初級英語教材中文化主題的再現分析 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University 碩士論文政治. 大. 立Master’s Thesis. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. io. sit. y. Representation of Different Culture Themes in English. al. er. Learning Magazines--- Using “Let’s Talk in English” and. n. v i n C h Learning”Uas Examples “ABC Interactive engchi. Student: 蕭玉涵 Sara Hsiao Advisor: 黃葳威 Vivian Huang 中華民國九十九年十月.

(2) 初級英語教材中文化主題的分析— 以大家說英語和 ABC 互動英語雜誌為例. Representation of Different Culture Themes in English Learning Magazines--- Using “Let’s Talk in English” and “ABC Interactive Learning” Examples 政 as 治. 大. 立. 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學程. Nat. sit. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 指導教授:黃葳威. 學. 研究生:蕭玉涵. A Thesis. er. io. n. al Submitted to International Master’s Program i v in International n U engchi Communication Studies. Ch. National Chengchi University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the Degree of Master in International Communication Studies 中華民國九十九年十月 ii.

(3) Abstract This study aims to seek what and how culture-related contents are represented and introduced in English learning materials. Two best-selling English learning magazines targeting at basic-level English learners are selected—“Let’s Talk in English” and “ABC Interactive English Magazine”. Through integrating and re-categorizing the classification of cultural themes developed by Fleewelling (1994), Pesola (1991), Robinson (1982), and Chen (2002), the study creates a new system to classify different culture-related topics. Combining with textual analysis, the study. 政治大 cultural themes, and the balance of introducing different cultures. Moreover, the 立. examines the forms used to show culture-related topics, the representation of different. similarities and differences in terms of the way both English learning magazines. ‧ 國. 學. represent cultural themes are addressed.. ‧. The result shows that informative text, contextualized practice, vocabulary, and. sit. y. Nat. pictures are forms commonly used by both magazines. In Let’s Talk in English (LTE),. io. er. various forms are adopted in introducing the same topic; while ABC Interactive English Magazine (ABC) uses only one form on each topic. Both magazines include. al. n. v i n C hand literature andUsmall c themes such as big C themes, i.e. politics, economy, engchi. celebration of holidays and traveling. However, LTE uses examples concerning American lifestyles to illustrate these themes, whereas ABC combines more different foreign and local cultures in representing culture-related topics. The findings also suggest the diversity and immediacy of English learning magazines on the representation of culture-related topics.. iii.

(4) Acknowledgement. * Every step I take, You lead me with Your grace……♫♪♫. This is a quote from the lyrics of my favorite song; meanwhile, it closely describes my journey of writing my thesis. To me, it’s not as easy as it seems; however, it’s not as difficult as I imagined. There are many details you need to pay attention to and many trifles for you to handle. I have learned much during the journey.. 政治大 questions, and above all, always keep the passion toward knowledge. It’s an important 立 For example, I know more about what to chase for, how to find out the answers to my. lesson of life, and I am so glad that I have achieved this level. To me, it is worthwhile.. ‧ 國. 學. There are many “angels” on my way to finish my thesis. First of all, my. ‧. instructor, professor Huang, she gives me much flexibility to arrange my thesis. y. Nat. schedule, and she always helps me solve my problems with patience and. er. io. sit. encouragement. Also, my oral defense committee members: Professor Lin and Cheng. They provided me with many practical and theoretical opinions that polish my. al. n. v i n thesis and improve my academicCvisions. Of course, many h e n g c h i U thanks go to my family. and friends. You are always my motivation when I have writing blocks or I feel like quitting. Mom, thank you for tolerating me frequently postponing my graduation schedules; Sis, thank you for running errands for me when I was stuck with my thesis and being a “silent” supporter; My church friends and worship band members, thank you all for praying for me and cheering me up; My classmates from elementary school to graduate school, I love you all; My Erasmus and Swiss “amis”, merci pour tes encouragements (Tu me manques X); above all, my two Fathers in heaven, I would like to give all the honor to you— to God and David Hsiao. iv.

(5) Contents. Chapter 1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….1 1.1 Research Background…………………………………………………………….1 1.2 Research Objectives and Questions………………………………………………3 The Significance of the Present Study……………………………………………3 Research Questions……………………………………………………………….4 1.3 Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………….5. 立. 政治大. Chapter 2 Literature Review………………………………………………………….6. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1 Language and Culture…………………………………………………………….6 2.1.1 Culture and Communication………………………..……………................6. ‧. - Representation of Culture………………………………………………...9. y. Nat. io. sit. - The Classification and Representation of Culture………………………..9. n. al. er. 2.1.2 Culture Teaching and Learning…………………………………………….12. i n U. v. - Development of Culture Teaching/History………………………………..12. Ch. engchi. - Culture Teaching Strategies……………………………………...………..13 - Objectives of Culture Teaching……………………………………………18 - Divergent Views on Cultural Teaching……………………………………19 - Obstacles to Culture Teaching…………………………………………….22. 2.1.3 Concept of Worldview……………………………………………………...22. v.

(6) 2.2 Children’s English Teaching and Learning of Culture…………………………...25 2.2.1 Teaching Culture in English………………………………………………25 - The Role of English Teachers on Culture Teaching……………………...25 - Successful Case in Children’s English and Culture Teaching…………...27 - Evaluation/Assessment on Culture Learning………………………...….27 2.2.2 Children’s English and Culture Learning…………………………..….…28. 政治大 2.3 Children’s English Learning 立 Materials in Taiwan……………………….….…...29. ‧ 國. 學. - Forms of Cultural Information………………………………………….…….29. ‧. - Teaching Materials to Aid Culture Teaching…………………………………....30. sit. y. Nat. 2.3.1 Introduction of Children’s English Learning Materials in Taiwan…………..31. io. er. - English Textbook……………………………………………………………..31 - English Learning Magazines……………………………………………...….32. al. n. v i n Ch - Cultural Imperialism in Coursebooks………………………………...………34 engchi U. - Suggestions for English Learning Materials……………………………...…..36 2.3.2 Cultural Themes in English Leaning Materials…………………………......37. Chapter 3 Research Method……………………………………………………...….....39 3.1 Text Analysis …………………………………………………………………….39 - Textbook Evaluation/ Criteria for Teaching Material Evaluation………………40 3.2 Material Selection………………………………………………………………..41 3.3 Research Flowchart………………………………………………………………45 vi.

(7) Chapter 4 Research Findings……………………………………………………......49 4.1 The Representation of Different Culture Themes…………………………..…...49 - Ways to Present Culture-related Topics…………………………………....…49 -. The Role of Pictures in Culture-related Topics……………………………...58. -. Different Cultural Themes ………………………….…………………..…...60. 4.2 The Two English Learning Magazines……………………………………..……82 -. Comparison and Contrast of the Two English Learning Magazines……..…..82. 政治大. 4.3 Other Findings………………………………………………………………..…. 98. 立. Chapter 5 Conclusions, Limitations, and Suggestions……………………….……..103. ‧ 國. 學. 5.1 Discussion and Conclusion…..…………………………………………….…...103. ‧. 5.2 Limitation and Suggestion……………………………………………………...107. er. io. sit. y. Nat. References ……………………………………………………………………..…...108. al. n. v i n Ch English Reference…………………………………………………………………..108 engchi U. Chinese Reference…………………………………………………………………..111. List of Appendix: Appendix 1--- Checklist used to analyze English learning magazines……………..116 Appendix 2--- Examples of culture-related contents in forms of pictures………….119 Appendix 3--- Examples of culture-related contents in forms of illustrations……...120 Appendix 4--- Classification of different culture-related contents……………...….121 vii.

(8) List of Tables: Table 2-1-1 English level requirement for each English learning magazine………..33 Table 3-3-1. Forms of presenting culture-related topics…………………………….46 Table 3-3-2. Different cultural themes…………………………………………........47 Table 3-3-3 Goals of culture instruction…………………………...………………..48 Table 4-1-1 list of forms of presenting culture-related contents and examples……..50. 政治大 Table 4-1-3 distribution of holidays and festivals in two magazines………………..72 立. Table 4-1-2 Representation forms of culture-related contents in both magazines…..52. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 3-1. A flow chart of the study procedure……………………………………45. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. viii. i n U. v.

(9) Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Research Background Language is inseparable from culture (Atkinson, 1999; Diaz & Botnton, 1995; Heiman, 1994) and it is an integral part of a culture (Flewellings 1994; Kramsch, 1981& 1993; Schleppegrell, 1995). In other words, language and culture are interrelated and interdependent. By the same token, language learning is often seen as culture learning (Bex, 1994; Shanahan, 1998). In addition to the four elements of foreign language learning: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, culture is the fifth element. Therefore,. 政治大. foreign language learning should include the culture context since the language “is. 立. always learned in a context of understanding the people of another culture” (Brown,. ‧ 國. 學. 1994). Namely, linguistic competence for cross-cultural communication can be achieved only if the teaching of language is carried out in the context of the foreign culture.. ‧. According to the British Council, it is estimated that over 1 billion people are. y. Nat. io. sit. currently learning English worldwide. In Taiwan, learning English is popular among not. n. al. er. only adults but children. This phenomenon is called English Fever, the overwhelming. i n U. v. desire to learn English, and as the earliest age as possible. Many young children begin. Ch. engchi. learning English in their first grade or even kindergarten. The statistics showed that there are estimated 63% of parents arrange their children to the kindergarten with English teaching, and 77% parents agree that government should advance the time of learning English to kindergarten in order to help kids learn English as soon as possible （Chang, Chang, and Lin，2001）. Moreover, according to the Ministry of Education (MOE), in the past decade, the number of cram schools in Taiwan increased from 1800 to 11555, and most of them are crams schools for language learning, and civil service examination preparation（HiNet news network，2004a）.Besides, in order to adapt to the trend of globalization and increasing intercultural communication and business, the 1.

(10) foreign language teaching policy started to put emphasis on communicative competence, interdisciplinary integration, and implementation of culture in foreign language teaching in 1998. Moreover, MOE released goals for Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum. There are three major goals concerning English language teaching in primary and junior high school: to help students obtain basic English communication skills, cultivate correct learning interests and attitudes, and learn more about foreign and domestic culture and customs. Obviously, the third goal put emphasis on the role of culture in language teaching and learning. To focus specifically on elementary education level, that is, from. 政治大 understand Chinese and foreign culture, to understand social politeness, and to 立 first to sixth grade, MOE listed some teaching guidelines: to teach students to. appreciate and accept different cultural insights. “Foreign culture”, here, refers to. ‧ 國. 學. knowing foreign holidays and customs, understanding English expression of domestic. ‧. major holidays, knowing international etiquette and decorum (Chen& Chien, 2003, pp.. sit. y. Nat. 274). The implementation of language teaching policy showed that, in Taiwan, language. io. er. teaching should include not only communicative competence but culture awareness. As mentioned above, in the Nine-Year Integrated Curriculum, one of the basic. al. n. v i n C hforeign culture andUthe view of world, so “culture capabilities is to learn the local and engchi themes” in foreign language teaching is significantly important. With the increasing notice and promotion of children’s English learning, the role of culture in English learning material should be closely examined and analyzed. The purpose of this present research is to seek how culture themes are represented in English materials between two different English learning magazines. Hopefully, the result of this thesis can help both English material publishers to develop good contents for children and teachers to make the best use of the teaching materials.. 2.

(11) 1.2 Research Objectives and Questions The Significance of the Present Study Most literature focused on how to use cultural content and teaching to improve students linguistic proficiency (Atkinson, 1999; Lin, 2005; Mantle-Bromley, 1993; Yu, 2006) and English and culture learning focus more on Anglo-American culture (Yu, 2006; Lin, 2000; Lin 2005; Chuang, 2002). Little attention was paid to the representation of cultural themes in English learning materials especially magazines. Therefore, this study aims to focus on how English learning materials help students. 政治大. understand and interpret different cultures. Through the instruction from coursebooks,. 立. how can it improve students’ worldview, eliminate incorrect stereotype concerning. ‧ 國. 學. different cultures, and apply appropriate communication, i.e., conquer the obstacle of intercultural miscommunication for students.. ‧. Magazines are tools to communicate knowledge, broadcast ideas, and help. y. Nat. io. sit. improve society. Lin (1984) claimed that magazines are indices of the society. They. n. al. er. reflect contemporary lifestyle and worldview. In the present study, the researcher choose. i n U. v. English learning magazines to analyze because English learning magazines share a high. Ch. engchi. rate of market occupation in magazine publishing industry. According to Lin (2000), the numbers of English learning magazines in Taiwan have been rapidly increased since 1999. There are more than twenty different English sold in bookstores, which are English learning magazines including children English learning magazines, GEPT (General English Proficiency Test) preparation magazines, and reading comprehension practice English magazines. In the study, two English learning magazines, “Let’s Talk in English” and “ABC Interactive English Magazines”, are selected as English learning materials to be examined. Both magazines were awarded thirty-one times as outstanding publishing by 3.

(12) Government Information Office and shared high market rate in magazine industry. Ultimately, the result can help foreign language course designers, English learning material writers, and teachers, those who decide what culture means and what aspects of particular culture to present in the class to improve the current situation. For language teachers, they can decide what English learning magazines to choose as good supplementary teaching aids; publishers to reexamine whether the culture-related text is useful, appropriated, and informative.. Research Questions. 政治大 English learning materials. English 立 materials, here, refer to English magazines for upper This study seeks to answer the following two questions by analyzing the texts of. ‧ 國. 學. grade of elementary students and basic level of English learners. They are: 1. In which form is “culture” presented and portrayed (pictures, articles, stories, songs,. ‧. dialogues, vocabulary) in English materials?. sit. y. Nat. 2. What culture themes are introduced in magazines?. n. al. er. io. 3. In the text, besides American and English cultures, are there any other cultures being. i n U. v. presented? Is the language used to introduce different cultures appropriate and neutral?. Ch. engchi. 4.

(13) 1-3 Definition of Terms Culture-related content: Topics and issues that are related to culture. To be specific, description and comments toward different countries/cultures, a single sentence with a country name or its language, vocabulary about different countries/ cities/ measurement unit/ exotic food, pictures or illustrations of a place or race of people are all defined as culture-related contents.. Representation: Representation means to create meaning to the world around us. 政治大 words, stories, and images to 立represent concepts and objects. In this study, the. (Sturken, 2001) by system of presentation such as visual media or language. We can use. ‧ 國. 學. representation of culture refers to the words the authors used, the images they produced, and the way they classified and conceptualized culture-related contents in English. ‧. learning magazines for basic level English learners.. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. Textual Analysis: Textual analysis, can also be called as text analysis, is a qualitative. i n U. v. research method that focuses on “interpretation toward the characteristics of a recorded. Ch. engchi. or visual message” (Frey et al. 1979). Through textual analysis, readers can understand how and what contents are presented, and find out the “historic and cultural context” and background (Patton, 2002) when the text is created.. English Leaning Magazines: English learning magazines, in the present study, refer to monthly magazines targeting at English learning and English-related examination such as GPET and TOEFL preparation in Taiwan. The study focuses on two English learning magazines targeting at GEPT basic-level English learner—“Let’s Talk in English” and “ABC Interactive English magazine”.. 5.

(14) Chapter 2 Literature Review In the chapter, the researcher will first examine from the relationship between language and culture to culture teaching/learning. Then, the researcher will focus on the link between English and culture teaching/learning. Finally, the researcher will look into culture themes in English learning materials and the development of English learning magazines in Taiwan.. 2.1 Language and Culture Language and culture have been discussed and defined throughout history. It is no. 政治大. denying that language is part of culture, and culture plays a very important role in. 立. theories and application related to culture will be addressed.. ‧. 2.1.1 Culture and Communication. 學. ‧ 國. language. In the following section, the definition and statement concerning culture, and. sit. y. Nat. According to Adoni and Mane (1984, cited in Sun, 1996), agenda and topics selected by. io. er. media will influence the way people form the concept toward different cultures; therefore, the concept and symbols constructed by media will influence individual’s. al. n. v i n C h Moreover, peopleUtend to be influenced more by belief and understanding on the truth. engchi. media on issues occurred in remote countries, for example, their concepts of worldviews and cultural values. Lee (1984) explained that communication media has great effect on media users by using Social-cultural Model. The media would broadcast message that tries to construct certain social fact and provide people a worldview; as time goes by, people may rely on the “frame of reference” provided by media to interpret and clarify social phenomena and facts. The previous literature indicates that media has great influences on people’s perception toward different cultures or worldview. Furthermore, from the message which media sets to broadcast and communicate, readers or audience may rely on media 6.

(15) to judge and interpret different cultures. Many researches state the importance of media and learning (Chang, 2000; Chiang, 2004). Through different media channel, learning can take place anytime and anywhere instead of limiting to a certain “classroom”. In other words, through different media channels, learning can be enhanced and extended to almost everywhere, helping learners reach information and knowledge they look for. Magazine belongs to static and semiotic learning media channel; therefore, by reading and understanding the text and pictures, learners can acquire the knowledge. Unlike animated audio and visual learning media such as television, magazine conveys. 政治大 visual symbols. In addition, magazine has the quality of reflecting the contemporary 立 the information without being interfered by the conflict between audio symbols and. trend and value systems, and magazine is easily accessible to learners. In this research,. ‧ 國. 學. the researcher focuses on the description and interpretation of communication message. ‧. which is defined as contents and pictures related to different cultures and countries. In. sit. y. Nat. order to combine learning, in other words, education and communication, the research. io. er. expects to select a media channel which is highly related to learning. Among newspaper, magazines, TV programs, and online information, the communication channel in the. al. n. v i n present research is decided to be C magazines; to be moreU h e n g c h i specific, English learning magazines.. Previous researches on magazines focus on the role of fashion (Chou Teng, 2006; Chang, 2006), gender (Weng, 2008; Lai, 1993), and nation images (Kuo, 2009). For example, in Chou Teng (2006)’s study, she examined Taiwanese women’s fashion magazines, and compared the market structure for international, local, and Japanese women’s fashion magazines. Focusing on the issue of readers’ gender differences, Weng (2009) conducted in-depth interviews to study the interpretations and viewpoints on the magazines—FHM by different genders. The result showed that no matter what gender the participants belong to, they feel happy when they see nude pictures. To observe 7.

(16) solely on the development of females’ role, Lai (1993) researched on the relationship between women’s magazine and women’s value change, and found that the development of women’s values was from a more conservative to a more open and various level shown in women’s magazines. In the field of politics and nation images, Kuo (2009) examined two international magazines---“Time” and “The Economist” on the coverage of reporting how China hosted the Beijing Olympic Games by using both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The result show that Time magazine reported China’s images on hosting the Olympic Games positively, especially on. 政治大. “economics”, “environment”, “technology”, and “culture and leisure” compared with The Economist magazine.. 立. The issues and topics represented in magazines vary in different types of. ‧ 國. 學. magazines. Therefore, the type and specialty of magazines play a key role in selecting. ‧. the topics. In Taiwan, magazines can be classified into seven categories: economy, news,. sit. y. Nat. technology, language teaching and learning, leisure activity and travel, fashion, and. io. er. history and art (statistics from Kingstone, 2001). From previous researches, when it talks about gender roles and gender differences, researchers would select fashion. al. n. v i n C hchoose news magazines magazines while researchers would to study politics and nation engchi U. images. Studies English learning magazines mostly focus on the readers’ motivation and gratification (Tian, 1991), and how English learning magazines improve English proficiency. However, the relationship between cultures and communication represented in magazines is not a common and popular topic, let alone researches on cultures and communication in English learning magazines. However, in this study, the researcher intends to examine the message from English teaching media, that is, English learning magazines, and tries to understand how different cultures and culture-related topics are introduced in the text.. 8.

(17) Representation of Culture According to Oxford English Dictionary, to represent means to describe or depict something, to call it up in mind by description or portrayal or imagination; to place alikeness of it before use in our mind or in the senses; it also means to symbolize, stand for, to be a specimen of, or to substitute for. Namely, representation refers to create meaning about the world around us (Sturken, 2001). Through system of presentation such as language and visual media, we can use words and images to understand, describe, and define the world as we see it.. 政治大 how we represent them--- the 立words we use about them, the stories we tell about them,. Stuart Hall (1997) specified “represent” by explaining “We give things meaning by. ‧ 國. 學. the images of them we produce, the emotions we associate with them, the way we classify and conceptualize them, the values we place on them”. Language is a common. ‧. way to represent the world we know since it “is one of the ‘media’ through which. sit. y. Nat. thoughts, ideas, and feelings, are represented in culture”. In other words, representation. n. al. er. io. connects meaning and language to culture and “representation through language is. i n U. v. therefore central to the processes by which meaning is produced” (Hall, 1997).. Ch. e n gofcCulture hi The Classification and Representation. The most common way to explain culture is to categorize it into “culture with a capital C” and “culture with a small c”. Culture with a capital C is in forms of the cinema, music (whether serious or popular) and, above all, literature—the study of which often to be one of the main reasons for language teaching. Culture with a big C requires some knowledge of the formal institutions such as social, political, economic, history, fine arts, literature, and elite culture which has much to do with past (Chuang, 2002). Culture with a small c is closely related to the organization and nature of family, of home life, of interpersonal relations, material conditions, work and leisure, customs 9.

(18) and institutions. Therefore, it is a vast area from which only salient points can ever be selected. To be specific, “housing, clothing, food, tools, transportation, and all the patterns of behavior” are included in culture with small c (Chastain, 1988; Moore, 1995); it is “a nation’s contemporary life” (Morain, 1988). Other than the general classification of culture, many sociologists and anthropologists claim it is difficult and complicated to give culture a complete definition, however, we can get to know it through examining some elements culture possesses. Some claimed that “culture includes the background knowledge, social skills, and. 政治大 communication (Adaaskou, Britten, Fashi,1990), “culture involves socially acquired 立 paralinguistic skills, and mastery of the language code, make possible successful. knowledge” (Alptekin, 1993), and culture means “the totality of socially transmitted. ‧ 國. 學. behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and. ‧. thought characteristics of a community or population” (Chuang, 2002). Besides, culture. sit. y. Nat. is highly related to communication. Samovar, Porter, and Jain (1981) viewed culture as. io. er. the foundation of communication because culture is not just decrees about who talks to whom, about what, and how in various contexts and situations, it also influences how. n. al. the messages are interpreted.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Adaaskou, Britten, and Fashi (1990) categorized culture into four dimensions: aesthetic sense, sociological sense, semantic sense, and pragmatic or sociolinguistic sense. Along with other language ability, for example, the ability to conform to norms of politeness, and different learners’ culture including taboo avoidance, makes culture a complete state. To sum up, culture is highly society-related and it requires adapting to the influence from society so that people can make progress on the ability to communicate and to understand others. Brooks (1968) defined that “culture refers to the individual’s role in the unending kaleidoscope of life situations of every kind and the rules and models for attitude and 10.

(19) conduct in them. By reference to these models, every human being, from infancy onward, justifies the world to himself as the best he can, associates with those around him, and related to the social order to which he is attached”. Therefore, culture is a “sharing process; no individual can create culture by himself (pp.211)”. Moreover, he classified culture into two categories: formal culture and deep culture. Formal culture “defines the individual’s relationship to the refinement in thought, action, and surroundings of culture”; meanwhile, deep culture “is slow, persistent, lifelong process that begins in infancy (Brooks, 1968).. 政治大 culture, behavioral culture, and achievement or accomplishment culture. Information or 立 Hammerly (1982) classified culture into three categories: information or factual. factual culture includes information that an average speaker of the target language. ‧ 國. 學. would know about the society. Behavioral culture refers to actual behaviors in various. ‧. situations, and it involves situational conversations and proper way of expression.. io. er. to the target language like arts, music, and literature.. sit. y. Nat. Achievement or accomplishment culture is artistic and literary accomplishments related. Similarly, Robinson (1985) divided culture into three interlinked categories:. al. n. v i n C hoverlap and affectUone another. Products include products, ideas, and behaviors. They engchi. literature, folklore, art, music, artifacts. Behaviors mean customs, habits, dress, foods, and leisure ways shared in the culture; while ideas include beliefs, values, and institutions. Culture can be represented in different occasion with various forms, such as intercultural context. Intercultural means the meeting of two languages and two cultures across political boundaries of nation-states and the communication between people from different ethic, social, gendered cultures within the boundaries of the same nation. Derived from intercultural, “interculturality” is an education objective connected to culture and communication. It’s an active participation in communication helped by 11.

(20) critical awareness and analysis and motivated by the appreciation of diversity as the foundation of society (Lin, 2005). With the aforementioned definition and classification of culture, they indicated that culture is highly related to social activities and communication skills, and above all, language. In order to understand the mechanism and operation of representation, researchers should not only uncover its hidden stereotype and myth in text but examine in detail the representation style and techniques (Hsu, 2002). Therefore, in order to understand the representation of culture, the present study would focus on exploring the discourse. 政治大. structure, format, genre, and style in English learning magazines.. 立. ‧ 國. ‧. Development of Culture Teaching/History. 學. 2.1.2 Culture Teaching and Learning. sit. y. Nat. The core of culture teaching changes from culture specific to general, from. io. er. stereotypes to generalization, from absolute to variations, and from distinction to integration. From 1950s to early 1960s, big C/ high culture, the highest intellectual. al. n. v i n C h pertaining toU attainment in foreign language classroom culture instruction, is the focus. engchi During late 1960s, small c/popular culture, people’s ways of living, behaviors on. different occasions, beliefs, customs, educations, becomes the main theme. From 1970s to 1980s, it is known as socio-linguistic decades, and schools adopt integrate approach toward language and competence in culture teaching, strengthening and revising the theory of integration of culture teaching. Recently, integration of language and culture is the focus. The current literature emphasizes culture as the context for authentic language instruction (Grittner 1996).. 12.

(21) Culture Teaching Strategies Culture learning is a process of the development of cross-cultural communicative skills and cross-cultural awareness, that is, understanding of the ways of another people (Chuang, 2002). Language and culture interact (Brown, 1980, pp. 142), so culture learning takes place as an integral part of language learning. Culture learning was to understand the nature of acculturation, culture shock, social distance that one must be aware of. Language learning is a process of adjustment to a new culture. It means that learning to find the gap between the patterns of the native culture and that of the target. 政治大 In Adaaskou, Britten, and 立Fashi’s (1990) research on the cultural context of a. language culture.. ‧ 國. 學. secondary English course for Morocco, they found that secondary learners are more motivated to learn English when it is presented in contexts that relate its use realistically. ‧. to their lives as young adults in Morocco. So they suggested that “English should be. sit. y. Nat. used in textbooks with situations only in contexts in which it might plausibly be used in. n. al. er. io. real life and not between locals in the absence of foreigners”. In other words, culture. i n U. v. teaching should include both native culture and foreign culture so that it is highly. Ch. engchi. relevant to students’ real life and real context of communication. Mantel-Bromley (1993) suggested that teaching culture should begin with finding the similarities between target culture and native culture and then compare and contrast the differences. While comparing differences, teachers “need to prepare students to acknowledge and accept the differences that exist”. Lafayette (1978) provided guidelines for English teachers to teach culture in the classroom are as follows: presenting cultural topics in thematic units, integrating all the 4 skills in teaching culture, grouping vocabulary into culture-related clusters, teaching vocabulary in the context of the culture, integrating culture in grammar-practice activities, and using small-group. 13.

(22) techniques such as discussions or role-plays to teach culture. Yo (2007) adopted qualitative research method and conducted questionnaires through e-mail to 151 public elementary schools at 12 administrative districts in Taipei City. In her study, English teachers agreed that English materials with rich and diversified contents should be the priority. Most of them believe that to use authentic materials such as slides, DVDs, films, and to participate in authentic culture events are the most effective strategies. Moran (2001) claimed a specific framework for learning/teaching culture including different contents, learning outcomes, learning activities and teacher roles for the four. 政治大 oneself. Spinelli(1985) promoted to “integrate the culture and language teaching in 立. knowings; they are: knowing how, knowing about what, knowing why, and knowing. curricula. Meaningful learning occurred through the contextualized activities. i.e.. ‧ 國. 學. currency exchange, time expression”.. ‧. Chuang (2002) suggested that teachers introduce students to linguistic and cultural. sit. y. Nat. items, have students interpret these linguistic and cultural phenomena, ask students to. io. er. formulate linguistic and cultural concepts as a way to organize knowledge, and identify values and finally assist students to develop appropriate ways of responding in different. al. n. v i n cultural situations. Hsieh (1995) C disclosed his experience h e n g c h i U on how to teach culture. among college students. The teaching of the cultural information should be presented into every aspect in the whole teaching process, including textbook design and vocabulary building. There are three principles to promote: explanation on culture is required, i.e., each text should be followed by explanations and footnotes on cultural themes. Include exercises on culture by teaching, reviewing, and practicing. Add activities on culture after class, for example, interview with foreigners, read magazine, see movies, videotapes, and slides shows. Besides, Chuang (2002) and Lin (2004) many culture teaching activities listed as below:. 14.

(23) (1). Comparison and contrast: This approach emphasizes on comparing cultural differences between native and foreign culture (Chuang, 2002). Kramsch (1993) also claimed that by comparing the two cultures can learners construct their own meanings, thus establishing “sphere of interculturality”. (2). Cultural assimilator: When conducting cultural assimilator activity, learners are provided with “a written description of a cross-cultural encounter which engenders confusion or out-right hostility in the participants (Li, 1994, pp 194). Then, provide students with three or four reasonable explanations to choose the most appropriate. 政治大 (3). Culture capsule: Culture capsules use materials such as lecture notes, visuals and 立 response from.. realia to teach students “small c culture”, and it provides a “real life” situation. The. ‧ 國. 學. cultural elements which are particularly difficult for outsides to understand based on. ‧. their life experiences should be the focus of the difference (Li, 2004). Zheng (2006). sit. y. Nat. further explained that cultural capsules can be posters, photographs, pictures, books,. io. er. artifacts, music and various objects that represent the target culture. Use the “seeing is believing” strategy to motivate learners. A series of three or four culture capsules. al. n. v i n C h of a culture cluster. and a summarizing activity consist The use of culture cluster can engchi U help learners gain “interests toward a certain topic” and “lead to a multi-faceted understanding of the culture”. (4). Cartoon/cultoon: Chen (2003) advocated that comic strips and cartoon are good media to convey abstract ideas and values and they are easily accessible starting points. Cultoon is a hybrid of culture and cartoon; it is used to teach “visual aspects of culture” through a one-picture cartoon implying cultural misunderstanding. (5). Mini-drama/ mini-skit and role playing: It can be a short scene representing a cross- cultural misunderstanding. The objective is to arouse awareness of the cross-cultural misunderstanding and make students to put themselves in the shoe of 15.

(24) foreign person (Chuang, 2002). Moreover, Donahue and Parsons (1982) pointed out that the use of role playing helps students overcome cultural fatigue and use appropriate verbal and nonverbal messages in specific socio-linguistic settings. (6). Folklore and folktale: Folklore and folktale are an important part of a people’s total culture. They reflect the customs and beliefs of people’s culture for many centuries. By using easy reading materials, folklore and folktale can shed a great light on many aspects of life. (7). Celebrating foreign festivals: Celebrating foreign holidays such as Halloween,. 政治大 foreign culture at the happiest time (Chuang, 2002). Meanwhile, “the teacher can 立 Thanksgiving, and Christmas can give learners ‘opportunity to experience the. provide students some related cultural knowledge such as festival food, drink,. ‧ 國. 學. costumes, and songs (Wylie, 1988).. ‧. (8).Visual aids/ photographs, and realia: By using visual aids, “students can identify. sit. y. Nat. what they see, recognize the messages delivered and speculate the facts they. io. er. observed” (Lin, 2005).Among all kinds of visual aids, photographs serve an important role in illustrating ideas and culture. Sarkar (1978) stated that. al. n. v i n C h for the introduction “photographs can serve as a vehicle of selected thinking skills engchi U and impart a heightened awareness of the culture aspects of the scene depicted as well as of the learners’ own environment”. (9). E-mails or letters exchange: E-mails and letters exchanged with foreigners can bring language learning and culture learning to a personal dimension. Previous researches showed that using technology to connect nonnative with native English speakers has been successful (Kappus, 1996). (10). Newspaper and magazines: Cultural materials can be drawn from almost any items of a newspaper or magazine, such as ports pages, weather reports, advertisements, comics, and pictures. In other words, newspaper and magazines are 16.

(25) up-to-date sources of information, they “convey many aspects of culture which normally do not appear in a textbook” (Chuang, 2002). According to Delamere (1982), magazines and newspaper “serve for comparison of the socio-cultural changes in the target society”.. In addition to these culture activities, audio-motor unit, folksong, nursery rhymes, short presentation (Chuang, 2002) can be included to guide students understand foreign culture through concrete culture products. Hirsch (1987) provides ways of representing. 政治大 clichés, folktales, well-known characters, important historical events, etc. 立. cultural topics: Nursery rhymes, popular songs, proverbs, puns, similes, idioms, sayings,. The sequence of culture teaching is a noteworthy discussing issue. In the. ‧ 國. 學. approaches developed both by Damen (1987) and Crawford-Lange & Lange (1984),. ‧. analysis of first culture (C1) is postponed until after all students perceive a cultural. sit. y. Nat. behavior from second culture (C2). However, Arries (1994) presented the reverse order;. io. er. he argued that understanding of C1 should come earlier than acquisition of C2. However, questions like should the language class concern itself with language. al. n. v i n C huntil the student has proper and postpone cultural matters greater maturity and greater engchi U. language competence will be raised. Brooks (1968) presented the following statement: If the right things have been done in the basic course, find an added dimension of cultural significance in the stories he reads. He will find cultural values reflected in what the author chooses to talk about, to have his characters say and do, to have the reader understand, infer, and reflect to in his presentation. As we can see, the sequence of teaching culture is not a problem; instead, the ability to figure out the added dimension of cultural significance is more essential.. 17.

(26) Objectives of Culture Teaching and Learning With the increasing attention to the importance of culture teaching, some scholars provided practical and multi-dimensional objectives of culture teaching. Yu (2006) listed five objectives to teach culture in EFL classroom: to gain “culture awareness”, “command of etiquette”, “understanding of outward culture differences”, “understanding of culture values”, and the ability to “analyze the target culture”. Culture awareness includes the knowledge toward geographical and parameters of the target culture, contribution of the target culture (Valette, 1977), differences in way-of-life. 政治大 attitudes (Valette, 1977), and立 attitudes toward other cultures (Seelye, 1991; Valette, patterns (Seelye, 1991; Lafayette 1976; Valette, 1977), differences in values and. ‧ 國. 學. 1977). It is awareness that we are affected in our in actions by culture. (Kubanek-German, 2000:50). To know the command of etiquette means not only to gain. ‧. the knowledge of etiquette (Valette, 1977) but to acquire the ability to adopt patterns of. sit. y. Nat. etiquette( Seelye, 1991; Valette, 1977). To understand the outward culture differences. n. al. er. io. means to know unfamiliar conventions, linguistic cultural referents (Valette, 1977), and. i n U. v. try to perform appropriately according to unfamiliar conventions (Seelye,1991;. Ch. engchi. Lafayette, 1976; Valette, 1977); in addition, to understand culture values refers to the ability to interpret behaviors of members of target and native cultures (Valette, 1977). Analysis of the target culture means to apply different approaches, such as the semiotic approach (Beauijour and Ehrmann, 1967), the thematic approach (Nostrand, 1967), the contextual approach (Santoni, 1976) to an unfamiliar culture model. In general, the ultimate goal of culture teaching is to “help students achieve a better understanding of target culture, and the ability generalize from knowledge of specifics to an increased understanding of how culture pervades all aspects of human behavior – how it influences all peoples’ perspectives, beliefs, values, and actions”. 18.

(27) (Mantle-Bromley, 1993).. Divergent Views on Cultural Teaching According to Adaakou, Brittenm Fashi (1990), to include cultural elements in foreign language learning is important because of the following five reasons: First, to foster international understanding and counter negative stereotypes and other prejudice (Seelye, 1974); second, to encourage the learners to compare their own and the foreign culture and arrive thus at a better understanding and appreciation of their own (Byram, 1986:323); third, to facilitate the learners’ possible future visits to the. 政治大 language to the language course 立 in an interdisciplinary, thematic curriculum; finally, to foreign countries concerned or contacts with people from them; fourth, to integrate the. ‧ 國. 學. motivate the learners to hold a common point of view in British and America (Courtillon, 1984: 51).. ‧. Martin’s (1993) study on intermediate level language learners’ views about. sit. y. Nat. contribution of literacy and cultural content to language learning showed that while. n. al. er. io. learning vocabulary and studying culture were seen by most to be likely to contribute to. i n U. v. oral proficiency, grammar study. In other words, intermediate second language learning. Ch. engchi. students in college agreed that the literacy and cultural content would contribute to achievement of their linguistic goal, in particular those related to proficiency in the four skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. With additional culture inputs, learning culture information may motivate students to learn language. Chastain (1971) claimed that “explaining cultural aspects of the language would benefit the students’ understanding towards the real sound, people, and places”. Therefore, background knowledge of the culture can help learners to communicate effectively. Yu’s (2006) study on teaching one of the culture themes-holiday festivals to junior high school students in English as Foreign Language (EFL). 19.

(28) Classroom showed that after taking the courses, most of the subjects are willing to know more about Western culture and people, so it is revealed that the long-term influences brought by festival learning are produced and the learners are highly motivated. In Lin’s (2000) study on the design and development of a situated asynchronous courseware for English on study abroad found out that most of English learners think it necessary to have culture learning courses. Seventy-three percent of interviewees considered that understanding and communicating with foreigners of different culture is the most difficult part in language use. Besides, sixty percent of interviewees are. 政治大 know more about foreign culture. Danison (2000, pp. 96) claimed that the study of 立. interested in learning culture-related knowledge and content and think it important to. culture is not merely the study of foreign ways. It is the study of the patterns of life that. ‧ 國. 學. evolve as societies strive to meet universal challenges.. ‧. Chang (2004) claimed the necessity of language teaching in FL with the following. sit. y. Nat. three reasons: First of all, language is a particular and essential composite of culture.. io. er. Second, language and culture are systematically linked and closely intertwine with each other. Third, language would be understood improperly without cultural knowledge. n. al. inlaid in it.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The familiarity with cultures is part of language competence. Knowledge of linguistic features of a language is seen as inefficient for learning the language; it must be combined with knowledge of the culture of the target language (Jacobs, 1989) Teachers should help students develop positive attitudes or, at least, empathy toward native speakers of the target language (Morgan, 1993). Besides, activity for introducing culture in foreign language class can stimulate interests in foreign language learning. Cultural materials provide many topics of personal interest to a student, thereby increasing motivation. Shih (1987) claimed that language is not only a communicative vehicle but an 20.

(29) important means to demonstrate the culture of a people. The characteristics of language thus represent the characteristics of the society, the culture, and the lifestyles of this station.” She concluded that the ability to cope with cultural differences should also be a basic skill in foreign language learning. Huang (1993) and Teng (2000) believe that a adequate amount and wide range of one’s background knowledge and cultural knowledge about the target country and people will help him or her a great deal in learning the language, especially in reading comprehension. Learning the cultural knowledge will improve his or her cultural awareness, the teaching of culture gives. 政治大 alive and makes things more real, the teaching of culture increases students curiosity 立. students a reason to study the language, the teaching of culture makes language more. and interest, culture teaching helps understand people of other cultures and their own. ‧ 國. 學. culture, culture instruction provides students positive attitudes toward people put also. sit. y. Nat. education.. ‧. their own culture better, and the teaching of culture contributes to an all-round. io. er. In contrast, there are divergent views on teaching culture in language class, arguing that language can’t help teaching the foreign culture. Some scholars criticized on culture. al. n. v i n teaching from the perspectives ofC language curriculum U h e n g c h i and the way culture themes are. introduced. Foreign language curriculum often represents culture to students as a body of static information to memorize, and does not provide them with the tools that they need to learn independently (Arries, 1994). Mantle-Bromley (1993) criticized that the “culture content of the typical secondary-level second language class remains strikingly and disappointingly similar to the culture content in elementary classrooms” , focusing on themes such as “holiday celebrations, games, folk dances, realia, foods, and simple craft activities”(pp. 129). Moreover, “these activities may enrich the curriculum, rarely do they lead to meaningful understanding of culture”. Guest (2002) challenged whether it is worth introducing overt, direct, cultural content to EFL/ESL learners at all (pp. 160). 21.

(30) Since overemphasizing on the generalized culture traits of a group is possible to sacrifice sub-group or individual factors within in. And some themes are verbalized principles and values while some may be elusive modes of thought or of feeling, expressed only in the presentational symbols of the imaginative arts. It is possible that students may put themselves “in a single explicit generalization about the foreign people’s value, or worldview, or strengths or weakness (Nostrand, 1956, pp.300).. Obstacles to Culture Teaching Some obstacles may be encountered in culture teaching; for example, lack of. 政治大 culture teaching, teachers’ limited 立 foreign experiences, lack of time, teaching methods,. methods preparation, unclear definition of cultural knowledge, the lack of emphasis on. ‧ 國. 學. and knowledge of the target culture, fear of controversy over teaching values and attitudes (Hunag, 1993; Tsou, 2001) are obstacles faced in culture teaching, and it might. ‧. cause the problem that “culture continues to remain peripheral in both texts and. sit. y. Nat. classroom instruction” (Bex, 1994; Mantle-Bromley, 1993; Fischer, 1996;. n. al. er. io. Crawford-Lange, 1987). i n U. v. Also, there are some problems concerning the explicit teaching of culture.. Ch. engchi. Atkinson (1999) pointed out that the explicit teaching of culture often depends on stereotypes and ideologically fraught simplifications—or someone-in-particular’s notions of culture. And that “someone” usually is the curriculum designer, the teacher, or the textbook writer.. 2.1.3 Concept of Worldview Samovar and his colleagues (1981) define worldview as “a culture’s orientation toward such things as God, man and woman, nature, the universe, and the other philosophical issues that are concerned with the concept of being.” Hanvey (1982) listed 22.

(31) five dimensions of global perspectives: perspective consciousness, state of the planet awareness, cross-cultural awareness, knowledge of global dynamics, and awareness of human choices. The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) published its position statement on global education, and stated that “the growing interrelatedness of life on the planet had increased the need for citizens to possess the knowledge and sensitivity required to comprehend the global dimensions of political, economic, and cultural phenomena”. Therefore, global education should emphasize the development of global perspective. Based on NCSS, “global perspective should permeate the whole. 政治大 strategies……A global perspective involves viewing the world and its people with 立. spectrum of social studies education: goals, offerings, materials, and instructional. understanding and concern. The perspective develops a sense of responsibility for the. ‧ 國. 學. needs of all people and a commitment to finding just and peaceful solutions to global. ‧. problems” (NCSS, 1982).. sit. y. Nat. Despite the different points of views on global perspectives, most of the scholars agree. io. er. that global perspective education is to help students develop their worldview. In Toney and Morris’s (1972) research, they found that from seven to fourteen. al. n. v i n C h international perspective. years old is the best period to develop Sweeny and Zandan engchi U (1982) conducted survey on one thousand elementary school students in total from. United States, Japan, and Thailand and compared their international knowledge and attitudes. They concluded that the students’ knowledge and attitudes toward global issues exceed the expectation of traditional curricular goals. Gilliom and Remy (1978) claimed that global education should be implemented from elementary level because middle childhood is the high time to develop knowledge, values, and attitudes toward foreign cultures. After the age, stereotypes may dominate their attitudes toward the world. Shen (1996) also claimed that it is positive to implement global perspective education, and its importance is without questions. 23.

(32) Global education should include four areas according to Rockefeller study commission in the curricula of the nation’s school: analysis of as a series of interrelated systems, perspective on the development of modern civilization, understanding of culture’s influence and structures, and knowledge sufficient to influence public policy responsibility. Besides through global education, media plays an important role in providing world knowledge. In Huang’s (2008) study on high school students’ worldview, he found out that magazines are one of the main sources for getting world knowledge. He. 政治大 pointed out that 91.2% of students consider are the main source of acquiring world 立. examined second grade students studying at Taipei Municipal Jianguo High School and. knowledge, followed by TV programs and news (85.7%), books and magazines (57.1%),. ‧ 國. 學. and radio (20.2%). In the present study, magazines are selected as the media channel for. ‧. providing English and cultural information. The researcher will try to explore what role. y. sit. io. n. al. er. themes.. Nat. does English learning magazines play while presenting the issue of different cultural. Ch. engchi. 24. i n U. v.

(33) 2.2 Culture and Children’s English Teaching and Learning In the section, previous researches on culture and children’s English teaching and learning will be included. In the first part, the researcher will focus on teaching culture in English learning arena; while in the second section, the researcher will move from English teachers’ perspectives and roles to children’s learning condition, aiming at children’s learning of culture.. 2.2.1 Teaching Culture in English The Role of English Teachers on Culture Teaching. 政治大 Mantle-Bromley (1993) listed eight elements that teachers believed and agreed on to be 立. most important to successful culture learning: lesson goals, objectives, and evaluation. ‧ 國. 學. methods should be clearly stated, topics and activities should reflect students’ needs and. ‧. interests, make sure the teaching steps are progressive, i.e., students are ready for the. sit. y. Nat. next step, activities should include comparing cultural similarities, and students should. io. er. actively participate in the lesson. When it comes to lesson design, it should be multi-modal, which means to reflect the various aspects of culture, integrate rather than. al. n. v i n Cincrease separate language and culture, and awareness of students’ own cultures. U heng i h c. Teachers should provide opportunities for students to compare and contrast their. own related actions with those of other cultures, and help students extend their knowledge by looking for other ways that these cultural differences may manifest themselves (Mantle-Bromley, 1993). In brief, culture should be taught at a level above that of mere recall and comprehension. Moreover, teachers can help students acquire multicultural skills by combining language and culture instruction because cultural learned behaviors often communicate at the same time as spoken language. In decision of whether to use English or the native language for the teaching of culture should depend upon the situation and the students’ linguistic levels and 25.

(34) experiences. However, Lapkin, Harley and Taylor (1993), Sadow (1987), and Seelye (1984) suggest that language teachers should feel free to teach culture in the first language on the issue about what language should be used while giving culture instruction. Culture teaching is complicated. English teachers should carefully select their teaching materials for their culture instruction in the language classroom. The major considerations include “who is mirroring whose culture to whom, and why and how” (Lin, 2005). The language teacher must communicate to his/her students that the study. 政治大 of a culture (Cem & Alptekin, 1993; Flwelling, 1994; Kramsch, 1993; Schleppegrell, 立. of language is also a study of people and cultures, because language is an integral part. 1995). Teachers are facing the difficulties in implementing culture in their classes,. ‧ 國. 學. which includes the limitation of foreign experiences, lack of culture knowledge,. ‧. preparation methods, time, and fear of controversy over teaching values and attitudes.. sit. y. Nat. (Damen 1987; Hadley, 1993; Mantle-Bromley, 1993; Arries, 1994). Wallach, M.. io. er. Kaarsberg’s (1973) research showed that teachers of foreign language and literature acknowledge that an understanding of culture makes language and literature study more. n. al. meaningful.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. All in all, English teachers’ role in teaching culture plays an essential part. As McDonough and Shaw (1993) pointed out that because the EFL teachers use published course materials, “the ability to evaluate teaching materials effectively is a very important professional activity for all EFL teachers (pp. 62). Gray (2002) indicated the importance of teachers’ evaluation on teaching cultural materials. “Given that coursebooks are written primarily with teachers in mind, their views are surely an important element in any discussion about coursebook content”.. 26.

(35) Successful Case in Children’s English and Culture Teaching The “Junior Liberal Education Seminar” in University of Wisconsin-Green Bay has made culture part of its language curriculum and offered students to participate in actual cross-cultural experience such as a one-month field trip to Europe. This project proved to help motivate students’ motivation of language learning. (Wallach, M. Kaarsberg, 1973) Many English teachers hold the positive attitude toward foreign culture teaching and agree with the importance of culture teaching. In order to understand a foreign. 政治大 people and their traditions, customs, 立 environments, characteristics, and ways of thinking language, the first step is to understand the differences between the cultures, that is,. ‧ 國. 學. in the society where the language is spoken (Rowan, 2001).. In M. Elieen’s (2006) research on the cultural package of second language reading,. ‧. she concluded that cultural familiarity with the texts or content schemata had a greater. sit. y. Nat. effect on reading comprehension than did formal organization of the text. Moreover, it. al. n. competency.. er. io. assisted students more with their comprehension of the texts than did linguistic. Ch. e Learning ngchi Evaluation/Assessment on Culture. i n U. v. In order to examine the effect of culture teaching, teachers can use the following methods to evaluate and assess students’ feedback on culture teaching. Students can write self-report, or various types of self-assessment such as checklist about attitudes, case studies, and discussion. Teachers can check the enactment of culture teaching by asking students to demonstrate what they have learned through role-plays, and simulation, to come up with production of concrete product such as a report or essay, and to make observation by both teacher and peers.. 27.

(36) 2.2.2 Children’s English and Culture Learning Children normally mean people at the age around twelve years old. There is significant difference after reaching this age on the aspect of language learning. Meanwhile, the different extent of cognitive competence may influence children’ English learning process and learning experience (Chang, 2000). In elementary level, it is not appropriate to teach the pragmatic language usage of culture; however, teachers can focus on the behavioral and traditional culture differences and help students to build the basic ideas of different cultures.. 政治大 Rosenbusch (1992) examined 立children’s view of foreign people and concluded that Therefore, cultural instruction should be stated early, not later than age of ten.. ‧ 國. 學. 14-year-olds were less receptive to learn about foreign people than were 10-year-olds, who are more open-minded and friendly toward people viewed as dissimilar to them.. ‧. For the beginning students, they should be aware of basic aspects of the foreign culture. sit. y. Nat. including holidays, customs, common foods, leisure activities, and selected artistic. n. al. er. io. forms (music, dance, graphic arts). Also able to compare and contrast aspects of the. i n U. v. native and target language culture. Ex: the identification of major holidays and. Ch. engchi. celebrations; the distinction of appropriate topics of humor in Anglo-American culture; the identification of patriotic or folklore characters or symbols as illustrated through Anglo-American literature (Lafayette, 1978; Shanahan, 1997). 28.

(37) 2.3 Children’s English Learning Materials in Taiwan English learning materials are textbook, coursebooks, and other published works such as magazines and journals. In the following section, forms of cultural information, and how can English learning materials aid teaching will be discussed.. Forms of Cultural Information Cultural information can be communicated and represented in many forms; Adaaskou, Britten, and Fashi (1990) provided the following list to show different forms of cultural. 政治大. information: informative or descriptive text materials; texts presenting foreign attitudes. 立. and opinions; human-interest texts including dialogues, authentic or fictitious, with. ‧ 國. 學. details of everyday life; questionnaires, contextualized practice activities, and writing tasks; in lexis such as particularly idioms and unfamiliar collocations, which involve. ‧. alien concepts, the exponents of a communicative function; realia, or pseudo-realia;. y. Nat. io. sit. illustrations in the student’s book and other visuals; and sound recordings. In other. n. al. er. words, almost everything in a language course is capable of carrying a cultural load of some sort.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In Taiwan, most elementary school English textbooks contain information about Anglo-American cultures especially American culture; topics such as holidays and festivals, food and drink, clothing, places, sports and hobbies, countries and flags, money (currency), size and measurement (inch, pound), transportation, and house (yard, garage) are presented. In other words, culture with small c is most presented in cultural teaching materials and some only include holiday celebrations and food themes (Chuang, 2002).. 29.

(38) Teaching Materials to Aid Culture Teaching Supplemental materials is important in overcoming shortages in teaching cultural authenticity (Cook, 1983). By using them, the elimination of cultural stereotypes can be achieved (Valdes, 1989) and can help supplement the textbook with authentic materials taken from the newspaper, magazines, and other mass media. Teachers can assign materials from magazines and newspaper to be read as homework, and also assign listening to the radio and watching TV program, when they are available. Do not generalize very much about the culture, but rather present evidences and let students. 政治大 Use of pictures can be 立 an effective way to aid culture teaching. Pictures can go a. draw their own conclusions.. ‧ 國. 學. long way toward suggesting and acting as surrogate for such details of the target culture. Pictures have been widely used in presenting literature and fine arts. But if pictures are. ‧. to be effective in culture, i.e., patterns for living, they must in every case related to. sit. y. Nat. cultural configuration to individual participation (Brooks, 1968). Grittner (1996). n. al. er. io. suggested adopting authentic materials in the culture-teaching classroom as the culture. i n U. v. evolved elements of the target culture and language were hidden on the texts.. Ch. engchi. Cortazzi and Jin (1995, pp. 210) declared that using textbooks is the most explicit way to impart knowledge of target cultures to foreign language learners for target cultures are embedded in textbook materials. They examined a range of textbooks around the world and categorized the cultural materials as content into six different types along with their goals: to enable learners to talk to English speaking visitors, to reinforce learner’s own identity directly, to develop knowledge and awareness of other cultures, to develop intercultural skills and explicit intercultural skills, to understand others’ interpretations, and to involve learners in problems, cases, role plays, culture assimilators.. 30.