企業訓練專業人士之職能發展

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(1)Development of Competencies for Corporate Training Professionals. by. Szu-Chia Chen. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMISTRATION. Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Shir-Tau Tsai, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan July, 2013.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor, Dr. Shir-Tau Tsai. Like a caring father, Dr. Tsai gave my life direction with his immense knowledge and guided me with valuable and constructive advices for all aspects of my life. Without him, I couldn’t have successfully completed my thesis and further obtained a great job. Also, much of the work couldn’t have been done without the effort of my committee members-- Dr. Wei-Wen Chang and Dr. Chun-Wei Yeh, who provided clear directions for further revisions to improve the quality of this research. Especially thanks to Dr. Wei-Wen Chang who always provides counseling and encourages me with her patience. In addition, I would like to thank all the professors in IHRD, Dr. Rosa Yeh, Dr. Jane Lin, Dr. Tony Shih, and Dr. Steven Lai, who trained me well and taught me how to be a professional, and Sandra, the best ever administrative assistant who helped me conquer difficulties during the process of completing works in IHRD. I’m also grateful to all the participants in this research who provided me with important information and allowed me to interview them in their spare time. Furthermore, many thanks are also owed to my classmates in IHRD-- Annie Hsu, Carol Chien, Roy Huang, Agnes Yen, Cheryl Hsieh, and Alan Yu who were always so supportive and accompanied me during my interview for the completion of my research. Also, I appreciated William Kuo for teaching me how to do the coding and helping me with the transcripts to enhance the research quality. Most importantly, my deepest gratitude goes to my family who always has confidence in me and devoted their strength in my education. Lastly, I’m indebted to my dear, Esan Huang, who is always by my side and wholeheartedly supports me with warm words and persistence in pushing me to accomplish my dreams..

(3) ABSTRACT Considering employees are the key factors to business success, in order to develop talent and increase employees’ productivity, more and more companies have put more emphasis on corporate training which is viewed as an investment in employee development. In addition, the rise of corporate universities has also become common phenomenon in the training and development fields. Corporate universities are also regarded as effective ways to help employees to meet the challenges of competing in a tough economy. With the emphasis on corporate training, the competencies of corporate training professionals who are influential to the business performance and strategy execution should be valued. Hence, this study aims to examine the roles and tasks of corporate training professionals so as to identify the competencies required for successful performance of corporate training professionals and scrutinize how these competencies can be developed. The competency model will be further validated based on the process of the research.. Keywords: competence, competency model, competency development, corporate training center, corporate university, corporate training professional. I.

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(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... I Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... III List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. V List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ VII CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................... 1 Research Purposes ............................................................................................................. 3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 3 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................... 3 Delimitations and Limitations............................................................................................ 4 Definitions of Terms .......................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 7 Competence........................................................................................................................ 7 Competency Model .......................................................................................................... 19 Competence Development ............................................................................................... 31 Corporate Training Center ............................................................................................... 34 Director of Corporate Training Center ............................................................................. 39 Roles for HR Professionals .............................................................................................. 42 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 45 Research Framework ....................................................................................................... 45 Research Method ............................................................................................................. 46 Research Participants ....................................................................................................... 47 Data Collection and Analysis ........................................................................................... 49 Validity and Reliability .................................................................................................... 51 Research Procedure .......................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................... 55 Roles of Corporate Training Professionals ...................................................................... 55 Tasks of Corporate Training Professionals ...................................................................... 61 Competences Required for Corporate Training Professionals ......................................... 65 Approaches to Competency Development for Corporate Training Professionals ........... 68 CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 73 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 73 Recommendations for Future Studies .............................................................................. 75 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 77 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ........................................................................... 83 APPENDIX B: EXAMPLES OF CODING PROCESS .......................................................... 85 III.

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(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 HRD Competencies as Identified by McLagan (1989)………………………... ..13 Table 2.2 Foundational Competencies as Identified by the ASTD (2004) ........................... 14 Table 2.3 Foundational Competencies as Updated by the ASTD (2013) ............................. 15 Table 2.4 T&D Areas of Expertise as Identified by the ASTD (2013) ................................. 23 Table 3.1 Background Information of Case Companies ....................................................... 48 Table 3.2 Background Information of Interviewees ............................................................. 48 Table 4.1 Coding List for the Roles of Corporate Training Professionals ............................ 55 Table 4.2 Coding List for the Tasks of Corporate Training Professionals ............................ 61 Table 4.3 Coding List for the Competences Required for Corporate Training Professionals………………………………………………………………….………………65 Table 4.4 Coding List for the Approaches to Competency Development for Corporate Training Professionals.............................................................................................................. 69. V.

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(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 The iceberg model. .............................................................................................. 10 Figure 2.2 Success profiles ................................................................................................... 11 Figure 2.3 Framework for HR competencies ........................................................................ 17 Figure 2.4 The 2004 ASTD competency model ................................................................... 21 Figure 2.5 The new ASTD competency model ..................................................................... 22 Figure 2.6 Process of job competency assessment method .................................................. 28 Figure 2.7 Process of a short job competency assessment method based on expert panels… .................................................................................................................................................. 30 Figure 3.1 Research framework ............................................................................................ 45 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3. Data analysis procedures and data coding procedures ........................................ 49 Research procedures ............................................................................................ 53. VII.

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(11) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Serving as a prelude of this study, this chapter provided an outline of the study with following sections: background of the study, research purpose, research questions, significance of the study, delimitations and limitations, and the definitions of terms.. Background of the Study In this increasingly changing world, education and training at the workforce becomes the key component of company’s success. As education accelerates individuals’ ability to think and challenges them intellectually, training ameliorates the development of specific skills and infusion of knowledge. Well-developed corporate training not only paves the way to prosper successfully in the competitive environment, but also acquire and retain the talent with continuation of corporate culture. Offering opportunities for development with a strategic focus and mirroring organization priorities and anticipating change, the advent of corporate training centers serves the needs of corporate training and corporate universities are also viewed as one of the forms of corporate training centers. Considering employees as the key factors to business success, more and more companies have put more emphasis on the operation of corporate training center which is viewed as an investment in employee development. In order to acquire competitive advantages, it is necessary for a company to involve more than basic skill development in their training, and it results in the diverse programs corporate training centers equip with. Furthermore, for some ambitious companies, the lectures given from the corporate training centers are not just to the in-house employees only, but the stakeholders can be their trainees as well. Such an important role as corporate training play, let alone the critical person who is in charge of corporate training. Within training and development fields, a competent corporate 1.

(12) training professional who can be seen as HR professionals makes strategies be effectively implemented and conducted well. Owning responsibilities for supervisory of the affairs and high-level decision making regarding corporate training, the corporate training professional is influential to the performance of the corporate training and thereby it is necessary to value the competences of the corporate training professionals. In terms of competence, it can be traced back to the 1970s. The concept of competence is launched by McClelland (1973) who considered competences can predict job performance. Since then, scholars depicted competence from different aspects. Competence can be either a combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Klemp, 1980; Knowles, 1980; McLagan, 1980; Parry, 1996) or a conjunction of knowledge, skill, and personalities (Boyatzis,1982; Spencer & Spencer, 1993). When it comes to HR competencies, McLagan (1989) and Ulrich with his colleague (1999) proposed basic competencies required for HR professionals. Moreover, American Society for Training and Development (2004; 2012) further pointed out foundational competences needed for HR professionals by uncovering their competency model. However, as shown in the above literatures, there was a noticeable absence of research projects dealing with competency model for corporate training professionals. Hence, in order to bridge the gap in our knowledge, this study investigated the probable existence of competences of corporate training professionals.. 2.

(13) Research Purposes Building on the descriptions of competent corporate training professionals, the specific aims in this study are to identify the competencies of corporate training professionals, and to elucidate the ways to develop those competencies which are stated as below: 1.. To inspect the roles and tasks of corporate training professionals.. 2.. To identify the competencies needed for corporate training professionals.. 3.. To investigate the approaches to develop the competencies required for corporate training professionals.. Research Questions To address the issues already outlined and begin to fill the gaps in the previous research, the present study was guided by following research questions: 1.. What are the roles and tasks of corporate training professionals?. 2.. What are the competencies needed for corporate training professionals?. 3.. How can these competencies required for corporate training professionals be developed?. Significance of the Study With the investigation into the roles, tasks and competencies of corporate training professionals, this study is done with the hope that it may provide a map for competency development for corporate training professionals practically; additionally, it may serve as a basis for the beginners to research on the competencies for HR professionals academically. With the development of competences for corporate training professionals, the study could further advance the quality of employee development.. 3.

(14) Delimitations and Limitations Delimitations Due to theoretical perspectives the researcher adopted and research objectives, this study focused on competence defined by Spencer and Spencer (1993) to identify the required competencies for corporate training professionals possess on their job. This study aimed at corporate training centers conducting successfully with awards related to HR or training and well established companies emphazing on employee development. Corporate training centers operating as either independent business units or functional divisions are all considered to be investigated. The interviews conducted in Taiwan within several successful companies who have earned the awards related to HR or training and development and corporate training centers including corporate universities. The research participants are directors or senior managers who are in the high-level of position in these corporate training centers with actual responsibility for operations of corporate training centers and directors or senior managers who have a managerial position related to HR and participate in higher decision making related to HR in well established companies. Seeing that working in the training and development fields, corporate training professionals are seen as HR professionals for the research.. Limitations This study was conducted by qualitative method and intended to explore the in-depth and detailed competencies of corporate training professionals. In accordance with the research objectives, the researcher set criteria in choosing the case companies with the adoption of purposing sampling and the participants of this study will rely on interpersonal relations which have bias. Different understandings and perceptions during the interview process may cause bias of 4.

(15) collected data although the validity and reliability will be controlled for the research. And the data collected in the research is also affected by the time, place and situation during the interviews.. Definitions of Terms Competence According to Spencer and Spencer (1993), competency is an underlying characteristic of an individual that can predict behavior in a variety of job tasks and distinguish superior performer from the average. The characteristics of competencies involve skill, knowledge, self-concept, trait and motive. To serve the need of this study, the term “personal attribute” was employed to represent as a generalization of self-concept, trait and motive.. Competency Model Being related to future job requirements, a competency model is a decision tool that describes the key capabilities for performing a specific job and consists of the competencies that are most critical to get the results required by the job (McLagan, 1980). Moreover, the competency model provides a road map to more objectively manage talent for competitive advantage (Derven, 2008).. Competency Development By developing relevant skills, knowledge and personal attributes required for successful performance on the job, competency development determines the specific competencies that are characteristic of high performance and success in a given job.. Corporate Training Center Operating as a separate business unit and strategically aligning it to organization goals 5.

(16) and objectives, a corporate training center not only delivers the organizational culture but also gives employees clear understanding of organization’s goals. Leadership development, professional development, and client-oriented education are mainly equipped with by corporate training centers.. Corporate University A corporate university serves as a strategic tool designed to support its parent organization to achieve its mission by carrying out activities that cultivate individual and organizational learning, knowledge, and wisdom (Allen, 2002b). To meet an organization’s business strategies, a corporate university can also be a strategic umbrella for developing and educating employees, customers, and suppliers (Meister, 1998).. Corporate Training Professional In this study, as working in the training and development fields, corporate training professionals are viewed as HR professionals. A corporate training professional represents the person who is in charge of the operation and engaged in the high-level decision making concerning a corporate training center or a department related to training. As for corporate training center, in different corporate training centers, the term “director” may be performed in a variety of ways such as a chief learning officer, training director, programming director, dean (of corporate university), and so on.. 6.

(17) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW. Building on comprehensive literatures, this chapter was classified into four sections: (1) competence, (2) competency model, (3) competence development, (4) corporate training center, (5) director of training center. The first section encompassed definitions of competence, types of competence, and competences for HR professionals. The second section aimed at studies on competences models and also provides steps in developing competency model. The third section presented the approaches to develop competences. The fourth section covered introduction and functions of corporate training centers including the definitions and phenomenon of corporate universities. The fifth section reviewed the literatures on the role of director of training center.. Competence The term competence (or competency) has been extensively discussed since McClelland published the paper “Testing for competence rather than for intelligence” in1973. Based on some of his lectures, McClelland (1973) questioned the validity of intelligence and aptitude test which are traditional methods used to estimate job performance and proposed the method that identifying “competency” variables can predict job performance without being biased by race, sex or socioeconomic factors (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). After McClelland’s proposition, the term competence has been popularized by Boyatzis (1982) who defined the manager with superior performance as “competent manager”. In 1993, “iceberg model”, giving competence a deeper definition, was brought up by Spencer and Spencer and was embodied in the book “Competence at work” which summarized 20 years of research using McClelland/McBer job competence assessment (JCA) methodology, described how to conduct JCA studies and suggested future applications for competency research. In recent years, Development Dimensions International, a talent management consulting company 7.

(18) leading the way of exercising the use of competencies, not only designs training and development solutions around competencies but also applies competencies into “success profile” to assist organization to efficiently develop the right competencies in the right employees at the right time (Development Dimensions International, 2010b). In the other hand, scholars such as McLagan and Ulrich have conducted comprehensive researches on HR competencies, and association such as American Society for Training Development (ASTD) has brought up twice foundational competencies for HR professionals.. Definition of Competence The term competence (or competency) has been defined in the research from different perspectives and has not widely defined in a single description. From psychological perspectives of competence, McClelland (1973) launched the concept of competence and described competencies as components of performance associated with “clusters of life outcomes”. Later, in 1980, three scholars, McLagan, Knowles, and Klemp, gave more detailed descriptions of competency in three closed but different ways. Cited from McLagan (1980), competencies are described as “the knowledge and skills which underlie effective job performance”. (p.22) Another definition of competency from Knowles (1980) is depicted as “a cluster of knowledge, understandings, skills, attitudes, values and interests for the performance of human resources developer function ”. The other research on competency in 1980, Klemp defined competencies as “an underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior performance on the job.” (p21) From these viewpoints one may say that competency at this time is considered as a combination of KSA--knowledge, skills, and attitudes and is related to the performance on the job. However, another voice of definition came out since Boyatzis infused new concepts into competency in 1982. Boyatzis (1982) agreed that job competency has the influence on the 8.

(19) achievement of effective or better job performances, but he further proposed that job competency is more than a combination of KSA but is an underlying characteristic of a person which contains a motive, trait, skill, aspect of one’s self-image or social role, or a body of knowledge which the person uses. Based on the definition from Boyatzis (1982) that competency contains not merely KSA but also trait and self-image, in a 1993 study, Spencer and Spencer portrayed competency as “an underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion- referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation”(p.9). To deconstruct this definition into its component parts, Spencer and Spencer (1993) pointed out underlying characteristics, which means the competency is a fairly deep and enduring part of a person’s personality and can predict behavior in a wide variety of situation and job tasks, indicate “ways of behaving or thinking, generalizing across situation, and enduring for a reasonably long period of time ”(Guion, 1991, pp.335) ; causally related symbolizes behavior and performance can be caused or predicted by the competence; criterion- referenced denoted well or poor performer can be predicted by the competence according to a specific criterion or standard. Moreover, the underlying characteristics of competencies given by Spencer and Spencer (1993) are also mentioned as five types of competence characteristics which can be separated into two levels in the “iceberg model”. (see figure 2.1) As shown in figure 2.1, the surface competence comprises skill and knowledge, which are associated with characteristics of people and easy to develop. Skill refers to the ability to accomplish a given physical or mental task; knowledge is the information a person owns in a specific content areas. The other hidden part consists of self-concept, trait and motive. At the base of iceberg, trait and motive are considered as the potential competences which are more central to personality and much difficult to assess and develop. Trait signifies physical characteristics and consistent responses to situations or information; motive is a desire, emotion or need that drives behavior toward certain actions or goals. Existing somewhere in 9.

(20) Visible. Hidden. skill knowledge. self-concept trait motive. Figure 2.1. The iceberg model. Adapted from “Competence at work: Models for superior performance,” by L. Spencer & M. Spencer, 1993, p.11. Copyright 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. between, self-concept which is viewed as attitude and value can be changed by training, psychotherapy, or positive development experiences despite time-consuming (Spencer & Spencer, 1993) . Nowadays, the term “personal attribute” can be referred to as generalization of self-concept, trait and motive. Although competency is described with personality trait by Boyatzis (1982) and Spencer and Spencer (1993), from the perspective of training, Parry (1996) argued that personality traits can’t be seen as competencies. Due to the difficulty in developing traits and values through training, Parry (1996) excluded traits and values from the definition on competency but agreed with the definitions in 1980 as mentioned and depicted competency as “ a cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes that affects a major part of one's job (a role or responsibility), that correlates with performance on the job” (p.50) From the perspective of business success, Development Dimensions International (2010b) further advanced “success profiles” for company to manage talent efficiently. As figure 2.2 illustrated, in addition to knowledge and skills and personal attributes, competencies and work experiences are also viewed as characteristics of success profiles that 10.

(21) Knowledge and Skills. Competencies what I can do. what I know. Work Experience. Personal Attributes. what I have done. who I am. Figure 2.2. Success profiles. Adapted from http://www2.ddiworld.com/learninglinks Copyright by Development Dimensions International. contribute to success of an organization ( Development Dimensions International, 2010b) . As illustrated in figure 2.2, knowledge and skills designate the education and training necessary for job success; competencies are an individual’s capabilities that contribute to high performance; personal attributes are referred to as the characteristics of an individual’s personality and the factors that enable the individual’s motivation to perform at a high level and remain on the job; work experience is view as the situations that an individual entering the job should have experienced or, at least, to have had some exposure (Development Dimensions International, 2010b) .. Types of Competence Advanced by Spencer and Spencer (1993), according to the job performance criterion predicted, competencies are split up into two categories, threshold and differentiating competencies. Threshold competencies are usually referred to knowledge or basic skills which are the essential characteristics required in a job. Threshold competencies don’t 11.

(22) distinguish superior from average performers, but differentiating competencies do. Differentiating competencies are concerned with characteristics that superior performers have but average performers lack (Spencer &Spencer, 1993) . In a 1997 report, Cook and Bernthal (1997) divided competencies into three categories which are organizational competencies, job/role competencies and personal competencies. Organizational competencies are unique factors that force an organization competitive; job/role competencies are regarded as things an individual must prove to be effective in a job, role, function, task, or duty, an organizational level, or in the entire organization; personal competencies are aspects of an individual that infer a level of skill, achievement, or output. Building on the definition proposed by DDI which depicted competency as the specific behavior, knowledge, and motivation that an employee has to demonstrate so as to be effective in a certain job or role, Development Dimensions International (2010a) identified another three types of competency. These are behavior competency, knowledge competency and motivation competency. Behavior competency represents how someone is supposed to act when given the opportunity; knowledge competency stands for the knowledge or technical skills a person in a given job or role needs to have and the way they need to demonstrate or use that knowledge; motivation competency is the characteristics of the job and the organization that may cause job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Development Dimensions International, 2010a) .. Competences for HR Professionals A growing number of studies have been made to identify the critical competencies needed to be a successful HR professional. In an earlier research of HRD practitioners, McLagan (1989) distinguished HRD competencies into four clusters. These are technical competencies referred to as functional knowledge and skill, business competencies which possess a strong management, economics or administration base, interpersonal competencies 12.

(23) Table 2.1. HRD Competencies as Identified by McLagan (1989) Cluster Technical competencies. Competencies 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.. Adult-learning understanding Career-development theories and techniques understanding Competency-identification skill Computer competence Electronic-systems skill Facilities skill Objectives-preparation skill Performance-observation skill. 9. Subject-matter understanding 10. Training and development theories and techniques understanding 11. Research skill Business competencies. Interpersonal competencies. Intellectual competencies. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.. Business understanding Cost-benefit-analysis skill Delegation skill Industry understanding Organization-behavior understanding Organization-development theories and techniques Organization understanding Project-management skill. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.. Records-management skill Coaching skill Feedback skill Group-process skill Negotiation skill Presentation skill Questioning skill Relationship-building skill Writing skill Data-reduction skill. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.. Information-search skill Intellectual versatility Model-building skill Observing skill Self-knowledge Visioning skill 13.

(24) which own a strong communication base, and intellectual competencies which reveal knowledge and skills related to thinking and processing of information. Table 2.1 reflects the four clusters together with the list of competencies of each cluster as McLagan identified. In the other hand, the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), the largest association devoted to training and development professionals, has been conducted the most comprehensive study of training professionals (Noe, 2010). In their “Mapping the future” study, published in 2004, Bernthal and colleagues identified three areas of foundational competencies needed by all HRD professionals (DeSimone & Werner, 2012). International competencies, business/management competencies, and personal. competencies are. introduced in the foundational competencies which can be utilized as HRD professionals develop particular areas of expertise. Table 2.2 shows the required competencies that were identified in the ASTD study. Table 2.2. Foundational Competencies for HRD Practitioners as Identified by the ASTD (2004) INTERPERSONAL. BUSINESS / MANAGEMENT. . Building Trust. . . Communicating Effectively. . Influencing Stakeholders. . Applying Business Acumen. . Leveraging Diversity. . Driving Results. . Networking and Partnering. . Planning and Implementing. Analyzing Needs and Proposing. PERSONAL . Solutions. Demonstrating Adaptability. . Modeling Personal Development. Assignments . Thinking Strategically. As Table 2.2 presents, interpersonal competencies can be explained as how well the person works with, manages, and sways people, policy, and change; business and management competencies can be generalized as how well the person analyzes circumstances, makes decisions, and carries out solutions; personal competencies can be summarized as how well the person adjusts to change and makes personal decisions to improve career (American 14.

(25) Table 2.3. Foundational Competencies as Updated by the ASTD (2013) Cluster Interpersonal Skills. Business Skills. Personal Skills Global Mindset. Industry Knowledge. Technology Literacy. Competencies • • • • • • • •. Build trust Communicate effectively Influence stakeholders Network and partner Demonstrate emotional intelligence Analyze needs and propose solutions Apply business skills. Drive results. • • •. Plan and implement assignments Think strategically Innovate. • • • • • • •. Demonstrate adaptability Model personal development Accommodate cultural differences Convey respect for different perspectives Expand own awareness Adapt behavior to accommodate others Champion diversity. • • • • • •. Leverage diverse contributions Maintain own professional knowledge Keep abreast of industry changes and trends Build industry sector knowledge Demonstrate awareness of technologies Use technology effectively. Society for Training and Development, n.d.). However, in 2012, ASTD revised foundational competencies for HRD professionals. Not only interpersonal, business, and personal competencies are kept although few of the required competencies of them have been substituted, but also global mindset, industry knowledge, and technology literacy are inclusive. As table 2.3 represents, “leveraging diversity” which belonged to interpersonal competencies is included in global mindset with a 15.

(26) new term “leverage diverse contributions”; “demonstrate emotional intelligence” becomes a new competency of interpersonal skills; “innovate” is viewed as a one of the competencies of business skills. Another contribution to HR competencies was acknowledged by McEvoy et al. (2005) who noted that the most widely cited study of HR competencies is the work conducted by Ulrich and his colleagues. While other studies defined competencies for HR professionals either by the insights of senior managers and other internal customers or through an empirically tested conceptual framework (Ulrich, Brockbank, Yeung, & Lake,1995), the study in Ulrich et al. (1995) provided extensive discussions of HR competencies and portrayed competencies for HR professionals as the value adding to their business. Not only existing in HR professionals’ ability to create competitive advantage thus positively affecting bottom-line metrics, but the value adds when HR professionals ensure that they deliver ideas, programs, and initiatives to their business which helps the business compete (Ulrich et al., 1995). Thanks to the efforts from Ulrich and his colleagues, in 1999, the most extensive survey on HR competency has been conducted at University of Michigan Business School in three rounds over a ten-year period with the involvement of over 20,000 HR and line professionals (Brockbank, Ulrich, & Beatty,1999). In the first round, Brockbank et al.(1999) found that HR professionals must demonstrate competencies in three domains which are knowledge of business, delivery of HR practices, and ability to manage change. Furthermore, the ability to manage change is more important than business knowledge and delivery of HR practices combined (Brockbank et al., 1999). In the second round, Brockbank et al. (1999) suggested HR professionals needed to be more knowledgeable about financial management, external competitive and customer demands, and be able to work with line executives to send clear and consistent messages about the firm’s goals and directions. In the third round of surveys, Brockbank et al.(1999) 16.

(27) KNOWLEDGE OF BUSINESS. HR FUNCTIONAL EXPERTISE. MANAGING CHANGE. Figure 2.3. Framework for HR competencies. Adapted from “Human Resource Competencies: An Empirical Assessment,” by D. Ulrich, W. Brockbank, A. K. Yeung, & D. G. Lake, 1995, Human Resource Management, 34(4), p.475. Copyright 1995 by Wiley. Subscription Services, Inc. added the notion that there are two more areas of HR competency need to be demonstrated which are culture management and personal credibility. Being HR professionals, culture management handles how to assist organization to create both new patterns of behavior and mindsets among employees and a collective identity for the organization; personal credibility copes with the extent to which HR professionals embody the values of the organization and act with “attitude” in dealing with HR issues (Brockbank et al.,1999) . In terms of framework for HR competencies, prior to the proposition from Ulrich and his colleagues, Eichinger (1987) advocated six leadership areas for HR competencies which are cognitive complexity and agility, achievement directed assertiveness, interpersonal effectiveness, personal management, business savvy, and job skills; Walker (1988) advanced four dimensions for develop competencies for HR professionals which are functional, business, role, and style. To be harmonious with the researches on HR competencies as noted above and to build on the view that HR professionals must add value, Ulrich et al.(1995) proposed a three-domain framework for conceptualizing HR competencies.(see figure 2.3) As figure 2.3 indicates, these are knowledge of business which assists the HR 17.

(28) professional to adopt HR and organizational activities to fluctuating business conditions, delivery of HR which builds credibility of HR professionals as they deliver state-of-the-art HR practices, and management of change processes which means HR professional must catch up the pace of changing environment such as globalization, information flow, customer expectations and technology (Ulrich et al.,1995) .. 18.

(29) Competency Model Seeing that identifying competencies becomes a significant issue which could impose influential effects on business success, the importance of competency models to business effectiveness has been extensively discussed and verified in recent studies. In a 1980 study, McLagan viewed competency models as decision tools that describe the key capabilities required to perform a job and must also comprise the competencies that are most pivotal to get the results required by the job. In that selection, development, assessment, and planning are always competency based (McLagan,1980), as decision tools, competency models provide a road map to more objectively manage talent for competitive advantage (Derven, 2008). Stated another way, a competency model relates to the combination of knowledge, skills and attributes needed for superior performance, and is integrated in the functions of HR, selection, training and development, succession planning and performance management (Sanghi, 2009). Therefore, competency models can basically address two critical facets. One is what skills, knowledge and characteristics are needed for the job and the other one is what behavior can directly impose impact on job performance and bring in success in the job (Sanghi, 2009). Through setting up the competency model, employees will better understand how to target their efforts, common vocabulary will be created to discuss successful performance, and performance-based dialogue between managers and employees will also be promoted. (Derven, 2008) Not only helping companies understand and focusing on the key factors that actually drive performance (Derven, 2008), but developing competency models is a focal point for organization development (McLagan, 1980).. ASTD Competency Model Contributing to human resource development field, American Society for Training and 19.

(30) Development (ASTD) unveiled a model in their 2004 competency study which describes what competency model takes for an individual to be successful in the training and development field (Noe, 2010). The model appears in figure 2.4 with three layers. At the base of the pyramid, foundation competencies are classified in three areas which are interpersonal competencies, business and management competencies, and personal competencies as introduced in the previous section. In the middle of the pyramid are nine critical areas of expertise (AOEs). Cited from Davis, Naughton, and Rothwell (2004), the AOEs are the specific technical and professional skills and knowledge required for success in the workplace learning and performance fields, and are specialized areas that base and depend on the focused application of the foundational competencies. At the top of the pyramid shows four workplace learning and performance (WLP) roles that training and development professionals can take. The learning strategist is engaged in the high-level decision making concerning how HRD initiatives will support to achieve the goals and meet the strategies of an organization. The business partner applies business and industry knowledge to work together with managers and others in identifying how the HRD initiatives will be implemented and evaluated. The project manager plans, obtains, resources, and monitors HRD initiatives. The professional specialist applies his or her expertise to design, develop, deliver, and evaluate HRD initiatives (DeSimone & Werner, 2012; Noe, 2010) . Acknowledged by Rothwell and Wellins (2004), the value of ASTD competency model is serving as a framework to support an integrated HR System. Not only the model can help align the HR system vertically with the organization’s strategic objectives, but also it can be horizontally in line with other HR functions, to insure harmony and consistency across the many aspects of HR activities that affect job performance ( Dubois & Rothwell, 2004) . Nevertheless, in 2012, American Society for Training and Development launched a new ASTD competency model as the first major revision to the competency model since 2004 (American Society for Training and Development, 2012). As ASTD senior director Jennifer 20.

(31) learning strategist. business partner project. professional. manager. specialist. WORKPLACE LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE ROLES. DESIGNING LEARNING IMPROVING HUMAN PERFORMANCE DELIVERING TRAINING MEASURING AND EVALUATING FACILITATING ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE MANAGING THE LEARNING FUNCTION COACHING MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE CAREER PLANNING AND TALENT MANAGEMENT. AREAS OF EXPERTISE: SUPPORTED BY TECHNOLOGY . INTERPERSONAL . . Building Trust. . Communicating Effectively.   . . BUSINESS /. . PERSONAL. MANAGEMENT. . Demonstrating. Analyzing Needs and Proposing Solutions. . Influencing. Applying Business. . Driving Results. Leveraging. . Planning and. Diversity. Implementing. Networking and. Assignments. COMPETENCIES. . Modeling Personal Development. Acumen. Stakeholders. Partnering. Adaptability. . Thinking Strategically. COMPETENCIES. COMPETENCIES. Figure 2.4. The 2004 ASTD competency model. Adapted from “New Roles and New Competencies for the Professional,” by P. Davis, J. Naughton, & W. Rothwell, 2004, T+D, 58(4), p.29. Copyright 2004 by American Society for Training and Development. 21.

(32) Naughton, said, “This is a time of unprecedented change and transformation in the learning and development profession” (American Society for Training and Development, 2012). Driven by digital, mobile, and social technology, demographic shifts, globalization, and economic forces, the updated ASTD competency model still emphasizes the foundational competencies and the specific areas of expertise (AOEs) but redefines the skills and knowledge required for the learning professional to be successful now and in the future. Performance. Change. Management Improvement Knowledge Management. Instructional ASTD. Design. Competencies Coaching. for the Training. Training. and. Delivery. Development Integrated. Profession. Technologies. Talent Management. Learning. Managing Evaluating Learning. Learning. Programs. Impact. T&D Areas of Expertise Business Skills. Global Mindset. Industry Knowledge. Interpersonal. Personal. Technology. Skills. Skills. Literacy. Foundational Competencies Figure 2.5. The new ASTD competency model. Adapted from http://www.astd.org/Certification/Competency-Model Copyright 2013 by American Society for Training and Development. 22.

(33) (American Society for Training and Development, 2013). (see figure 2.5) As indicated in figure 2.5, excluding the part of WLP roles, the new ASTD competency model remains both foundational competencies and AOEs. In addition to business skills, interpersonal skills, and personal skills, the updated ASTD competency model includes global mindset, industry knowledge, and technology literacy in foundational competencies which involves knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviors that are need for job success in most professional occupations (American Society for Training and Development, 2013). Nevertheless, compared to the 2004 ASTD competency model, some competencies of interpersonal skills, business skills, and personal skills has been altered as pointed out in the previous section. As for T&D areas of expertise, besides coaching, most of AOEs in the 2004 ASTD competency model such as designing learning, improving human performance, delivering training, measuring and evaluating, facilitating organizational change, managing the learning function, coaching, managing organizational knowledge, and career planning and talent management have been substituted for new terms. Moreover, learning technologies is considered as new T&D areas of expertise. Table 2.4 lists the descriptions provided by American Society for Training and Development (2013) for T&D areas of expertise in the revised ASTD competency model with a comparison of new and old term. Table 2.4. T&D Areas of Expertise as Identified by the ASTD (2013) New AOEs Instructional Design (Substitute for designing learning). Descriptions Design and develop informal and formal learning solutions using a variety of methods. •. Conduct a needs assessment. •. Identify appropriate learning approach. •. Apply learning theory. •. Collaborate with others. •. Design a curriculum, program, or learning solution 23. (continued).

(34) New AOEs. Performance Improvement (Substitute for. Descriptions •. Design instructional material. •. Analyze and select technologies. •. Integrate technology options. •. Develop instructional materials. •. Evaluate learning design. Apply a systematic process for analyzing human performance gaps and for closing them.. improving human. •. Identify the customer. performance). •. Conduct performance analysis. •. Conduct cause analysis. •. Analyze systems. •. Gather data. •. Incorporate customer and stakeholder needs. •. Select solutions. •. Manage and implement projects. •. Build and sustain relationships. •. Evaluate results against organizational goals. •. Monitor change. Training Delivery (Substitute for delivering training). Deliver informal and formal learning solutions in a manner that is both engaging and effective. •. Manage the learning environment. •. Prepare for training delivery. •. Convey objectives. •. Align learning solutions with course objectives and learner needs. Evaluating Learning Impact (Substitute for measuring and evaluating). •. Establish credibility as an instructor. •. Create a positive learning climate. •. Deliver various learning methodologies. •. Facilitate learning. •. Encourage participation and build learner motivation. •. Deliver constructive feedback. •. Ensure learning outcomes. •. Evaluate solutions. Use learning metrics and analytics to measure the impact of learning solutions. •. Identify the customer. •. Conduct performance analysis 24. (continued).

(35) New AOEs. Change Management (Substitute for. Descriptions •. Conduct cause analysis. •. Analyze systems. •. Gather data. •. Incorporate customer and stakeholder needs. •. Select solutions. •. Manage and implement projects. •. Build and sustain relationships. •. Evaluate results against organizational goals. •. Monitor change. Apply a systematic process to shift individuals, teams, and organizations from current state to desired state.. facilitating organizational. •. Establish sponsorship and ownership for change. change). •. Build involvement. •. Create a contract for change. •. Conduct diagnostic assessments. •. Provide feedback. •. Facilitate strategic planning for change. •. Support the change intervention. •. Encourage integration of change into organizational culture. •. Manage consequences. •. Evaluate change results. Managing Learning Programs (Substitute for. Provide leadership to execute the organization’s people strategy; implements training projects and activities.. managing the learning. •. Establish a vision. function). •. Establish strategies. •. Implement action plans. •. Develop and monitor the budget. •. Manage staff. •. Model leadership in developing people. •. Manage others. •. Manage and implement projects. •. Manage external resources. •. Ensure compliance with legal, ethical, and regulatory requirements. Coaching. Apply a systematic process to improve others’ ability to set goals, take action, and maximize strengths.. (unchanged). •. Establish coaching agreement 25. (continued).

(36) New AOEs. Knowledge Management (Substitute for. Descriptions •. Establish trust and intimacy with the client. •. Display coaching presence. •. Demonstrate active listening. •. Ask powerful questions. •. Use direct communication. •. Create awareness. •. Design learning opportunities. •. Develop goals and plans. •. Manage progress and accountability. •. Meet ethical guidelines and professional standards. Capture, distribute, and archive intellectual capital to encourage knowledge-sharing and collaboration.. managing organizational. •. Advocate knowledge management. knowledge). •. Benchmark knowledge management best practices and lessons learned. •. Encourage collaboration. •. Facilitate social learning. •. Establish a knowledge culture. •. Support the development of a knowledge management infrastructure. Integrated Talent Management (Substitute for. •. Leverage technology. •. Manage information life cycle. •. Design and implement knowledge management solutions. •. Transform knowledge into learning. •. Evaluate knowledge management success. Build an organization’s culture, capability, capacity, and engagement through people development strategies.. career planning and talent. •. Align talent management to organizational objectives. management). •. Use talent management systems. •. Equip managers to develop their people. •. Organize delivery of developmental resources. •. Promote high-performance workplaces. •. Coordinate workforce and succession planning. •. Facilitate the career development planning process. •. Facilitate career transitions. •. Support engagement and retention efforts. •. Implement individual and organizational assessments 26. (continued).

(37) New AOEs. Descriptions •. Learning Technologies. Use talent management analytics to show results and impact. Apply a variety of learning technologies to address specific learning needs.. (new). •. Use technology effectively across the different areas of expertise. •. Identify when and how to use technology as a training and development solution. Despite exclusion of indication of WLP roles, cited from American Society for Training and Development (2012), the new ASTD competency model reflects that the role of learning professional continues to broaden from deliverer of training to a facilitator of learning, content curator, information manager, and builder of learning communities.. Competency Model Design Through conducting job competency assessment (JCA) process, the classic competency study design using criterion samples (as shown in figure 2.6) and a short study design using expert panels (as shown in figure 2.7) are developed for the design of competency models (Spencer & Spencer, 1993) .. Job Competency Assessment. As figure 2.6 provides, there are six stages included in the process. At the first stage, through defining performance effective criteria, this step aims at selecting standards which represent superior or effective job performance by reviewing the revenue, profit or supervisor’s rating. At the second stage, using the job effectiveness criteria developed in the first stage to differentiate superior performers and average performers which is seen as a comparison group. Incompetent performers can also be recognized at this stage. 27.

(38) DEFINE. •. Hard data: sales, profits, productivity measures. Performance Effectiveness Criteria. •. Supervisor’s ratings. IDENTIFY. •. Supervisor performers. •. Average performers. •. Behavioral Event Interviews. •. Panels. •. 360 degree rating. •. Expert system database. •. Observation. •. Elements of job person has to perform. •. Characteristics of people who do the job well. •. Behavioral Event Interviews. •. Examinations. •. Ratings from performance. •. Selection. •. Career development and Succession planning. •. Performance appraisal. •. Training. •. Evaluation of training. Criterion Sample. Collect data. IDENTIFY Job Tasks & Job Competency Requirements. Validate Competency Model. Applications. Figure 2.6. Process of job competency assessment method. Adapted from “Competence at work: Models for superior performance”, Spencer and Spencer, 1993, p.95. Copyright 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 28.

(39) At third stage, there are six data collection methods used to develop classic competency model. Behavioral event interviews (BEI) reveal job competencies through semistructured interviews which ask both superior performers and average performers to depict how they deal with the toughest and most important parts of jobs. Expert panel which prioritizes the characteristics according to importance to job success is asked to brainstorm personal characteristics that required when employees perform the job at an adequate and a superior level (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). 360 degree rating is to provide information about the ability and the performance of the job performer through self-assessment and evaluations from supervisors, peers, subordinates and customers. Computer-based expert systems pose questions developed by previous studies to researchers. Direct observation is used to code employees’ behaviors performing the job. Through analyzing data collected by the above-mentioned methods, the personality, tasks and requirements of competencies which lead to superior performance are identified at the fourth stage. At the fifth stage, collecting BEI data on a second criterion sample, testing second criterion sample, assessment center ratings are used to validate the competency model. At the final stage, after the competency model is established, it can be applied into selection, training, professional development, performance appraisal, succession planning, and evaluation of training, professional development programs.. Expert panels. Composed of four steps, a short job competency assessment method using primarily data from expert panels is illustrated in figure 2.7. At the first step, assembling expert panels to ensure the key accountabilities including most important duties and responsibilities, measurements used for these accountabilities to identify superior performers, threshold competencies and competencies which can distinguish superior performers. At the second 29.

(40) Expert Panel. •. Ensure the duties, responsibilities, measurements and competency of current and future job.. • •. Fill in the competency need questionnaires. Answer the questions by using group consensus methods.. •. Identify superior and average performer. Conduct Behavioral Event Interviews. Data Analysis. • • • •. Expert panels Competency questionnaires Discussion Behavioral Event interview. Validation. Figure 2.7. Process of a short job competency assessment method based on expert panels. Adapted from “Competence at work: Models for superior performance”, Spencer and Spencer, 1993, p.107. Copyright 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. step, conducting behavioral event interview to recognize the nuances of how competencies are expressed in an organization. The third step is to conduct data analysis though methods including expert panel, competency questionnaires, discussion and behavioral event interview. The fourth and final step is to validate the competency model though rating or ranking a criterion sample of superior and average performers on the competencies recognized in the third step and verifying superior performers are ranked higher than averages on the competencies. 30.

(41) Competence Development Competence development is influenced by the interplay of a broad range of company internal and external forces, and contributes not only to increased knowledge and skills for the participants, but also, most importantly, to shift in attitudes and culture (Illeris, 2008). Competence development, thus, can be described as one or more of these approaches which may be planned proceedings or unintended functions that indicate the individual learning processes through which competence is acquired (Eilström & Kock, 2008). In this regards, on-the-job training, off-the-job training, and self-development which are three main ways of employee development can be viewed as approaches to develop competencies needed for job.. On-the-job Training On-the-job training is an employee given training in the real work situation, where he or she learns by doing and through direct experience (IBS Center for Management Research, n.d.) and is the process in which usually the supervisor or lead person of the workplace, disseminates job knowledge and skills to another employee (Broadwell, 1986). While employees are carrying out their jobs, the hands on skills required to work can be gained through tasks and processes which guided by colleagues or supervisors to help them know how to perform the task and to what standard (Business Case Studies LLP, n.d.-b). Typically, supervisor observes the trainees while they carry out their duties and provides the trainees with feedback on their performance after the observation (Business Case Studies LLP, n.d.-b). On-the-job training benefits not only employees but also the business. Employees learn in the real work environment and gain experience dealing with the tasks and challenges that they will meet during a normal working day; as for business, it benefits by ensuring training is specific to the job and saving the additional costs of providing off-the-job training or losing working time (Business Case Studies LLP, n.d.-a). The methods used to provide on-the-job training includes coaching which an experienced senior help trainee to learn skills and 31.

(42) processes through offering instructions or demonstrations, mentoring which usually offers more personal support than a coach and acts as a guide and helper, and job rotation which gain experience of a full range of jobs through rotate roles or tasks (Business Case Studies LLP, n.d.-a).. Off-the-job Training Off-the-job training provides group-based learning opportunities on a variety of topics at a site other than where the work is actually done (Jacobs & Jones, 1995).While on-the-job training is a particularly useful for technical skills, off-the-job training is especially effective for developing transferable skills that can be used in many different parts of the business (Business Case Studies LLP, n.d.-a). Off-the-job training is usually offered by specialist trainers or by an outside company hired to help with training and encompasses more general skills and knowledge useful for work as well as job-specific training (Business Case Studies LLP, n.d.-b). It often utilizes classroom lectures, various simulation exercises such as case exercises, experiential exercises, computer modeling, vestibule training and role playing, and programmed instruction (IBS Center for Management Research, n.d.). Off-the-job training allows people to free themselves from work and focus more exhaustively on the training itself and has proven more effective in inculcating concepts and ideas (Mauch, 2009).. Self-development Self-development refers to questing and using feedback, establishing development goals, engaging in developmental activities, and tracking progress on one’s own (London & Smither, 1999). In a 1999 article, London and Smither mentioned self-development is particularly important to continuous learning in changing work environments and needs to be headed by managers and human resource professionals who facilitate the learning process by giving feedback, coaching, and resources for development. Advanced by Reid, Barringt and Brown 32.

(43) (2009), learning organizations and continuous development not only necessitate the integration of learning with work but also place high premium on self-development by learning from working experience even though not prefacing opportunities for learning off-the-job.. 33.

(44) Corporate Training Center The establishment of corporate training center is always regarded as a commitment to employee development. The mission of the corporate training center is to develop talent and further increase employees’ productivity, and even infuse innovation into organization. Instead outsourcing training programs to external partners, corporate training center which operates as a separate business unit and strategically aligns it to organization goals and objectives can not only deliver the organizational culture but also give employees clear understanding of organization’s goals through in-house training programs. Binding to long-term talent development strategies of corporation, the other phenomenon of the appearance of corporate universities encompassing professional development and succession planning also caters to the needs of corporate training.. Functions of Corporate Training Center Although the term “training center” can be illustrated in different forms such the title as “training institute”, “learning center”, “learning and development center”, “learning institute”, the functions of training centers can be generalized in three categories. These three chief functions are leadership development, professional development, and client-oriented education. To facilitate leadership development, General Electronics, for example, founded John F. Welch Leadership Development Center in 1956. Organizational development, leadership, innovation and change are delivered through training programs in John F. Welch Leadership Development Center which serves as a powerful organizational force (General Electronics, n.d.). This can also be exemplified by McDonald's. Offering leaders access to workshops and information about leadership skills, development planning, networking, and external development resources, McDonald’s Leadership Institute helps drive McDonald's business by guiding leaders to reach their potential, and provides promising middle management and 34.

(45) officers with various accelerated development programs (Thomas, 2012; Weinstein, 2012). Another case can be served as an example is Nissan Learning Center Management Institute which is founded by Nissan Motor and started operations in 2005 in Japan. With the focus on management training, the main purpose of Nissan Learning Center Management Institute is to develop leadership skills within Nissan Motor and further reinforce Nissan Management Way management techniques (Nissan Motor, 2005). Making efforts in training and educating employees, Samsung Electronics can also be a fine example. With a view to sharpening the expertise of future-oriented employees in the areas such as R&D, marketing, management, Samsung Electronics established three functional training centers (Samsung, n.d.). Aiming at leadership development, Samsung Electronics set up leadership development center which heads change and settles down world-class corporate culture throughout the company (Samsung, n.d.). In addition to leadership development, Samsung Institute of Global Marketing and Samsung Advanced Technology Training Institute are training centers which emphasize on professional development and cultivate professionals in both marketing and engineering fields. As often in banking industry, Citibank values talent development especially in leadership and financial products. In 2005, Citibank founded Citi Center for Advanced Learning in China including leadership development programs and extensive professional development programs on financial products, risk management and operations (Citigroup, n.d.). In 2012, to drive talent excellence across all its businesses and increase talent productivity, Citibank launched Learning & Development Center in Malaysia equipped with training programs targeted on skills and competencies enhancement (Citigroup, 2012). In terms of client-oriented education, Disney Institute is a notable example. Known for its professional development training, Disney Institute, an external training arm of Walt Disney, operated since 1986 (Blackstone Valley Chamber of Commerce, 2011; Disney, n.d.; Jones, n.d.). Not only offering from professional development programs on such as leadership, 35.

(46) people management, and customer service to vacation-type courses and even relationships (Allerton, 1997), but Disney Institute provides training programs customized to specifically suit the needs of any company or industry (Disney, n.d.; Training Industry, n.d.).. Phenomenon of Corporate University In the twentieth century, corporate universities emerged as a continuation of the workforce education trend that began as early as 1914 (Barley, 2002). Advanced by Meister (1998), the emergence of the flat, flexible organization; the transformation of the economy into a knowledge economy; the shortened shelf life of knowledge; the new focus on lifetime employability rather than lifetime employment; and a fundamental shift in the global education marketplace are trends which reinforce corporate universities as the fastest growing sector of higher education in the twenty-first century . In a 1998 article, Meister defined corporate university as “the strategic umbrella for developing and educating employees, customers, and suppliers in order to meet an organization’s business strategies.” (p.267) For example, in addition to McDonald's Leadership Institute, McDonald’s started to operate Hamburger University since 1961 which is charged with continuing teach the core values that founder Ray Kroc believed were the key to success (McDonald’s, n.d.-a; Noe, 2010). In the other case, Motorola, one of the earliest establishers of corporate university, transformed its Motorola Training and Education Center into Motorola University in 1989. Keeping providing employees with instruction and coaching in quality process and participative management skills, Motorola University also remains an integral component of the Motorola culture today (Sester, 2001).As Jones ( 2001) noted in his review of corporate university, “its purpose is to provide company-related business education for individuals affiliated with the business and to foster a shared company vision.” (p.43) 36.

(47) Not just providing a wide range of learning opportunities for internal employees, in order to achieve and sustain competitive advantage, like training center with emphasis on client-oriented education, corporate universities also offer training courses for its stakeholders. Operating as a division of Toyota Motor Sales, the University of Toyota was founded in 1999 to develop training for its 8,500 employees and 104,000 dealership associates (Morrison, 2008). As Meister (1998) has pointed out in her study, “They have evolved at many organizations into strategic umbrellas for educating not only employees, but also secondary customers and suppliers.” (p.29) When it comes to function, not all of the corporate universities perform the same. Corporate universities may engage in technical and job-specific training only while some corporate universities equip with soft skills development programs such as management, communication, and team building in addition to technical training. There are numerous examples given to illustrate this point. Besides Disney Institute, Walt Disney Company founded Disney University after opening Disneyland when they realized the need for a structured learning environment to teach the unique skills for their employees (Paton, n.d.). Being an internal training arm of the Walt Disney, Disney University actively trains employees in leadership excellence, loyalty, teambuilding, people management and other core skills (Training Industry, n.d.). Another example can be seen in Hamburger University. As a global center of excellence for McDonald’s operations training and leadership development (Galagan, 2011; McDonal’s, n.d.-a; Thomas,2007), Hamburger University also foster employees’ career development by linking training to employees’ specific career paths (McDonal’s, n.d.-a) . After examining the phenomenon of corporate universities in all of its forms, Allen (2002b) gives corporate university a new definition: “A corporate university is an educational entity that is a strategic tool designed to assist its parent organization in achieving its mission by conducting activities that cultivate individual and organizational learning, knowledge, and 37.

(48) wisdom” (p.9) More precisely, Allen (2002b) pointed out the prime function of corporate university is education, and recognized that the parent organization has not be a corporation or in the business of making money, but may be in any industry. Moreover, “the primary focus of the corporate university is on the individual, but it also recognizes that organizations also learn and that the ultimate beneficiary of the activities of the corporate university is the organization” (Allen, 2002b, p.9). More simply put, corporate university is associated with employee’s talent development, organizational growth and organizational mission. To sum up, with highly relation to continuation of organization culture, employees who trained in a corporate university will perform better, obtain additional skills, have a clear understanding of what the company's vision is and will know better how their hard work effectively influence the company to that goal and further create a competitive advantage for the corporation.. 38.

(49) Director of Corporate Training Center The title “director of corporate training center” in this study represents the person who oversees the affairs of a corporate training center and is engaged in the high-level decision making concerning the training center. In different training centers, the term “director” may be performed in a variety of ways. It could be a chief learning officer, programming director, training director, dean (of corporate university), and so on. What kind of the title of a director a training center adopts is usually associated with where the training center houses in. To take corporate university as an example, acknowledged by Barley (2002), the place within the overall structure of the company has a direct influence on how quickly and comprehensively the university is acknowledged and fulfilled. A chief executive’s office, a human resources office, and a business unit are three main places where responsibility for corporate universities resides (Barley, 2002). Corporate universities that emerge out of the executive boardroom are strategically situated to have the quickest impact on an organization because directors and middle managers respond quickly to executive directives, and staff support and funds are speedily allocated when the executive who dominates these resources is heading the corporate university imperative. Corporate universities originate in the executive boardroom often response directly to a chief learning officer (CLO) who determines how learning is driven and integrated throughout the organization, while corporate universities housed in human resources report to a director or vice president of human resources (Barley, 2002). With the placement in human resources, corporate universities reside in human resources must obtain executive commitment by pushing the idea and initiative up the chain of command (Barley, 2002). In the other hand, cited from Barley (2002), a corporate university within a business unit report to a unit director or manager who is committed to employee development, is willing to add the role of employee development leader to the demands associated with his or her job, and is arguably in the best position to determine the performance gaps and learning needs of their employees. 39.