CHILDHOOD BILINGUALISM AND LEARNING
GERM州
AS AFOREIGN LANGUAGE
Chiang Tai-hui
將泰暉
O. 酬TRODUCfION
The term
“
bilingualism" is usually understood as a situation or condition in whichtwo linguistic codes are made use of by the same speaker or speech community, and
“bilingual" has been impressionistically conceived as a person who has the kind of ability
to manipulate two linguistic systems and actually practices it; the fwo terms,however,
are seldom adequately defined in the literature on the subject (see Cohen 1975). The lack \、
of an adequate definition. for
“
bilingualism" is perhaps due to the fact that it is an abstractconcept; a
“
bilingual", being a physical entity, appears to be somewhat easier to define(see Tse 1983).
Another term, “diglossia", which was first advanced by Ferguson (1959),has been
employed to refer to thefunctional differentiation between two languages (or two varieties
of the same language) at the societa11eve1 (see Ferguson 1959),or,in an extended sense,to
all the “
'f
unctionally differentiated language varieties of whatever kind" (Fishman 1971 a:540) 一 -whether they are the officially recognized different
“
languages" of a speechsociety, the prestigious, “standard", “high" language and the vernacular,“substandard",
“low" 1anguage(s) of such a society, or merely the different varieties,registers,dialects,
etc., of the same language,which are functionally differentiated in different speech “
do-mains" in connection with a society (see Fishman 1971 b,Findling 1971,Gumperz 1964b,
Cohen 1975,etc.). Since the introduction of the term by Ferguson
“
diglossia" has gainedfavor among sociologists and sociolinguists;
“
bilingualism",however,has been preferred bypsychologist and psycho1inguists (Fishman 1971 a: 539).
The distinction in nomenclature between bilingualism and d忽lossiareflects a shift of
interest from questions like “What happens in the individual who speaks two languages戶，:
“How does he come to master the two systems戶， Which of the two dominates戶，" etc.,to
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可司司，
which lend themselves to insightful study of the subject.
1.1 The Subjects
The subjects of the study is a population of about 50 Chinese children at various
ages and of different linguistic, social and family background in Vienna, who for one
reason or another has come (or immigrated) to Austria for shorteror longer time,and
who will or will not leave the country in the future. These are the Chinese children who
are from Taiwan, Hongkong, or some other countries (areas), and for whom Mandarin
Chinese (or a certairi. Chinese dialect) is retained 一一if not in the child,then at least in the
parents. The term “Chinese" here is, therefore, linguistically, rather than politically or
genealogically,defined. And,among these,the then 2-year-old (now four) daughter of the
writer is themain一 -andin some sense most important and typical--subject of study. For
the others the writer either knows the children in person, or knows the parents well
enough as to be able to observe the language of their children.
1.2 Methods And Procedures
Early as the time when the main subject (the writer's daughter, known as “
Ting-ting") was born (on October 2, 1980, in Taipei) and during its infancy,the father,as a
linguist, has made sporadic observations and taken written and tape records of the
lan-gauge of the child. Since September 1982,when the child was brought to Vienna by her
father, records have been regularly kept for a study of language development. These
include notes taken and utterances transcribed and recorded (in tapes).
The language of the other subjects was taken during a period of about one year (ca. Feb. 1983 - Jan. 1984) and has been for the most part preserved in tape recordings. These recordings were taken on the very spot where an inartificial occasion of
communi-cation existed一 -at home, in the kindergarten,and at various gatherings of the Chinese
community (not a China town). Descriptions and analysis are ther~fore based on such
data.
There exists no official record with regard to the total number of Chinese inhabitants in Austria. One reason for the lack of an official record is perhaps due to the difficulty
in defining who is a Chinese and who is not (see 1.1 above). An inofficial record states that
there are about 800一 1 ，000 Chinese residents in Austria, and most of them (over 60%)
there are, on the average, two children. The result is than 300 adults and 300 children.
The writer's population of fifty,therefore,constitutes one-sixth of all Chinese children in
the capital. Some of the children were born in Austria and are therefore naturalized
(usually with the parents), and others are not. The occupational, socioeconomic and
educational status of the parents lends itself to great diversity. The sampling of subjects is therefore random and reliable.
1.3 Delimitation
Although the study has handled the language of a population of about 50 subjects,it
has not,except for the main subject,handled the language development of the population
in a longitudinal manner: observations since the births of the children have not been made,
and no follow-up study after the observation period has been made,either. The study is,
therefore,chiefly horizontal in nature. In addition,as the writer has taken his own child as
the main subject of study,some of the statements and conclusions made about this
par-ticular· subject may be idiolectal or idiosyncratic and therefore may reasonably not be so
generalized as to apply to the whole population of subjects,and not to be projected to all
Chinese children acquiring German.
2. The Language
The general,nationallanguage as spoken in Austria is German,but German of another
kind. Austrian German is characterized by certain significant features at phonetic,lexical,
syntactic and semantic levels which distinguish itself from the standard variety of the
German.language,Hochdeutsch (High German). Owing to geographical adjacency to the
southern German region of Bayern (Bavaria, centered around Munchen), the general,
especially mid-western dialect of Austrian German comes much closer to that of Bavaria than to the high language. l
There is，的 the writer observes,substantial difference in pronunciation,intonational,
rhythm and tempo between Austrian German and the standard Germany variety. Among
these, Wienerisch, the dialect of Vienna, appears to be a distinct dialect of Austrian
German,which distinguishes itself from all other varieties of the latter.
1. For a general description of Austrian German,see “Deutsch in Osterreich," in Ebner, Wie Sagt
318 數學與研究第七期
Phonetically, the German language is characterized, though to some extent
im-pressionistically, by relatively less variation in intonation,ryhthm and tempo as compared
with such “ryhthmic" languages as (British) English. The sounds of German sound very
“
hard" to the non-german ear; the sentence“
flat"; and many combinations of sounds arejust tongue-twisting both to the English and to the Chinese speaker. It lacks,so to speak,
the impressionistic quality of fluency and
“
liquidity." The word-initialIzl ofHochdeutsch(spelled 忘的 in Sie ‘(polite form of) you', so 'so', sagen 'say', Sache ‘thing',Saal ‘hall',
Samstag ‘Saturday', etc.) gives the acoustic impression of being “hard,"“rigid,"“cold,"
or any other epithet of the' kind (so the writer was told by his Canadianclassmate一 -one
who perhaps for some reason fostered an unconscious prejudice against Germans or the
German language一 -at the language center of the University of Vienna). Many of the
consonant
clusters，的 Ipf/
2 (as in Pferd‘
horse', Kopf 'head', Pfennig‘
penny', Pfiff‘
whistle', Karpfen‘
carp',etc.一 -not to mention the addition of some other consonants tothe cluster，的 I-mpf-I in schimpfen ‘scold' and Ipfl-I in P[lanze ‘plant', P[licht ‘duty',
etc.), Ikn-I (as in knapp ‘tight', Knecht ‘slave', Knie ‘knee', etc.), Itsvl (as in zwei ‘two',
zwischen ‘between', zwolf‘twelve', zwanzig ‘twenty', zwar ‘indeed', Zweck ‘purpose',
etc.), I-Inl (as in sammeln ‘collect', wandeln ‘walk, wander', Tafeln ‘blackboards', etc.),
I
J
vi (as in Geschwister ‘brothers and sisters', schwarz ‘black', Schwein 'pig, swine'Schwester
‘
sister',schwimmen‘
swim',etc.),and so on.Some of the
“
hard" sounds of standard German,however,have been to some extent“softened" in Austria. This tendency is most obviously perceived in the softening of all
word-initial Izl sounds to its voiceless counterpart lsi (if for some not totally voiceless,
then at least to a great extent devoiced),thus producing lsi: Ifor Izi: I Sie
‘
(polite form of)you', Ise: I for Ize: I See
‘
sea(f.); lake(m.)', Isol for Izol so‘
so',!,
sa:ganl for!,
za:gQnlsagen
‘
say',/,
se:Qnl for/,
ze:Qnl sehen 'see',and the like. This makes the pronunciationof such words much easier for English and Chinese speakers because, in English,
word-initial s is always pronounced as lsi and,in Chinese,there is a similar voiceless po but no
voiced counterpart.
Austrian German lends itself in genera
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司司
‘You can't do that! (It's not permitted to do that!)'; etc. All these ahd siirtilatTittefances
of Wienerisch, when spoken exactly by a Viennese with a native accent, are not to be
easily comprehended even by speakers of standard German. The following is the rewritten version of these sentences in the generallanguage done by the writer:
(l) a. wunsch' wohl g'speist z'hab'n
ich wunsche mich,gut gespeist zu haben
b. a schon's Wetter z'mach'n (ein) schones Wetter zu haben c. Dees kummt rna spanisch vur.
Dies(es) kommt mir seltsam vor. d. Rab'n S' an' Idee!
Raben Sie eine Idee!
e. da~ i net lach
da(3ich nicht lache
f. Sunst haben S' kaane Schmerz'n?
Sonst haben Sie keine Schmerzen? g. Rab'n S' kaan' Turk'n g'seg'n?
Raben Sie keinen Turken gesehen? h. Gehst denn net!
Denn geht es nicht!
Much can be said about the above examples of the Vienna dialect as compared to the
general version of German. Let us note only the following points: I) in speech
,
there is ahigh frequency of occurrence of contracted form; (self~vident) vowels, especially the
schwa (i.e. the unstressed central vowel
I
g /), as inwii
nsch', g'speist, hab 況， g'seg'n, andthe like,are often omitted; the omission of other sounds,as of
lui
in the first syllable ofzu haben ‘to have' in (a) and zu rnachen 'to make' in (b), and of the vowel li:1 in the:
personal pronoun Sie 'you (polite form)',isself~vident in the sense that it does not hinder
communication. 2) Lexical旬， there is 'a change in the basic vocabulary: a is substituted
for ein ‘a, one',dees for dies( es) ‘this', rna for rnir‘to me',ifor ich ‘I',netfor nicht ‘not',
etc. 3) Morphological旬， there is a simplification of inflectional endings,often by omitting
them altogether, as an' in (d) (for eine ‘a,one') and kaan' in (g) (for keinen 'no (in the
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The development of a second language (German) in the main subject of study has
been an interesting and revealing process. This happened in a period of two years
(September 1982 - August 1984) in the German-speaking country of Austria. The child,
then one year and eleven months old, arrived in the capital of the country,Vienna,in
mid-September, 1982 (the mother had already been there for a little more than one year)
and was to stay there for at least two years. She arrived there with no previous knowledge
of German. The next month,when she had just celebrated her second birthday,she was
sent to a public Austrian kindergarten downtown Vienna, where she began to face a
com-pletely different culture and language.
The little child must have had a very hard time staying for the first few weeks in the
Austrian kindergarten, for it had no linguistic means even to express its immediate needs
(of hungry, thirst, etc.). The parents taught the child nothing of the language since,as a
matter of fact, language could hardly be “taught" to a two-year-old child,unless it had
the imminent need toacquireit.
The child did. A few weeks later,some German words began to slip from the tonque
of the child. Those were all the words or expressions for basic needs in life and for the
people and objects that the child came daily in contact with. In sequential order,the are:
(2) a. Puppe ‘doll'
b. Tante ‘aunt (ie )' (the kindergartner)
c. Lulu ‘making water'
d. nein
‘
no'e. esse
‘
eat(lst.sg.pres.)'f. *drinke (inexact form for trinke
‘
drink(lst.sg.pres.)')g. weg!
‘
(go) Away! Get out ofhere! Leave me alone!'h. 0 ja!
‘
Oh yes'i. weh-weh! (expressing pain)
j. nohomei (Wienerisch form for nochmal
‘
once again', uttered with exactly theVienna intonation)
k. bitte
‘
please'1. hoppla!
‘
Watch out!'m. hallo ‘hello'
326 教學與研究第七期
o. das! ‘That (one)!'
p. Suggie (child form for) Zucker
‘
sugar,candie'q. ?Zuggie (child form for)Zucker ‘sug缸， candie' or Zug
‘
train'r. muzzie (child form for) schmutzig
‘
dirty's. 叮I!assa (inexact form for) Wasser ‘water'
1. Hund ‘dog'
u. Katze ‘cat'
v. Siggie 'Siggi (the name of a cocoa drink)'
w.du! ‘you!'
x. bravo!
‘
bravo! great!'y.geh! ‘Go (away)!' ‘It's permitted!'
It is interesting and revealing to scrutinize these early German utterances of the
subject, especially in comparison with the development of the early utterances of the
first language. To begin with, it is interesting that the form Puppe ‘doll' developed as
the first lexical item in the child's experience with the second language. From a
socio-linguistic point of view,the situation is easily explained. The real story goes like this: On
the first day when the child was brought to the kindergarten by her parents,she cried (as
any other child may) and would not stay. The kindergartner held her in her arm and gave
her a doll, saying,“eine Puppe一 -dasist eine Puppe" (‘a doll一一this is a doll'). This was
actually the first German utterance that the child “learned." It certainly did not acquire
the whole sentence with correct German inflection (which would be too complicated for
her), but only the name for the object,Puppe. As a doll is perhaps the first personal
belonging for all children, it is no surprise that the linguistic form for it develops very
early in the child's language experience.
The second form which developed was the word for the kindergartner,Tante. This
from a sociolinguistic point of view is again interesting and meaningful. Since the
kinder-gartner was the first person whom the child there came in close contact with,the linguistic
form naturally developed for her prior to all others.The same interpretation holds perhaps
also for the development,in sequential order,of the next few forms in corpus (2): Lulu.
the child form for going to lavatory,which is an immediate need for the child; nein 'no',
the form for denial and rejection; esse, ‘(I)eat',for expressing something like“I'm hungry;
I want to eat something"; *drinke '(I)drink',for 呵 'mthirsty; I want to drink something",
Itrl
(the latter being more difficult for the child to pronounce); weg!‘
Away!', the formfor use when one is upset and wants to be alone,or for rejecting disturbance; 0 ja!
‘
Ohyes!',for confirmation in general,or for an agreement or consent made in a casual manner,
like “That's all right!"; weh-we缸， the expression of pain, as when one gets hurt or
stum-bles over something, which happens very often among children; 相ohomei ‘once again',a
form with which to ask someone else to repeat something; bitte ‘please', .the most fre·
quently and widely used word in the Austrian cUlture,5 which is often used even when the
kindergartner speaks to the little children; and so on. In sum,at this point,it must be noted
that the development of all forms一 -and in such an order一一takes on almost always a
social, environmental and/or oultural significance. Only in such a meaningful linguistic
setting can the language of a child一 -either of the first or of a second--be properly and
naturally developed.
One finds interesting results comparing the early developments of the two systems
(i.e., L1, Chinese, and L2, German) in this particular case of the subject. Significant
correlations seem to hold between the two processes. When one compares corpus (2) of
L2 with the previous corpus of L1 (in Appendix I), some important results regarding the
language development of this child一 -and presumably of all children of the same back祖
ground一 -may be obtained,namely:
1. The linguistic form for
‘
doll' developed as the first meaningful lexical unit in bothlanguages.
2. The forms for two persons, nai-nai, ‘grandma' in L1 and Tante in L2, developed
respectively as the second significant forms in both processes. In exactly the same
order (in both languages as a third item) developed the form naio-niao and Lulu,
expressing the same basic need. So did the expressions for the other basic needs of
life: fa研fan ‘rice' and esse '(I) eat' developed as a fourth and fifth meaningful
utter-ance,respectively,for example.
3. Interesting enough is that the form for negation and refusal (in Chinese, bu; in
German, nein) developed in the observed child firstly in L2 rather than L1 • The
German form nein developed very early in the child's experience of L2,when the
corresponding L1 form bu had not occurred. This explains probably the fact that in
5. The communicative functions ofbitte are many,which correspond by and large to English‘please',
‘you're welcome!',‘excuse me',‘come in (please)!',‘with pleasure!',‘don't mention it!',‘(1 beg
'P l1 (Sl:l可 sHqnd) P[OU1V plllA也P3 :UOPUO l 'Z8-89E‘ "ONjO正 HJ :l qlpUB S:lλjO 正HJ 叫1" 'a3vn3uv7fo spadsv
.moo
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19H1M. g中 SB lB J sV 'g;)UBldg;);)B pUB U0!l BUl ~JUO;) 10J lBqlOl lO pdpgdOlgAgp IBsnJglpUB U0 !l B '5 gu 10J Uo!ssgldxg ;)!ls~n '5uH gql (SlgqlO lS。由 qH M. A Jq Bq Ol d pUB) PITq;) S阿 l JO g '5 Bn '5 uBI gql U~ lBqlPg Aj gsqo Uggq SBq H ‘ 19qund ''17 ''5u~pugd pUB A lB SSg;)gU g lOUl q;) t1Ul Sg凹 O;)gq叮叮叮 0l pUB gSnJgl 0l 'AUgp 0l凹 lOJ ;)!ls~n '5uH BJO pggU gql‘ P的的 qduio;)g lOUl耳。 nUl S! gldogd U甜瓜 19q PB lU 0;) glg可必‘ 19A9M. Oq‘ UgllB'5 -lgpU月刊 l uI'g '5 Bls Ap昀叫 lU~ IBsnJgl lO J I日 lOJ gql '5u~dOlgMP JOpggU SSgl AIgA!l BI叮 叮glg 可l 'au '5 U!ABSJO AHSSg;)gUSSgl ;}lO J;}l;}ql SBqpUB Slgq凹 gUl AUUl BJ泊中° M. gJ BpUB S lU glBd ;}用中!M. Aluo '5 uoIB Slg '5 PIT可 ;)g可 l glgq M. 'AI! Ul BJgql U~ gJHAUBp JO '5 umgS gql 血色 臨斗~;l，€瞌睡宙海 8([Stages of~-development and language consciousness
The development of the second language in the main subject of study may be divided
into three functionally distinct stages. These are:
1st Stage: Oct. 1982 - Apr. 1983 (ca. 7 months)
2nd Stage: May 1983 - Aug. 1983 (ca. 4 months)
3rd Stage: Sep. 1983 - Aug. 1984 (ca. 1 year)
The division of the whole process of L2-development of the child is by no means totally
arbitrary,for it is based on an actual observation of the situation in which the language was
acquired and manipulated by the subject being studied. Each of the stages has therefore its own characteristics.
The first stage
During the first stage of the child's second-language experience,which began with the
day it was sent to the Austrian kindergarten,the subject exposed herself to whatever was
exposed to her: the new language together with the new culture. The forms or expressions
she acquired during this period take on a heavily loaded social significance. The first L2
form she uttered,Tante ‘aunt', for example,meant for her not only the person referred to
(i.e., the particular kindergartner), but also perhaps hoppla! ‘watch out!', weh! (an
ex-pression for pain), and the like. This is justified by the observation that,whenever some
kid in the group stumbled over something,or whenever someone got hurt,she (as well as
some other kids who saw it) almost always said “Tante!"一 -even when the kindergartner
was not present. What's more interesting, the child uttered the same expression even at
home,where there certainly was not such a person. This is to say,the form Tante meant
for her,aside from the denotation of a kindergartner,also a call for attention and help in
the face of immediate danger,for care in the face of need,for providing safety in the face
of fear,etc.
A second feature of the first stage is that,except for a few,all the utterances were
made up of only one word (see the previous corpus of (2)),i.e.,almost all of them were
single-word expressions or the so-called one-word sentence. At this point it must be noted that many of the one-word utterances of little children from a functional point of view
should be considered as full statements (i.e.,propositions) rather than as isolated lexemes
because they stand for complete propositional concepts of the child who utters the forms.
330 教學與研究第七期
呵呵
situation of communication, “I want that one." The complete proposition was in the
mind, though the child did not yet have the kind oflanguage一一languagein terms of the
adults一 -toexpress it.
A third characteristic at this stage is the lack of inflection. For any highly inflected language like modern German it is impossible to expect anyone who sets out for it to produce the language with all the correct inflectional endings of the proper sentence. At
least two items in the child's early speech, however, seem to have been correctly
con-jugated: esse '(I) eat' and *drinke '(I) drink'. These are still to be considered as solid
forms,which are perhaps the result of direct imitation,for,at the same time,there was no
form in the speech of the child as i{3t '(you/he/she) eat(s)',though once for a while there
was the fluctuation between esse (the proper form for the I s1.sg.) and essen (the infinitive
form and the form for I s1. and 3rd.pl., and for the polite form of 2nd.sg. and pl.),
some-times saying esse! and some other time saying essen! for the function of ‘I want to eat
(this、 that ， something)" As another example the child said,instead of the correctly
con-jugated form schla[e '(I) sleep', almost always the infinitive form schla[en. All this and
similar evidence indicates that,when any child,native or non-native,comes to acquire such
a highly inflected language as German,it acquires the lexical items together with the forms
in which the lexemes happen to show up for that particular communicative function; and
not,as one supposes,acquires lexemes and forms separately. That is to say,the lexeme,the
form,and the semantic function are acquired altogether as a single unit.
A fourth feature is that,as with the early development of the mother tongue,
gram-matical markers are almost always deleted. Instead of nimmt den Ball 'Take the ball',for
example, the child almost always said nimm Ball (Ii仁， 'Take ball'), where the definite
article,together with its case information,is deleted.
A final characteristic of the first stage is the unawareness of the existence of two
systems. This is interesting, for the child, while speaking two completely different
lan-guages, was not conscious that actually there were two. Thus it may well be said that,
mentally, the two systems were fused into one in the child,though in actual application
the child somehow had the innate capability to keep the two apart and switch between them.
The second stage
The second stage of the development of L2 in the main subject is characterized by
in-flection, by a better manipulation of the grammatical gender of nouns, and by more frequent use of pronouns and function words. Part of the utterances of this period appear as follows:
(3) a. daher! ‘from there!'
b.komm! 'Come!'
c. dank schO'n (inexact form for danke schO'n 'Thanks a lot')
d. komm mir her!
‘
Come to me (here)!'e. du nie!
‘
You can never (do that)!'f. na geh!
‘
Ohgo!'‘
Oh,that'll do!'g. ja? ‘Right?'
h. ein,zw剖， drei,los!
‘
one,two,three,go!'i. der Mond da!
‘
The moon there!'j. eine Puppe das! ‘That's a doll'
k. *die Hande (incorrect form for die Hiinde 'the hands')
1. *das meine Papa (inexact form for das(ist)mein Papa
‘
That('s) my papa')m. *meine Muttie komm (inexact form for meine Muttie kommt
‘
My mother iscoming')
n.Schau mal das!
‘
Just look at that!'o. ist gut '(It) is good'
p.mach das! ‘Do it!'
q. *ich gehe wasche (inexact form for ich gehe waschen
‘
I go to wash (my hands)')r. mein Papa da ‘My papa there'
s. nimm den Ball! ‘Take that ball!'
1. Papa schau! die Tante mach das! ‘Papa look! 'Thr.launtie does (is doing,did) that!'
u. na(H ‘(It's) wet!'
v. was ist das? ‘What is it?'
w. Essen auf dem Tisch
‘
(The) meal (is) on the table'x.ich komme morgen wieder‘I come tomorrow again'
Interesting and significant conclusions can be drawn from a comparison of corpus
(2) and corpus (3). Whereas almost all utterances in (2) are one-word sentences,most of
(3) are composed of two or more words and some are even longer. It was in this period
'U~lPI! lP~AqBU-UOU 01 Sl~Ul1 B81~PU!耳叫 lOp lO U ‘Sl~u8!~10] 01 qsn8u立耳 B~dsU1 oPI~s sUB !l lsny ~ql '6 .“S lOl1~" 10 "S~:>i B1S!U1" ~q lOU AB U1 A~ql‘ PI! q;)~ql]O U1lO U ~8Bn8uBI~ql U1 01d 'U1lO U s，HnpB 叫1 U1 01] U~司的 ~lB‘ ~smo;)]0 ‘~s~ql '8 p;npa .JM. dJlfS alfL‘ ~U~~lD U1 BqB1D -'lnoqB正 poqou‘耳 ;)~p~ql 8uoIBlno slq8n ~ql'l~!nb ~UOqd0U1 B18~ql ‘l~lBM ]0 ss!可 pUBl!dS ﹒耳0 耳8UBg 01 uo OS puy :'8'~'p~IIUIn] ~q UB;)uoq;)Un] ~AqB;)!UnU1U1 0;)~U1!l d~ql SB8uOI SB‘ ~l的 !p~ld~1~Id U10;) BlfiOql!M 10 ‘ suoq;)unfuo;) l~doldlnoq l!M ‘ql~A E lnoql!必‘ p~fqns Blnoql!M lB~ddB AB U1 ~;)U~lU~S XOpoqllounUB 'S~;)U~lU ~S IIn]AIIBJqB U1U1 B18 ‘ IBU0 !l! PBll SnSl~A sy 'L gJ3BnJ3 UBI-UJ3 ~~UOJ/-pUOJgS IB山 lOU Aq pgm山山 OJ 凹的O l[l Ol lSBllU OJ 叫 IBlUgurdOlgAgp SB pglgp~SUOJ gq glOJglg l[ l Plno l[ s S lO Ug gSO l[ l 6'uc有 1官司 un山山 OJ JO SU昀叩 glOS g l[ l SB pUB g J3 Bn J3 uBI gAPBU BSB ug)[ods S~ g J3 Bn J3 uBI g l[ l glg l[M. Al~un山山 OJ Jps~nJ3Un B U~ ‘19AO -glO叫‘ pUB pgdOlgAgp AnnJ 19A lO UPB l[ g J3BnJ3 UBI gAPBU g l[ l Ug l[M. POO l[ PH l[ J Almg U~g 山q BlB gnJ3 UOllgl[ lO叩 gl[ l 0l1mlsAs 1θllv ，md B S它 gJ3 BnJ3 UBIUB 山199 g l[ l 8u! .I !nb :J v10 J3U~dOlgAgp AnBnpB SBi\也 UO~SsnJS~pU~ PH l[ J g l[ l 'AISnO~Agld pglBlS S它‘詢問 S 'gn J3 UOl 19l[ lO山 S‘gUO J3ut 耳nbJB U~ gp它山 gl它呵呵呵品的 Ol[ l 0l sgndd 它 AnBnsn
“
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1
0 sdnss -e) a;)u -e w lO jlad;)nS!ngun u! samu叮叮 p-elO ds‘[-e ns-e;) A[UO s! l -e q M. pu -e PUq;) aql JO walsAspazn -eUl glU! AP昀 l[-e aql0l A[[ -e np -e sguopq l叫M. gun -e mdgs u! ~AU-e gq p[no;)alaql J! WlOU ag -e ngu -e[ -e gU!呵呵 q-e lsa uγ·a·! ‘PUq;) 叫l lOJ q;)aads JO apo;) "lqgp" ‘[-e山lOU a甲 gun昀 U!PP pu -e gU!U!PP u!一 -S-e gl-e JOlaqwnu -e u!san Al[n;)日 J!P aq.!·pooqUq;) A[mg pu -e A;)U叮閃閃 ualPuq;) JOq;)gads aql u! al -e A[[ -en p -e "Sg)[叮叮叮 " 1。“ SlOll丸， l -e q M. auuap 01 ‘grq!ssod 山!A[a 耳lua lOU qgnoql ‘lIn;) 日JW A[[ -en sns! H M. a!AJO lU !od !Jo!Jd v u -e wOld ·S M. O[[OJl -e qlUo!ssnjs!p laqpnJawos Aqalgq lU !od ls呵呵 l l -e ap a有-e W IH M. aM·S;)nSpap -e l -e q;) [它lUg 山dO[gAap M. oqsS lO lla [[-e lSOW[ -e (t 0[ ~alO 山 lOU R‘ ls耳 J aqlJO l -e ql s它 9間的叫 l lnoq -e s -eM. ag-e ngu它[ puo;)as 叫l 0l gmsodxa JO ga~gp lO 9山 n gql (£ ~gUOaAn -eu 它s -eM.lua 山UOl!AUa aql (z :ag -e [-e ;)ml;)aql aloJaqguO[ ‘ pooqPUq;) A[l昀 u! a;)-e [d 有OOl lU gwdo[aAgp JO ssa;)old aql ([ :gl它 suos-e al aq.! ·ls耳 J aql saJ!nb:m pu -e gg -e ngu -e[ puo;)as 它 sUJval auo A[[ -e WlOU qgnoql ‘SUOS 昀1 JO laqwnu -e lOJ uoms!nb 。v ag -e ngu -e [-pUo;)as JO auo SB uoqsanb u! 甜的叫l gupap!SUO;)叫 paunsnf gm gM ·gSUgS Al -e UW lO u -e u! gU!Ul -e a[ag -e ngu -e[ JO lOU pu它叫符 jVn~u !l!q JO auo s! paA[OAU! as -e;) aql ‘ SplO M. 19q1o uI﹒山 alsAs心 vpU o :J as -e s -e AUl-e U耳 ldgg -engu -e[叫l ~U!UJVal lO gU!dOPAgp al -e oq M.‘SlgUmg[(‘i, ;}SR;}ld ‘ lUR M. no正 OplR 可M.‘耳s ，)“i，;}!S U;}l可 JO叫 SRM.‘ ll;}H l;}G" :SR ‘ lnJJO OSIR正 E叫 lTS;} 叫!l;}ωOS 'ZI 10， P閉 ， aJ1j:J v凶 0l pUB lu~s，'U d S~ ~;)U~l~Pl ~Um 叫l U叫必 J1j:J V凶 0l P~~U呵。 ~q PIn。可 S 1j:JV 叫‘lpns SB ‘ pUB ~APB1~d山~ UB U Bl
n
l~qlBlgAP 的~pU~ UB S~的 UBl ~nn~可 l JO l1 Bd PUO;)~S 9可 l lBql ~~pnfOll~~SB~ S~ l! “l ! (~u~opS~) s~op~PU nB~可 .Ii 有001 ‘BdBd ， iSVP 1j:J V Ul aJuv .L alP inv 1j:J SvdvJ JO lX~lU O;)~可 lU~ 'AIPpn'] 'lOU 10 lOll~ UB S~‘ (~Ap的 ~pU~ 's~ld'~s'Pl£) J1j:J v叫 JO P昀 lSU~ '(IB~nbouo;) ‘~AP Bl~d 山~ '~s'puz:) 1j:Jv 仙似位叫l JO WI0J 叫l 1~可 l~可 A也 ~P~;)gp 0l lSAIBUB-I011~~可 l 10J Alln;)UJ~p IBpuBlsqns ~P~AOldIn A也‘ lOUS~ l! U~可必 'pgllO ;)U~ lnqC
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sie kommen
‘
they come''hat. . . gemacht ‘hasdone/did' 的 whenthe time reference is past or perfect.
Some other deviations from adult speech as found in the corpora (2) and (3) are the
use of dank for danke in (3c),Hande for Hiinde in (3k), meine for mein in (31), komm
for kommt in (3m),wasche for waschen in (3q),etc.When all these and other “e叮ors"are
corrected in the way the adult thinks they should be, they become no doubt
“
better"language一 -but no longer the child's language. The developing child is bound,therefore,
to make mistakes.
In addition,results of the observation of the language of the developing child confirm
the general statement that the final linguistic code of the child is the result ot slow,
con-tinuous development and evolution. It is the result of a long,continuous process of
self-adjustment, self-correction, internalization, and generalization, discarding whatever does
not conform with the general code of the speech community and consolidating whatever
does in its way to approxjmate the general,adult code. Let us look closely at some more
details of the corpora:
1. Development ofverb forms: Conjugation of German verbs is much more complicated
than that of English and asa result it is generally much more difficult to acquire the
correct verb forms of German than those of English. For any verb, for example,
there exist several different forms intheIndicativePresent:
ich komme 'I comed4 wir kommen 'we come'
du kommst
‘
you come'。/sie/es kommt
‘he/she/it comes'
And, as in Mandarin Chinese, there exists also a particular pronoun form for the
polite address in the second person,singular and plural (the plural form of Mandarin
αIi的時， ?ning-men 您憫，being less acceptable), which in isolation can be
distin-guished only in writing:
Sie kommen 'you(sg.& pI.) come'
For the imperativethere exist also different fonns for the second person singular and plural:
komm! ‘你ou)come!' kommt! ‘你ou) ∞me!'
13. German present perfect corresponds English present perfect and simple past. Germlln simple past,
however,is much more limited in use than English simple past.
14. German has no progressive tense forms; simple forms,therefore,also signify progressive meaning,
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