and freedom. White imagery can also represent country life, such as “青菰臨水映，白鳥向山翻” (〈輞川閒居〉) and “屋上春鳩鳴，村邊杏花白” (〈春中田園作〉), where the “white bird” (白鳥) and “the white apricot flowers” (杏花白) are animals and plants seen in the countryside. However, white is also a sign of age progression, sadness, helplessness. In “白髮終難變，黃金不可成” (〈秋夜獨坐〉), the “white hair” (白髮) of the poet is a sign of old age and being unable to change the circumstances, similar to the “white hair” (白頭) in “鄙哉匹夫節，布褐將白頭” (〈獻始興公〉), creating a sense of helplessness. Finally, white imagery may also represent conquest, such as that in “白日為之寒，森深華陰城” (〈華岳〉) and “畫戟雕戈白日寒，連旗大旆黃塵沒” (〈燕支行〉), where both of the “white sun/day” (白日) creates a sense of barrenness, further enhancing the scene after or before a war.. The most common forms of blue to appear in Wang’s poetry include blue (藍), bluish-green (碧), cyan/green (青), purple (紫), and deep blue (蒼). In Wang Wei’s poems, blue is typically the descriptor of animals, plants, nature, or objects. Blue images are often presented as adjectives, describing the color, and will occasionally appear in the form of reiteration (疊字) for emphasis, such as “green green” (青青). According to the content of the poem, blue images may represent country life. For example, in “雀乳青苔井，雞鳴白板扉” (〈田家〉) and “谷靜秋泉響，巖深青靄殘” (〈東溪玩月〉), where the “green moss” (青苔) and “cyan haze” (青靄) combined with the rest of the images in the poems create a sense of leisure in the country. Blue imagery can also represent a sense of lament for self, such as that in “青雀翅羽短，未能遠食玉山禾” (〈青雀歌〉), where the “green sparrow” (青雀) has short wings and cannot fly high. It can also represent remembrance of a friend, where the grave of the subject has become “hills” (蒼嶺) in “古墓成蒼嶺，幽宮象紫台”.

(33) Ma 25. (〈過秦皇墓〉), and that the passing of a “green mule” is a sign of death in “尚憶青騾去，寧知白馬來” (〈哭褚司馬〉). Blue imagery can create a sense of loneliness and zen. For example, in “泉聲咽危石，日色冷青松” (〈過香積寺〉), the “green pines” (青松) are under a setting sun, creating a sense of solitude in the mountains.. Common forms of red to appear include red (紅, 丹, 赤),and vermilion (朱). Wang Wei’s use of red imagery is more commonly tied to nature, especially flowers, and is most often presented in contrast with blue and green. Red images are a sign of luxury, such as that in “群公朝謁罷，冠劍下丹墀” (〈送高道弟耽歸臨淮作〉) and “側聞城外游，解驂弁朱輪” (〈晦日游大理韋卿城南別業四首〉), where the “red steps” (丹墀) and “vermilion wheels” (朱輪) are items that the rich retains. It represents the pursuit of immortality, or the practice of alchemy. For example, in “未共銷丹日，還同照綺疏” (〈賦得清如玉壺冰〉) and “自有還丹術，時論太素初” (〈贈東岳焦煉師〉), the “丹” is not necessarily the color red, but the pill or tablet created to achieve immortality. Red imagery in Wang Wei’s poems can also represent seasons and expectations. The “red pomegranate” (紅榴) in “夕雨紅榴折，新秋綠芋肥” (〈田家〉) is a sign that it is the time when fruits ripen and are ready for reaping, which is similar to the “red fruit” (朱實) in “朱實山下開，清香寒更發” (〈山茱萸〉).. The most common forms of yellow images are yellow (黃) and gold (金). Wang Wei mostly associated yellow with objects, animals, and buildings. Yellow images represent the following according to the content. It can present a sense of luxury, such as the “golden tiger” (金虎) in “阡陌銅台下，閭閻金虎中” (〈送熊九赴任安陽〉) and the “golden gates” (金門) in “銀燭已成行，金門儼騶馭” (〈早朝〉). Yellow imagery combined with other images in the poems can also create a sense of conquest and sorrow. For example, in “笳悲馬嘶亂，爭渡金河水” (〈從軍行〉) the “golden river” (金河水) that the subject are fighting to cross combined with.

(34) MA 26. the disorderly sounds of the horse set the tone for the chaos of war. Yellow can also represent religion, where items offered to the gods are often painted gold or referred to being as the color gold. Such as the “golden sky” (金天) in “上帝佇昭告，金天思奉迎” (〈華嶽〉), and the “golden catalogue” (金籙) of the gods in “玉京移大像，金籙會群仙” (〈奉和聖製慶玄元皇帝玉像之作應制〉). Finally, animals with the color yellow can represent country scenery. Such as the “yellow oriole” (黃鸝) or “yellow birds” (黃鳥) in “黃鸝轉深木，朱槿照中園” (〈瓜園詩〉) and “紫梅發初徧，黃鳥歌猶澀” (〈早春行〉).. The most common forms of green to appear in Wang Wei’s poems include green (綠), emerald (翠), and deep green (蒼). Green imagery is often associated with blue, which are complementary of one another in nature. Green images are often used in contrast to red. Wang Wei most commonly used green imagery in the form of plants. According to the contents of the poem, green represents the country scenery. Such as the “spring grass autumn green” (春草秋綠) in “萋萋春草秋綠，落落長松夏寒” (〈田園樂七首〉之四) and the “green trees” (綠樹) in “綠樹村邊合，青山郭外斜” (〈過友人莊〉). Finally, green imagery can also represent farewell when combined with the scenery, for example the spring grass which will “turn green next year” (明年綠), the poet wonders if the friend will also return “春草明年綠，王孫歸不歸” (〈山中送別〉).. 3.2.2 Auditory Imagery Auditory imagery, like color imagery, is also all around us. Sounds are created by all things, such as nature, human, animal, wind, and water. No matter the source, sounds can have a multitude of effects on human emotions. In the Yue Chi (〈樂記〉) chapter from the Book of Rites (《禮記》), it is stated that. All the modulations of the voice arise from the mind, and the various affections of the mind are produced by things (external to it)…. Music is (thus) the production of the modulations of the voice, and its source is in the affections of the mind as it is.

(35) Ma 27. influenced by (external) things… All modulations of the voice spring from the minds of men. When the feelings are moved within, they are manifested in the sounds of the voice; and when those sounds are combined so as to form compositions, we have what are called airs60. (trs. James Legge 92-93). It can be inferred that sounds have an impact on the mind; and therefore, it is one of the central elements of poetic imagery for poets. In the Musical Poetry (〈樂府〉) section of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu states that “...poetry is the mind of music and sound is its body.” (X. Liu 83); therefore, they are inseparable.. In poetry, aside from utilizing the phonological characteristic of Chinese, the subject of description is also important in setting the tone or atmosphere of the poem. This is especially evident in landscape poetry, where not only the scenery is contained in the poem, so are the sounds of nature. Pi Shumin61 classifies the aural interactions in Wang Wei’s poem into “sounds and scenery” (景與聲會) and “human sounds and nature” (人聲天籟). “Sounds and scenery” describes the method which Wang utilized, writing one line on what he saw, and one line on what he heard. In voices and nature, the sounds are classified into man-made and those from nature. “Human sounds and nature” describes another method which Wang uses, where a certain sound from nature or from manmade objects will evoke past experiences and emotions (S.M. Pi 153-160).. According to Wu Qizheng, manmade auditory images often used by Wang Wei are human sounds (人聲) and object sounds (器物聲); natural auditory images include sound from animals (動物聲), plants (植物聲), and nature (自然聲). 60. “凡音之起，由人心生也。人心之動，物使之然也。感於物而動，故形於聲。...樂者，音之所由生也，其本在人心感於物也。...凡音者，生人心者也。情動於中，故形於聲，聲成文謂之音。” (《禮記‧樂記》). 61 Pi, Shumin. [皮述民], 《王維探論》. 1st ed. 臺北市: 經聯, 1999. Print..

(36) MA 28. Human sound images include song/singing (歌聲), laughter (笑聲), cry/weep (哭聲), and conversation/speech/talk (談話聲). Singing to most poets is a way of expressing emotions. In Wang Wei’s poems, singing or song images have been associated with the expression of affection, ideals, or sorrow. In “慷慨倚長劍，高歌一送君” (〈送張判官赴河西〉), the “singing” or “song” (高歌) sang by the poet to the parting friendis an expression of his affections. Song images often appear with wine, such as “復值接輿醉，狂歌五柳前” (〈輞川閒居贈裴秀才迪〉) where one “sings wildly” (狂歌) in front of the five willows after a few drinks as an expression of candidness. While laughter is typically the representation of happiness, it is more important to notice what sort of laugh it is. It could be laughter in the fields and gardens, such as “smiling while thanking” (笑謝) the people in “笑謝桃源人，花紅復來覿” (〈藍田山石門精舍〉), or seeing each other and “conversing while laughing“ (語笑) in “披衣倒屜且相見，相歡語笑衡門前” (〈輞川別業〉); it could be laughter that express one’s ideals, such as that in “偶然植林叟，談笑無還期” (〈終南別業〉) where the subject “laugh and talk” (談笑) and ignoring when they should return, or in the “laughing and conversing” (語笑) of “語笑且為樂，吾將達此生” (〈與盧象集朱家〉). Cry images are mostly present in elegies. According to Wu, there are a total of 21 elegy-type poems in all of Wang Wei’s works (Q.Z. Wu 155). Such examples include “crying painfully” (痛哭) while returning in “負爾非一途，痛哭返柴荊” (〈哭殷搖〉), and “hearing the cries” (聞哭聲) of those mourning in “泱漭寒郊外，蕭條聞哭聲” (〈哭殷搖〉), although it was not Wang who was crying, but the distant sounds that sound like crying makes everything seem a lot sadder. Common speech or conversation interactions in Wang Wei’s poems include talking to one another (對話), talking to oneself (私語), talking quietly/talking without words (靜言), noise (吵雜聲), and racket/clamor (喧鬧聲). An interesting phenomenon is where speech or conversation is happening, but there are no sounds (有言無聲者), such as “speaking silently” (靜言) and thinking in “靜言思兮永絕，復驚叫兮沾衣” (〈送進馬哀辭〉), and also the sound of silence (無聲之聲) “九衢行欲斷，萬井寂無喧” (〈合陳監四郎秋雨中思從弟據〉) where the poet expressed that there are “no noises” (無喧). Human voice images can represent.

(37) Ma 29. simple country life, where in “相見語依依” (〈渭川田家〉) the countrymen see each other and “speak to one another” (語依依), or the sounds of chatter during conquests, such as the rise of “chatter by people” (喧喧行人起) in “吹角動行人，喧喧行人起” (〈從軍行〉), or the reluctance to part during farewells where the “friend speaks” (君言) about his ideals not being fulfilled in “君言不得意，歸臥南山陲” (〈送別〉), and deciding to retreat into the mountains.. Object sound images include those from wind instruments (吹奏樂器聲), percussion instruments (打擊樂器聲), and pluck instruments (撥彈樂器聲). The most common wind instruments to appear in Wang Wei’s poems is the reed pipe (笙), which mostly commonly represents a celebration. Reed whistle (笳) most often appear in poems written at imperial command and also poems of the borders, representing homesickness. Cymbals (鐃) is another instrument imagery, and is most often used in military music, and therefore has connotations of seeing someone off with the military. Bamboo flute (笛) imagery can appear in mourning ceremonies, and have a sense of sadness. They can also represent the military and has a sense of sending someone off. Panpipes (簫) are often used to represent parting and the sadness and sorrow associated with this occasion. Percussion instrument imagery used by Wang Wei include the bell (鐘), which represent the life of ease in the mountains and silence and emptiness; drums (鼓), which represent a sense of magnificence and also sadness for those who have passed away; the chime (磬), which mostly appears during the night, to signify a sense of emptiness and loneliness. Stringed instruments include chords (絃) and zithers (琴). The location and situations in which the poet, or the subject of the poem, is playing is important in understanding the connotations behind it. The Chinese harp (箜篌), which is an ancient Chinese string instrument like a western harp, is associated with the lack of fulfillment, and according to Wu, has only appeared once in Wang Wei’s poem (Q.Z. Wu 174)..