電視台國際新聞編譯的專家生手研究 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1) . 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文政治大. 立Master’s Thesis. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 y. Nat. sit. 電視台國際新聞編譯的專家生手研究. er. io. A Study of Experts and Novices:. n. Using International News a Journalists From UDN vTV As An Example. i l C n hengchi U. Student: Yi Wesley Wei 魏毅 Advisor: Professor Yi-Ning Katherine Chen 陳憶寧教授. 中華民國 103 年 6 月 June 2014 .

(2) . 電視台國際新聞編譯的專家生手研究 A Study of Experts and Novices: Using International News Journalists From UDN TV As An Example. 研究生：魏毅 Student: Yi Wesley Wei 指導教授：陳憶寧教授 Advisor: Professor Yi-Ning Katherine Chen. 國立政治大學. 學. 國際傳播英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. ‧. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大. er. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. i n U. v. C h A Thesis e n g cMaster’s h i Program in Submitted to International International Communication Studies National Chengchi University In partial fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 103 年 6 月 June 2014 .

(3) . Acknowledgement Finally today has arrived. It feels like it was just yesterday when I took the entrance exam for IMICS. I could still remember the first day of class, the first lesson of communication theory, the first presentation, and the first term essay. It was filled with excitement, joy, and sheer happiness, and of course, there was also a mixture of fear, anxiety, and loneliness. Two roads diverged in the yellow woods, but sadly I could not travel both. From English literature to international communication, my life has made a turn for me, and that is by far one of the greatest choices I have ever made for myself. Although along. 政治大 my head held high to say立 that I’ve come so far and tried so hard, and I’ve found. the path of the journey, people questioned my thoughts. And I can now proudly with. ‧ 國. 學. something.. I would love to express my gratitude to my parents, who backed me up the whole time and supported my studies. I am also very honored to be Prof. Yi-Ning Katherine. ‧. Chen’s student during my two years of graduate life. Thanks for the help and support. y. Nat. from Prof. TJ Shih and Prof. Wen-Ying Liu during the entire time of the lessons and. io. sit. the composition on my master’s thesis. Were it not for all of your love and concern, I. n. al. er. wouldn’t be where and who I am today.. i n U. v. Two years have passed, and now I am making another turn for myself. I know all. Ch. engchi. these turns and dots will eventually be connected together, and this suturing point will then be my wonderful asset.. Thank you Wenzao, and thank you IMICS, NCCU. Now, life awaits ahead. Two roads diverged in the yellow woods, and I chose the less traveled by. And that has made all the difference. To IMICS’14, happy graduation. Yi Wesley Wei 2014/6/22 Taipei, Taiwan. . i .

(4) . Abstract International news is deemed to be one of the best channels for the public to get access to the information about the world. As media being the channels of disseminating international news, the way that international issues and affairs are reported, selected, and the volume and quality of international news being aired shape and influence citizens’ view toward the world. However, it is indicated that the portions of international news both on newspapers and TV were little was due to low visibility from the audience and even ignorance, and there is a need for more academic attentions. With regards to this, this research anticipated analyzing what make a novice. 政治大 differences between an expert 立and a novice journalist of international news.. journalist of international news become an expert, and what contribute to the. ‧ 國. 學. This study tried to come up with a better understanding toward international. news journalists in terms of knowledge structure and problem solving strategies, and to propose a brief guideline for become an international news journalist equipped with. ‧. expertise.. y. Nat. This study expected to appropriate participant observation to understand what. io. sit. makes an expert or a novice; namely, what contributes to the differences that lie in. n. al. er. between international news journalists in terms of journalistic expertise. Aside from. i n U. v. participant observation, in-depth interviews were also conducted.. Ch. engchi. It is hoped that this research can shed some light on the research of experts and novices combining with journalism, and provide some contribution to the education of international news and journalism. Keywords: Expert-novice, International news, International news journalists, Journalistic expertise, Problem solving, Knowledge structure. . ii .

(5) . Table of Content Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 Literature review ................................................................................................................. 6 TV News Journalists .................................................................................................................... 6 International news and journalistic expertise ........................................................................ 8 International news production and routines ....................................................................... 11 Expert-novice, knowledge structure, and problem solving .............................................. 15 . Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 29 Design ........................................................................................................................................... 30 Participant ................................................................................................................................... 32 . 政治大. Data collection ............................................................................................................................ 35 . 立. Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 36 . ‧ 國. 學. Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................... 37 . Results ................................................................................................................................. 38 . ‧. Interpretations of observations ............................................................................................... 38 Differences of performance in terms of problem solving .................................................. 47 . y. Nat. sit. I. Initial status .......................................................................................................................................... 48 . er. io. II. Target status ........................................................................................................................................ 51 . al. Differences in terms of problem solving strategy ............................................................... 54 . n. v i n Ch Differences of knowledge structures ...................................................................................... 56 engchi U I. Domain knowledge ............................................................................................................................. 56 II. Contextual knowledge ...................................................................................................................... 58 III. Procedural knowledge ................................................................................................................... 59 Other findings ............................................................................................................................. 61 Depth of knowledge (specialty) .......................................................................................................... 61 Well-performed working habits .......................................................................................................... 64 . Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 67 References ........................................................................................................................... 79 Appendix I: Outline Question Items for Interviews ................................................. 83 . . iii .

(6) . Introduction. The relationships of media and society have been discussed among diverged perspectives. Social constructivism believes that media are the social constructors, whereas the “mail carrier” analogy is used to describe the characteristic and the duty of the media as simply disseminating the information to the public but not shaping the. 政治大. ideologies (McQuail, 2011). Though these arguments whether media influence. 立. ‧ 國. 學. society or vice versa remain in conflicts, substantially, the media still have high. ‧. selectivity in ways of the representations of the messages to their audience.. Nat. er. io. sit. y. News has always been the source for the public to get access to what is happening out there. Speaking of news viewership, according to Taiwan Social. n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Change Survey, Phase5, Wave3 (2009), conducted by the National Science Council, in the Mass Communication module, 65.4% of the people (n=1295) would choose television rather than newspapers, the Internet, radio, or magazine as their channel for getting new information (N=1980). Namely, TV news can be seen as the vital information source of current affairs for the public. The format of TV news is different from that of other media. A printed news . 1 .

(7) . story layout either from newspaper or magazine consists of words and sometimes one picture attached to it, whereas a TV news story layout is a composition of several works. It is possible to infer that it is much more complex to make one TV news story than that of either newspapers or magazine. International news is believed to be one of the best accesses for the public to. 政治大. absorb information around the world (S. Y. Tang, 2006). As media being the channels. 立. of disseminating international news, the way that international issues and affairs are. ‧ 國. 學. reported, selected, and the volume and quality of international news being aired shape. Nat. sit. y. ‧. and influence citizens’ view toward the world (Song, 2001).. er. io. S. Y. Tang (2006) indicated that the portions of international news both on. al. n. v i n newspapers and TV were little was C hresulted from lowUvisibility from the audience and engchi even ignorance. The results of Taiwan Social Change Survey (2009) further showed that through examining the habits of viewing and reading news, 18.2% of the people (n=360) who have the habit of reading newspapers would focus on international news. Also, 18% of the people (n=356) who have the habit of viewing TV news would focus on international news. With this given phenomenon, though the viewing and. . 2 .

(8) . reading rates of international news on TV and newspaper are not significant, international news is still believed to play an important role in society (C. Lee, 1986), and there is a need for more academic attentions. In the era of new media technologies, especially after the advent of the Internet, the result of information explosion, which is also the consequence of media. 政治大. divergence, has led to the fragmentations of boundaries of different media and blurs. 立. their roles and positions in the society (L. C. Hsu, 2009).. ‧ 國. 學. In Taiwan, news organizations closed down and a great number of journalists. ‧. were laid off in the year of 2006. The closure of media and the duration of the. sit. y. Nat. er. io. transition and the reformation of media ecology when entering Internet era in the. al. n. v i n twenty-first century triggered the to devalue the expertise of journalists, Cpublic h e nto gstartc h i U which led to the lack of passion to news and the downgrade of journalists’ professional performances (L. C. Hsu, 2009; Huang, 2008). Therefore, many wondered whether the disappearance of journalist and the decrease of expertise would take place (L. C. Hsu, 2009; Peng, 1979). Past local research about international news was threefold. Some studies focused. . 3 .

(9) . on layer of the contents, which was the impact of system bias on representation of certain coverage of international news (C. H. Chang & Chang, 2006) 梁, and case studies on production and quality of TV programs of international news (M. Lee, 2002, 2005b). Some others, based on newspapers, and then mainly focused on domestication, tabloidization, and strategies of narratives (Chan, Lee, Pan, & So,. 政治大. 2002; Hung, Liao, & Lin, 2007; Y. C. Lo, 2013; S. Y. Tang, 2006). Also there has. 立. one study that touched on the transformation of international news contents (M. Lee,. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 2005a).. Speaking of previous studies related to journalists, there is one that examined the. sit. y. Nat. er. io. relationship of journalists’ personal health and pressure (H. Chen, 2009), one that. al. n. v i n depicted the ‘publicness’ of journalists 2008), one recorded down C h in society (Huang, engchi U the reformation of journalists under the transition of media ecology (L. C. Hsu, 2009), and one that depicted the relationship of journalists’ imagination and reporting. Past studies on the scope of expert and novice were rare as well. Two studies that examined journalists’ professional knowledge schemata (P. Chen, 2004; Liang, 1990), and only one focused on the transformation of sports journalists and their expertise.. . 4 .

(10) . None of them touched on the transition of an international news journalist from a novice to an expert and its characters of expertise. The research of experts and novices focuses on the outcome differences in between an expert and a novice from a certain scope of profession along with the characteristics that result in these differences. Among the past research, only two. 政治大. touched on the area of journalism, using sports journalist and news editors. 立. undiscovered in the research of experts and novices.. 學. ‧ 國. respectively as the case. Namely, international news journalists still remain. ‧. With regards to this, this research anticipates analyzing how an international. sit. y. Nat. er. io. news journalist is nurtured. To put it this way, this research hopes to find out how an. al. n. v i n international news journalist make make a novice journalist of C ha TV news story, what engchi U international news become an expert, and what contribute to the differences between an expert and a novice journalist of international news. It is hoped that this research can shed some light on the research of experts and novices combining with journalism, and provide some contribution to the education of international news and journalism.. . 5 .

(11) . Literature review. TV News Journalists. Starting from the nineteenth century and on, the positions and roles of journalist became more precise and accurate. Journalist was defined as a person who practices the gathering and dissemination of information about current events, trends, issues. 政治大 and people both nationwide and worldwide (Peng, 1979). L. C. Hsu (2009) also 立. ‧ 國. 學. defined journalists as knowledge processors who transform information into words,. ‧. audios, and videos and pass those down to the general public. The content of. y. Nat. n. al. er. io influencing the society.. sit. information come from journalists, therefore, journalists play a critical role in. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Nisbet (2013) stated that most of the individuals lack of time and energy to look for information about every single issue, event, or policy that might trouble the society. What is profoundly important is that he argued that individuals lack the ability to follow, analyze, and absorb the righteous information about social problem (Nisbet, 2013). In preventing this situation to go downhill and to be made even worse by mainstream media, he believed that the public needs journalists to guide. Some . 6 .

(12) . echoed and stated that journalists are needed to help researching complex issues of facts and communicating those with the public in a more concise and understandable way, and suggested journalists to serve as experts and public intellectuals (L. C. Hsu, 2009; Huang, 2008). In understanding the roles of journalists in different social systems, (W. H. Lo &. 政治大. Chen, 2004) indicated that there are two professional ideologies of journalists, the. 立. neutral and the participatory. They argued that the neutral represents that journalists. ‧ 國. 學. are supposed to be objective and fair in researching and reporting information,. ‧. whereas the participatory stands that journalists need to be active and aggressive in. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. delving deeper for the truth and then provide its explanations or analyses for the public to digest.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The fact that social positions of journalists were becoming clear and the rise of educational levels of the citizens facilitated journalism to be seen as an expertise (L. C. Hsu, 2009). Such expertise provides journalists great power and rights to get closer to the inside details of information, to have the privilege to interview and report, and to be the reputable forth estate in every society (L. C. Hsu, 2009; Peng, 1979). As being. . 7 .

(13) . public intellectuals, journalists through doing news specifically with an assigned beat or an area of coverage build up and accumulate knowledge capital, such as professional knowledge, personal networks, reputation, and skills and experiences, and use the products of their knowledge capital in exchange of economic capital (L. C. Hsu, 2009; Huang, 2008; Peng, 1979).. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. International news and journalistic expertise. ‧. International news is the news format that flows across boundaries in between. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. nations and has its cross-cultural attributes, and it is an unique interaction that. n. balances and adjusts international relations through information flow and transmission (A. H. Tang & Hsu, 2008).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. International news, according to the definition of International Association for Mass Communication (IAMCR), is defined as 1) Home news abroad, 2) Foreign news at home, and 3) Foreign news. ‘Home news abroad’ represents the news that happens outside of the territory of a nation but is related to hers citizens. ‘Foreign news at home’ represents the news that is internationally relevant and happens within the . 8 .

(14) . territory of a nation, whereas ‘Foreign news’ represents the news that neither happens in the country nor has anything to with her citizens (S. Y. Tang, 2006). When reporting foreign news, news journalists need to bridge the gap or make connections in between the original news content and the audience. By making the news relevant to the readers, they themselves then can adopt local ideologies given in. 政治大. the local news content to interpret the issues and events and create meanings about. 立. history, culture, politics, and society (Y. C. Lo, Liu, & Yeh, 2010).. ‧ 國. 學. Since the year of 1990 the entire world has entered into a new phase, and. ‧. therefore, understanding and receiving international information have become. sit. y. Nat. er. io. essential and critical (M. Lee, 2005b). Y. C. Lo (2013) stated that due to financial. al. n. v i n pressure, news media nowadaysCprefer to publish or air international news written or hengchi U produced. by. international. journalists,. also. known. as. international. news. editor/translator, or use the news from domestic news agencies instead of their own journalists. No matter in what news media, what is in charge of international news is called international news/foreign news center, and their news journalists were/are mostly. . 9 .

(15) . foreign language or journalism majored graduates due to the traits of international news that require good foreign language abilities to re-write, re-organize, and translate foreign news (Y. C. Lo, 2008). However, he argued that more and more foreign news are reported both in newspapers and on TVs, therefore, international news journalists are asked to do more than merely translating and re-writing. Namely,. 政治大. international news journalists need to perform professionally with better qualities in. 立. overall researching, re-writing, and re-organizing.. ‧ 國. 學. Past research that touched on professionalism of journalists has all covered. ‧. journalists’ autonomy. Lin (2006) argued that autonomy of journalists is the only. sit. y. Nat. er. io. mechanism that protects both the content of news and their professionalism. Y. C. Lo. al. n. v i n et al. (2010) appropriated previous indexes in examining C h studies and constructed engchi U international news journalists’ autonomy on editing/translating and reporting. The index of autonomy on editing/translating is as followed: 1) be able to choose whatever international news topics that fits journalists’ own interests, 2) be able to choose the sources of the news content and freely decide which part to be reported and which part not to, 3) at least under certain circumstances autonomy is not deprived. The. . 10 .

(16) . index of autonomy on reporting goes: 1) be able to decide from which angle or viewpoint to report the news, 2) be able to decide the amount time spent on writing, 3) be able to decide the length of the writing, 4) be able to avoid political or business factors that force the topic to be changed, and 5) be able to write editorial or news analyses.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. International news production and routines. ‧. Chinese research (Y. Hsu & Tsai, 2008) indicated that narratives is the basic way. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. of transmitting information. News and story these two common narratives that are. n. related in some way, and is the reason why the West commonly use ‘news story’ in the news business.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Y. C. Lo (2013) claimed that international news journalists provide narratives in their works based on their own experiences, in which require great capability of transferring languages that include English comprehension and Chinese expression. International journalists choose and select contents through these abilities and construct and form narratives contents and strategies. . 11 .

(17) . In terms of international news structure, Galtung & Ruge (1965) discovered twelve factors when choosing and dealing with international news: frequency, threshold, unambiguity, meaningfulness, consonance, unexpectedness, continuity, composition, relevance to elite nations, relevance to elite people, persons, and negativity. That is, these twelve factors play an important role in deciding what news. 政治大. to be chosen and what to be neglected.. 立. Past research (M. Lee, 2005b; Y. C. Lo, 2013; Y. C. Lo et al., 2010; Song, 2001;. ‧ 國. 學. S. Y. Tang, 2006) indicated that international news flow has always been in an. ‧. unbalanced condition, and research were mainly focusing on examining the volume. sit. y. Nat. er. io. and direction of international news flow, and how to create new order of information. al. n. v i n and communication (New World Order, NWICO). C hInformation and Communication engchi U Despite the fact that building a new world of information and communication has never stopped, the unbalanced conditions have not yet been alleviated, which has resulted in the center/periphery dependency problem (S. Y. Tang, 2006). With such unbalanced flow that transmits great volume of information from the West into the developing or under developed countries, local international news journalists have no. . 12 .

(18) . option but to subscribe to international news agencies as their sources (Y. C. Lo, 2013; Y. C. Lo et al., 2010; S. Y. Tang, 2006). Y. C. Lo (2013) stated that the international news production of TV news stations is similar to the assembling line: as the international news center being the source of the international news of a certain TV station, supervisors first choose what. 政治大. news stories to be done and then assign the works to the fellow international news. 立. journalists. When international news journalists finish re-writing, translating,. ‧ 國. 學. re-organizing, or searching for relevant news clips, the then hand the works to the. ‧. supervisors to review the contents and later will be sent to editors. Whether this piece. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. of news story will be aired is based on the decisions of the editors who are in charge of the specific hourly news.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Routines of news production are deemed as the models or habits that news journalists follow and adopt to produce either printed or TV news (Peng, 1979). Routines were also defined as attributes of repeated behaviors, distinguishable behavioral models, collective participation, and mutual influence (Feldman & Pentland, 2003). These traits of collective behaviors have no specific rules that guide. . 13 .

(19) . people, however, people in the organizations do know how they function. According to Shoamaker & Reese (1996), they indicated that there are several layers to examine news routines: 1) beat assignment, which describes the beat as a news net that tries to capture all news in one in the limited time; 2) news categories, which facilitates efficiency in arranging what news and how to air; 3) strategies of. 政治大. reporting, among which being neutral is the most common used strategy to defense. 立. critics from the public; 4) reliance on sources of officials or experts; 5) striving for. ‧ 國. 學. getting first-hand information; 6) inter-dependence and cross-referencing among. ‧. different media.. sit. y. Nat. er. io. In the digital era, Shoamaker and Reese (1996) argued that the inter-dependence. al. n. v i n and cross-referencing among different more prominent due to the C h media have become engchi U fact that this routine provides journalists or even media organizations to compare and contrast their own works and models with others and to make adjustments. Reinemann (2004) also claimed that in this digital world, journalists often examine their own performances by referencing others. Boczkowski (2010) further indicated that monitoring and imitation among journalists and media organizations are the. . 14 .

(20) . reasons why contents from different media share high homogeneity. However, studies argued that indeed, routines functions as storages that help facilitate the efficiency of turning complicated issues into understandable phrases and cuts, bring journalists orders, yet routines make news production to be seen as the news factory that are dull and inflexible (W. C. Chang, 2009). Liu (2012) also stated. 政治大. that the change of routines may baffle journalists and trigger inner conflicts.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Expert-novice, knowledge structure, and problem solving. ‧. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. Newell and Simon (1972) defined problem as the status when an individual. n. seeks to do a certain thing but has no idea what actions to take to achieve the goal,. Ch. and therefore there forms a question.. engchi. i n U. v. Human beings’ cognitive activities, which are deemed as purpose-oriented by cognitive psychologists, are hoped to rule out difficulties to achieve goals. Namely, people take cognitive activities to help alleviate difficulties to solve a purpose or a problem. Hence, all cognitive activities can substantially be considered to be problem solving. . 15 .

(21) . Newell and Simon (1972) also pointed out three features about problem that are 1) initial status, 2) target status, and 3) actions. Initial status represents agents’ current situation status when problem is formed, whereas target status represents the ultimate situation status of a problem. Actions then represent the necessary actions taken in attempt to achieve the goal or to solve the problem.. 政治大. Selden and Selden (1997) mentioned that in problem solving, there are a). 立. recognition of a problem, b) formation of alternative hypotheses for the situation and. ‧ 國. 學. choosing, and c) evaluation and testing. Kafadar (2012) further indicated that there. ‧. has six stages in problem solving: a) defining a problem, b) representation of a. sit. y. Nat. er. io. problem, c) planning the solution, d) application of the plan, e) evaluation of a plan,. al. n. v i n and f) evaluation of the solution. or the six-stage problem C hDespite the three-stage engchi U solving, they are similar to what Newell and Simon (1972) proposed about three features of problem solving. Namely, the initial status encompasses the recognition of a problem that defines and forms representation of a problem. Target status involves the formation of alternative of options that help plan the solution for the outcome. Actions then embrace evaluation and testing that helps apply and evaluate the plan. . 16 .

(22) . (see Table 1). Table 1. Problem solving process. Initial Status. Recognition of a problem-Definition and Representation. Target Status. Formation of alternatives-planning the solution. Actions. Evaluation & testing-application and evaluation of plan and action. 政治大 That is, problem solving is the process from initial status to actions, and that 立. ‧ 國. 學. from initial to target status process is about finding solutions (S. K. Chen, 1997).. ‧. Schunn, McGregor, and Saner (2005) stated that the basic instantiation in terms. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. of strategies perspective is that experts have greater strategies than novices do. They. i n U. v. also defined ‘strategy’ as “a coherent sets of steps for solving problem in a context in. Ch. engchi. which different coherent sets of steps are possible” (p.1377), and further indicated that experts have better strategies, are more inclined to using strategies that are better, are capable of examining the circumstances to which a strategy best applies, and are better to execute a given or chosen strategy. S. K. Chen (1997) indicated the discrepancy in between experts and novices in terms of problem solving strategies that: . 17 .

(23) . 1) Experts tend to mull over all possible alternatives, but novices tend to think of fewer alternatives in evaluating problems. Due to the fact that experts tend to have better and deeper knowledge base, through accumulating knowledge experts can come up with more possible alternatives in order to solve a problem and to mull over every possible one, whereas novices tend. 政治大. to have a less organized and fragmented knowledge firm, and can only come up with. 立. limited possible alternatives.. ‧ 國. 學. 2) Experts have better surveillance ability than novices do.. ‧. Due to the accumulation of knowledge and experience, experts tend to have. sit. y. Nat. er. io. better ability and more time to examine every possible detail that may go wrong and. al. n. v i n to fix it in time, whereas novices of both time and ability to C htend to come in short engchi U manage it within the problem solving process. Cognitive psychologists, who conducted expert-novice studies in the past, often employed mathematics or physics problems with beginner students and graduate students or teachers as novices and experts respectively, and productive behaviors of experts were identified during the relatively routine of problem solving (Kafadar,. . 18 .

(24) . 2012; Schunn et al., 2005; Selden & Selden, 1997). Cognitive psychologists indicated that in problem solving, people always use past experience and knowledge to bridge as shortcuts in finding solutions, and because of difference of experience and knowledge in between experts and novice problem solver, the output or performance would be different in the process of problem solving.. 立. 政治大. Selden and Selden (1997) stated that an expert is someone who knows a domain. ‧ 國. 學. thoroughly and can solve problems in a nearly automatic manner, or it can mean. ‧. someone who can come up with things to do even when no clear solutions are. sit. y. Nat. er. io. suggested or found; and both types of experts possess extensive content knowledge. al. n. v i n bases. Selden and Selden (1997)Cfurther inferred that experts who think of ways to do hengchi U when no solutions are found are more successful at solving non-routine problems. Based on the quality and volume of past experience and knowledge structure, expert problem solver and novice problem solver are categorized (S. K. Chen, 1997). Literatures suggested that experts 1) have better memory for related problem details, 2) classify problems based on principles but their surface situation and structure, 3) work. . 19 .

(25) . toward a goal instead of backwards, and 4) use well-established procedures or rules to guide (Kafadar, 2012; Schunn et al., 2005; Selden & Selden, 1997). The first two, having better memory for problem details and categorizing what a problem may belong to, can be seen as being related to schemas and knowledge, which according to (Selden & Selden, 1997), reduce memory load and allow experts to deal with familiar. 政治大. aspects of problems with routines and also free cognitive capacity for new aspects of. 立. problems. Namely, schemas and knowledge structures are vital in determining. ‧ 國. 學. outcome performances of problem solving of an individual and whether a person is an. ‧. expert of a certain domain or not.. sit. y. Nat. n. al. focused on three different. er. io. Dattilio (2010) indicated that traditionally, cognitive behaviors and studies have. v i n layers C h of cognitive phenomenon, engchi U. that are automatic. thoughts, cognitive distortion, and underlying assumptions. Dattilio (2010) further stated that underlying assumptions constitute the general notion of what is referred to as ‘schemas’, which are considered to be the deepest and most basic level of cognition. By definition, according to Beck (1967), schemas are defined as “a structure for. . 20 .

(26) . screening, coding, and evaluation the stimuli that impinges on the organism. On the basis of the matrix of schemas, the individual is able to orient himself in relation to time and space, and to categorize and interpret experiences in a meaningful way” (p.283). That is, schemas help people construct meanings toward the outside world on space, time, and experiences, and are viewed as the basis for screening, differentiating,. 政治大. coding stimuli that people encounter in their lifetime (Beck, 1967). Other definitions. 立. of schemas include “A set of rules held by an individual that guides his or her. ‧ 國. 學. attention to particular stimuli in the environment and shapes the types of inferences. ‧. the person makes from an unobserved characteristic” (Arias & Beach, 1987, p. 110),. sit. y. Nat. er. io. “Organized elements of past reactions and experiences that form a relatively cohesive. al. n. v i n and persistent body of knowledge subsequent perception and C h capable of guiding engchi U appraisals” (Segal, 1988, p. 147), and “Extremely stable and enduring themes that develop during childhood and are elaborated upon throughout an individual’s lifetime as templates for processing of later experience” (Young, 1990, p. 9). Therefore, schemas serve as templates for the way in which a person sees him/herself, the world, and others (Dattilio, 2010).. . 21 .

(27) . Schunn et al. (2005) suggested that experts consist of many different cognitive structures that contribute to their high levels of performances. Schunn et al. (2005) also indicated that cognitive structures include greater familiarity with situations that help facilitate memory, help better representations that capture important features of a domain, help access to previous solutions of problems, and that of well-practiced component skills.. 立. 政治大. From the angle of cognitive-behaviorism, the diathesis-stress model sees. ‧ 國. 學. schemas as memory structures in general (Dattilio, 2010). This particular model has. ‧. the notion that there are features that have been encoded in a person’s past that are. sit. y. Nat. er. io. stored cognitively and can be re-activated at some future moment by the presence of. al. n. v i n an appropriate cue, and this cueCcan be a cognitive, emotional, or even physiological hengchi U one. Cognitive-behavior theorists also claimed that schemas are viewed as representations of past experiences, containing details about cognitive process along with other attributes and characteristics (Dattilio, 2010). P. Chen (2004) mentioned that the job of journalists is to gather daily information for the public, and information gathering requires different knowledge,. . 22 .

(28) . which involves domain knowledge, contextual knowledge, and discourse knowledge. Domain knowledge refers to the knowledge related to concepts, procedures, and relationships of issues that journalists need to possess for distinguishing news when gathering information, whereas contextual knowledge refers to the knowledge that allows journalists to understand contextual senses under certain contextual situation. 政治大. (P. Chen, 2004). Discourse knowledge, according to (P. Chen, 2004), refers to the. 立. knowledge that allows journalists to transform both domain and contextual. ‧ 國. 學. knowledge into signifying systems. Though domain knowledge is the core knowledge. ‧. for journalists, but without the assistance of contextual knowledge, certain. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. interactions or subtle details under different contexts will then not be noticed and understood.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Traditional communication education also indicated that knowledge is the basic attribute of journalistic expertise and can be accumulated, but the difference lies in its volume (Chung & Tsang, 1994). The volume of knowledge that contributes to the difference of journalistic expertise which comprises both declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge (Chung & Tsang, 1994). Similarly, the authors defined. . 23 .

(29) . declarative knowledge as the knowledge that involves the understanding toward the format or content of a certain issue, and can further be divided as knowledge of facts and association of knowledge. Knowledge of facts refers to the understanding of the common facts of an issue or a figure, whereas the association of knowledge refers to the overall understanding that can make association beyond original scope. As for the. 政治大. procedural knowledge, it refers to the strategic knowledge applied to solve problems,. 立. and this specific knowledge is similar to rules and situational meta-rules, which vary. ‧ 國. 學. depending on different contextual situations of an issue, that guide journalists’. ‧. problem-solving behaviors (Chung & Tsang, 1994).. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. With regards to the previous literature review, knowledge structure can be. Ch. categorized as followed (see Table 2).. . engchi. 24 . i n U. v.

(30) . Table 2. Category of knowledge structure. Category. Category explanation. Domain. Knowledge related to concepts, procedures, and relationship. knowledge. of an issue. Contextual. Knowledge that allows journalists to make sense of the. knowledge. context under certain contextual situations. Discourse. Knowledge that allows journalists to transform concept and. knowledge. contextual ones into signifying system. 立. Strategic knowledge that helps solve problems, including rules and meta-rules. er. io. sit. y. Nat. knowledge. association of knowledge. ‧. Procedural. ‧ 國. knowledge. Knowledge that relates with knowledge of facts and. 學. Declarative. 政治大. al. n. v i n C h proposed the differences Chung and Tsang (1994) further that distinguish experts engchi U from novices in terms of knowledge. The authors indicated that experts, speaking of declarative knowledge, have bigger database, and the connection of knowledge structures is tight. Furthermore, with regards to procedural knowledge, experts spend more time in understanding the overall problems and that behind them and use more previous knowledge, which is similar to intuition mechanism. As for novices, in terms. . 25 .

(31) . of declarative knowledge, they merely know basic facts and the knowledge structures are relatively loose, and they tend to use surface facts in organizing knowledge. Past research also provided the insights to the discrepancy between experts and novices. Liang (1990) indicated that 1) schemas of experts have greater cohesion, the linkage or different knowledge, 2) experts can organize their knowledge meaningfully. 政治大. and cater to problem-solving orientation, 3) schemas of experts have higher. 立. complexity, and 4) experts have better abstractness thinking ability.. ‧ 國. 學. In terms of problem solving, S. K. Chen (1997) indicated that 1) experts are. ‧. goal-orientated, whereas the goal for novices is more fragmented, 2) experts tend to. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. propose different ways and evaluate the most effective one in solving a problem,. Ch. whereas novices tend to propose less.. engchi. i n U. v. This study tries to come up with a better understanding toward international news journalists in terms of knowledge structure and problem solving strategies, and to propose a brief guideline for become an international news journalist equipped with expertise. Based on the above literatures, this study proposes the following research. . 26 .

(32) . hypotheses and research questions: RH1a. Expert journalists of international news have better performances than novice ones in terms of initial status. RH1b. Expert journalists of international news have better performances than novice ones in terms of target status.. 政治大. RH1c. Expert journalists of international news have better performances than. 立. novice ones in terms of actions.. ‧ 國. 學. RH2a. Expert journalists of international news have better domain knowledge. ‧. structure than novice ones do.. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. RH2b. Expert journalists of international news have better contextual knowledge. Ch. structure than novice ones do.. engchi. i n U. v. RH2c. Expert journalists of international news have better discourse knowledge structure than novice ones do. RH2d. Expert journalists of international news have better declarative knowledge structure than novice ones do. RH2e. Expert journalists of international news have better procedural knowledge. . 27 .

(33) . structure than novice ones do. RQ1. What are the differences in between experts and novice journalists of international news in terms of problem solving? RQ2. What are the differences in between experts and novice journalists of international news in terms of knowledge structures?. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. . Ch. engchi. 28 . i n U. v.

(34) . Methodology. Chen (2005) indicated that the scope of international studies was examined from micro/macro and selection/construction perspectives. The micro-level and selection perspective focuses on how international news is selected and rewritten from gatekeepers’ angles, whereas the macro-level and selection perspective pays attention. 政治大. to international news flow analyses that delve into international news structures. The. 立. micro-level and construction perspective puts focus on empirical studies by claiming. ‧ 國. 學. that international news formats, contents, and volume are the production of societal. ‧. sit. y. Nat. mechanisms, and the macro-level and construction perspective contributes to. er. io. interpretations of which international news is aligned with media or cultural. n. al. i n C h eofncommunication. imperialism and the political economy gchi U. v. This study expects to appropriate the micro-level and selection perspective in exploring the traits of expertise of international news journalists and realizing the discrepancy in between expert and novice journalists of international news in terms of journalistic expertise.. . 29 .

(35) . Design. In understanding how a journalist completes a task of writing a news story, participant observation would be the most effective way. Participant observation allows researchers to be in a natural setting to fully understand and collect abundant resources for an overall understanding (Babbie, 2007).. 治政 Jorgensen (1989) suggested that the methodology大 of participant observation can 立 ‧ 國. 學. be applied to almost every research in association with human activities, and under. ‧. the circumstance that the already-known facts of any given humanistic phenomenon. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. are scarce, participant observation is indeed very appropriate to be adopted.. n. Atkinson and Hammersley (1994) stated that participant observation, being one. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. of ethnographic methods, is a research method that has “a strong emphasis on exploring the nature of particular social phenomena, rather than setting out to test hypotheses about them” (p.248). As the researcher being a complete observer amongst the other threefold typology of this research method, participant observation claims to represent a humanistic and interpretive approach, as in the opposition to scientific and positivist positions. . 30 .

(36) . Participant observation encompasses a set of open and flexible research method and logic that offers researchers chances to modify research topics, and provides a perspective, an insight, and an explanation toward humanistic phenomenon (Jorgensen, 1989). Hence, this study expects to appropriate participant observation to understand. 政治大. what makes an expert or a novice; namely, what contributes to the differences that lie. 立. in between international news journalists in terms of journalistic expertise.. ‧ 國. 學. Aside from participant observation, in-depth interview also gives researchers a. ‧. plenty of time to ask questions and to get different personal opinions and reactions. sit. y. Nat. er. io. along with the answers given by the interviewees (Wimmer & Dominick, 2010).. al. n. v i n semi-structured C h interview, thisUstudy engchi. Since this is a. designs an outline of. interview items, which are open-ended questions, for the participants to have a better sense of the progress. Participant observation will be the major method applied in this current study to get a crystal overview of the job of international news journalists, and interviews come to assistance.. . 31 .

(37) . Participant. This study aims to recruit two participants, with one senior international news journalist that has more than seven years of experience and one that has less than one year of experience. Two participants will be recruited from UDN (United Daily News Corporation) TV. By setting the factor of seniority, this study expects not to explore. 治政 whether seniority difference may lead to the difference大 of levels of comprehension of 立 ‧ 國. 學. routines, but to realize what may ultimately contributes or affects expertise of. ‧. international news journalists and makes international news journalists an expert and. Nat. sit er. io. al. y. a novice based on seniority difference.. n. UDN TV is a newly established news channel that grows under its mother. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. company, United Daily News Corporation, in the year of 2010. UDN used to be a printed medium, which is famous for its high quality of news and newspapers productions. Under the influence of digital divergence, UDN has transformed into a new media that aim at providing its audience with diverse information and multi-media news sources options. With the advent of new media technologies, UDN now provides readers and viewers with many more platforms and accesses via . 32 .

(38) . mobiles and tablets, TVs, OTTs, STBs, and the Internet. With such a strong organization, UDN TV now shoulders the old traditions and qualities of its newspapers and hopes to carry them onto a new media platform to provide deeper insights and social responsibilities. International news center at UDN TV stands as one of the only unit in news. 政治大. business that requires its international news journalists to accomplish the work from. 立. news gathering, news writing, to video editing, and even video voice-over all by. ‧ 國. 學. oneself. It is believed that international news journalists at UDN TV can be. ‧. encouraged to take fully responsibility of their news stories and can in return produce. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. more vivid and educating news contents through all the writing, editing and. Ch. post-editing, and voice-covering.. engchi. i n U. v. In International news center at UDN TV, there are seven international news journalists and one senior reporter. There is also a director and a lead in this center. All journalists are not assigned to any certain news beat.. . 33 .

(39) . Journalist A: Female, age ranged from 25-30, and graduated from a public university in the United States with a master’s degree in public communication. It has been only 10 months since she started the job as an international news journalist after she quit the previous first job. Her first job was a PR specialist. She likes the PR job except for taking responsibility for other people. She has no related experience before. 政治大. entering news industry except for has taken few classes back in school. She has never. 立. thought about being an international news journalist ever before, but She is contented. ‧ 國. 學. with the job right now.. ‧ sit. y. Nat. er. io. Journalist B: Female, age ranged from 50-50, and possess her bachelor’s degree. al. n. v i n in journalism and master’s degree by two local universities, C h in diplomacy issued engchi U private and public one respectively. She has 7.5 years of experience of being an international news journalist. She used to work for the other cable for six years, and she transferred to UDN TV one year and a half ago. Her first job was a PR specialist, which she considered to be more than merely a PR practitioner. Before the PR job, she used to be an English teacher.. . 34 .

(40) . Data collection. The observer of this study spent five days respectively with both two participants to collect information and documents. Participants were observed for four days respectively excluding their scheduled off-days. During their workdays, participants were observed from the very beginning when they were assigned with a piece of news. 治政大 was the main method of to the very end of their work till they finished. Observation 立 ‧ 國. 學. the data collection. Sometimes interviews were conducted to assist the collection. ‧. process right after they finished their work. In total, ten complete news stories (SOT). Nat. er. io. sit. y. were observed and noted down.. The entire observation started from April 28th, 2014 to May 5th, 2014.. n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Open-minded mindset was possessed to rule out potential bias and stereotype resulted from previous understanding and experience. Participants were asked questions based on their selection and organization of the news story produced during the observations of this study. Participants were also asked follow-up questions with regards to their different backgrounds and answers they provide. Given the fact that each participant may encounter different situation . 35 .

(41) . when dealing a news story, this correspondent strategy is indeed necessary. Both official and non-official interviews and conversations were all part of the data within the scope of this study to be further depicted and examined for the data analysis.. Analysis. 立. 政治大. Data collected through observation, non-official conversations, and interviews. ‧ 國. 學. were further analyzed.. ‧. Data of observations were written down first and typed into word format at the. sit. y. Nat. er. io. end of each observing day. Also, data of non-official conversations and interviews. al. n. v i n were recorded one by one, andCwere typed into word format as well. Worded h elater ngchi U data can easily be quoted in text without make any error. All the quotations used in this study were referred to and named as a third-person singular subject ‘She’, and were served as the proof to the statements.. . 36 .

(42) . Ethical considerations. This study received approval from International News Center at UDN TV. Both participants were informed about the confidential and anonymous handling of their data, and their approvals were received as well. In addition, they were told about the research objectives and how the observations and interviews would be conducted.. 治政大 details down for their own They also received a form listed all the above-mentioned 立 ‧. ‧ 國. 學. reference and record. Participants’ real names have been replaced by alphabets.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. . Ch. engchi. 37 . i n U. v.

(43) . Results. . This study applied participant observation in understanding what attributes. differentiate expert journalists of international news from novice journalists. During the observations, interviews and non-official conversations assisted the flow in understanding their reasons and motivations. Therefore, this chapter will be displayed. 政治大. by analyzed data collected from observations first, and supported by analyzed data. 立. recorded from interviews and non-official conversations.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Interpretations of observations. er. io. sit. y. Nat 〔Journalist A〕. al. n. v i n C h choosing what U . Before e n g c h i news to write on, she browsed. Day 1, April 28th. websites of BBC, AP, and CNA. She then noticed that all the above-mentioned websites have covered the news on the POTUS visiting the Philippines. However, she knew that this news has been done by her colleague from local news section, and she then decided to search for other news topics. She also noticed that there was a piece of news on foreign news websites on 683 Muslim Brotherhood. . 38 .

(44) . members being sentenced death penalty, and she listed this down on her waiting list for today’s news. Besides, she also found out that there was news on new technology. But when she was referring to video footages, she thought the videos were just normal, but the topic was interesting. She then put this on her waiting list as well.. 政治大. She talked to the lead and asked for suggestions. The lead replied that. 立. though the news on the POTUS visiting the Philippines has been done, but the. ‧ 國. 學. reactions from the Chinese has not yet been covered and was worth doing.. ‧. However, she thought the video footage was too short, so she decided to do a BS. er. io. sit. y. Nat. instead of SOT.. al. n. v i n She started from viewing BBC’s Mandarin website, C h and reading CNN, engchi U Reuters media express, and AP Video Hub, and checked related video footages. She wasn’t watching the videos from the beginnings to the ends. Instead, she jumped from one point to another frequently. After assuring the bites within the videos, she then started writing the script for this BS. Before writing, she looked for related news information reported in. . 39 .

(45) . Mandarin, such as CNA, Newtalk, and CNT. After referring to Mandarin news, she worked on her own writings and started to listen to bites. From time to time, she still browsed the Internet to look for appropriate Mandarin news as her writing models. After this, she then started editing and voice covering.. Day 2, May 1st. Due to the Labors’ Day today, there were a lot of protests. 治政 everywhere. She then picked related issues as her大 SOT source. She then started 立 ‧ 國. 學. browsing on Reuters for related news and videos. She found out that many. ‧. countries had protests but the ones in Ukraine and Russia have lost their focus.. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. They were more like protesting for the righteous regime. Therefore, she decided. n. to combine the recent conflicts happened in between these two countries and the. Ch. protests into a piece of news.. engchi. i n U. v. She started viewing videos on Reuters, and of course, she was jumping from one point to another. She only stopped when she heard bites in the videos, and she at the mean time read the words of the bite. She recorded only one time code down for the bite, and she googled related news information reported in Mandarin online. She then started working on her . 40 .

(46) . writings. But she did it back and forth for several times, just to find appropriate interpretations. After this, she started editing and voice covering.. Day 3, May 2nd. Today she suddenly received the call from the editors that the subway incident was needed to be done in a short time. She then put aside all her work and started to look for more information on this for today’s 1800 news.. 治政 Because it was a piece of breaking news that大 just happened, there were only 立 ‧ 國. 學. photos available online. Unfortunately, the incident happened in South Korea,. ‧. international news agencies usually don’t cover or get the information that fast.. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. As a result, she could only find Korean’s reports. Because of the language. n. discrepancy, she could only use the photos published by RT.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Before doing the news, she was told the angle of this news, how it was supposed to be done, and what was supposed to be covered. While doing the news, she found out that Reuters has already uploaded related video and reports. She then started viewing and reading these sources and tried to come up with useful bite to complete this news. She founds two bites and tried to give a clear picture of what exactly . 41 .

(47) . happened, the before and the aftermath. After this, she then started editing and voice covering.. Day 4, May 2nd. She received the assigned work before noon, and was told to combine two pieces of news together into one SOT. She then had lunch first and came back to work after that.. 治政大related to economy, it took She first read the news scripts. Because it was 立 ‧ 國. 學. her longer to absorb the context. It was also because the news was on economy,. ‧. she started to make notes and marks. She also tried to google the proper nouns. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. that she didn’t know on the Internet. When she was reading and viewing the bites,. n. she also made notes for her own references. After finishing the first video, she. Ch. engchi. moved on to the second video and did the same.. i n U. v. When she finished all the original pieces, she looked for more information posted on UDN’s website, and that on other news channels. She then downloaded video footages from AFP and started writing scripts. During the writings, she referred to other news sources many times, trying to find the appropriate way to interpret the news. After all the writings and . 42 .

(48) . proofreading, she googled ‘US job reports’ and modified some of her wordings, and she sent this work to her lead for another proofreading. After the work was proofread and sent back, she then started editing and voice covering.. 〔Journalist B〕 Day 1, April 30th. Today she got the assigned work that was on the election. 治政 explosion in Iraq. She was asked to combine three大 pieces of news together into a 立 ‧ 國. 學. SOT. Three pieces of news contained three different video footages. She then. ‧. asked the lead for reporting direction. The lead replied that hopefully the SOT. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. could cover all the points and controversies. After confirming, she started to. n. examine the videos. She finished all the videos from the beginnings to the ends.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. She also marked down the time codes when important people came on the screen and when bites were out. Later, she then started to read all the bites. After reading the texts, she moved on to writing the scripts. During the writings, she would refer to online news sources reported in Mandarin, including CNA and Liberty News. Due to the issue of the news she was doing, before actually writing the scripts, she . 43 .

(49) . would double confirm that the numbers of the death toll were correct. Later when the news was done, she sent it to the lead for proofreading. Because of her notes, though the scripts were modified after proofreading, she could still finish the work without being influenced by the modification.. Day 2, May 1st. At 8:30 AM, she received the assignment to work on the. 治政 combination of two economical news pieces. She大 then started to listen to all the 立 ‧ 國. 學. videos while reading the texts. She next downloaded other archived videos from. ‧. Reuters. She also marked down time codes and made notes.. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. After listening and reading, she knew that there was related news on this. n. topic. She then searched for related videos in case running in short of videos.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. After this, she based on her notes and picked some of the bites to use, and started to organize the reporting logic so that the audience could understand. When she started writing the scripts, she focused on the logic to make people understand this economical piece of news. When editing, she faced a problem that the length of the videos were not compatible with the length of her voice covering. Therefore, she decided to use . 44 .

(50) . ‘slow motion’ on the videos to maintain the cohesion of the entire news report.. Day 3, May 2nd. At 0930 AM, she received the task asking her to do the news on hurricane attack US. However, she was given any source. Therefore, she searched AP first for more related information. She then found six pieces of news about the hurricane in six different areas of the States. She decided to combine the six of them.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. After searching, she examined the videos from the very beginnings to the. ‧. ends respectively. As usual, she marked down notes and made time code records.. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. She also underlined the places where the hurricane attacked. Right at this. n. moment, she went back to AP for more updated information, and she found. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. another one with better and up-to-date video footage. She therefore decided to use this one along with the other six. When she started listening to the bites, she paid attentions to the details of what exactly happened and the aftermath of the attack. Right during her listening, she was picking the bites to use and was organizing her reporting logic. She found the in the seventh piece of news, there was a better bite with the . 45 .

(51) . interviewee giving more information. She then decided to use this bite, and she changed the entire reporting logic and reorganized it again. After the writing, she sent the work for proofreading, and the editing and voice covering was smooth due to clear and well-organized notes and marks.. Day 4, May 4th. She received the assignment at 9 AM, and was asked to. 治政大 news was on presidential combine three pieces of news into one SOT. The 立 ‧ 國. 學. election in Panama. She knew before hand that news like this would run in short. ‧. of videos, and therefore, she searched for more related videos. When reading and. Nat. al. n. underlined the names of the candidates.. Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. y. viewing the texts and videos, she marked down time codes, made notes, and. i n U. v. This news was relatively more complicated than the previous ones, for there were many names and controversies, and there were a lot of repeated information. However, she realized that there was a common point that three parties all mentioned a little on national policies and constructions. She then decided to use this niche as her reporting logic. One of the candidates mentioned the Panama Canal, and she realized that she once downloaded the video about the . 46 .

(52) . construction of the canal. She decided to use this video because she knew there weren’t enough video footages. She saved videos about important people, government officials, and street views and so on just in case situations like this would happen. She also referred RTI and Yahoo news before she completed the writings.. 政治大. After that, she moved on to editing and voice covering.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Differences of performance in terms of problem solving. ‧. Based on previous literature review, the process of problem solving can be. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. broken down into initial status, target status, and actions. This study aims at exploring. Ch. the difference of problem solving resulting in. engchi. v i n the discrepancy U. of expertise of. international news journalists, therefore, stages were observed to provide the insights. Results show that in initial status and target status, two international news journalists perform differently.. . 47 .

(53) . I. Initial status. In recognizing a problem and trying to form the initial representation of the given/chosen piece of news story, expert and novice journalists of international news do have difference (see Table 3). Journalist A tends to spend a lot more time in reading the original news pieces,. 治政大 more related information figuring out the main points of the news story, and finding 立 ‧. ‧ 國. 學. related to the same issue.. “I usually browse online to look for different news sources, mainly Chinese . sit. y. Nat. er. io. ones, to help me understand what the given/chosen news story is talking about. . al. n. v i n Its is not like I don’t understand its content, rather it is more like I need more Ch engchi U information to make myself crystal clear from making mistakes. Usually the supervisors will let you know what should be mentioned in the output news layout, which are the main points of the given/chosen news story. But I still tend to look for more information to understand more on it.” (A) . On the contrary, Journalist B tends to spend less time in reading the original . 48 .

(54) . news pieces and in finding more related information.. “Usually when I am assigned with news stories, they [the leads] will let you know what they think should be mentioned, and it is undoubtedly the main points that we need to cover. So basically you just have to follow it. But this only happens when not being asked to combine different pieces into one. When . 治政大 being given two or even more pieces and was asked to combine different ones 立 ‧ 國. 學. into one complete story, still, you can know that those must be interrelated. So . ‧. it’s not hard to sense what the main points are, and time can be reduced, and . Nat. sit er. io. . y. of course, you can be fast.” (B) . al. n. v i n When looking for other news A tends to find almost C h information, Journalist engchi U every single piece of news texts online and read them all through while being pending on whether those information is appropriate or suitable and on the representation format.. “I usually search for Chinese online news texts and I tend to look for more of them because the news output is Chinese and your target audience is the . 49 .

(55) . local people. The reason why I search for much more information and read them all through, or even read them back and forth to check for the information is that I need to know what to use. Sometimes when you find that almost every medium mentions one point, and that one point is mentioned in your script, then you should know that that one point is worth mentioning. So I . 政治大. tend to spend more time in knowing and deciding what to use.” (A) . 立. ‧ 國. 學. As for Journalist B, she tends to browse for more useful and meaningful news. ‧. texts segments online to make sure the output news layout is complete and filled with. Nat. er. io. sit. y. everything the audience needs to know.. al. n. v i n “Searching for Chinese reported in Mandarin] online is pretty C news h e n[news gchi U common amongst the colleagues in international news center because the output is Chinese. But I tend to look for different materials. I usually check to see if the Chinese ones have covered something that go beyond the scope of my original script. It is because of the different sources journalists got. So if I do find something that is not covered in my script, I would think those materials . . 50 .

(56) . are useful and important, and I will try to use those materials along with the original script I got to make a news story that covers different angles of facts.” (B) Table 3. Different performance at initial status. Journalists. Performance during initial status. A. Spends more time in definition, representation, and logic organization. 政治大. 立. Spends more time in searching other material while being not sure. ‧ 國. 學. which is suitable to use.. ‧. B. Spends less time in definition, representation, and logic organization. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Spends less time in searching for all textual materials online, important ones only.. n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. II. Target status. In forming possible solutions before putting into actions, differences do exist (see Table 4). Journalist A tends to spend longer time in referring to all online news text. A also tends to spend longer time in order to try to come up with a logical reporting. . 51 .