在美國,除非對外條約內容有自動執行之條款,否則它不會成為 國內法的內容而立即適用,直到它通過立法才得以實施。85根據美國憲 法,國會有「規範與外國商業的權力」。86然而,美國國會已多次授予 此種權力給總統。87美國總統擁有此權力時,稱為「快速審批授權」
此通常是對國際法和國內法關係的二元論途徑。反之,一些國家是一元論的 體系,其中國際法律承諾是自動地納入國內法,沒有任何執行立法的需要。
請見 Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 7th ed. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 31-33。一些人認為,美國是一個二元 論系統。另外,有人認為美國的特徵是包括一元論和二元論途徑的混合型。
請見 Louis Henkin, International Law: Politics and Values (Developments in International Law V. 18) (New York: Springer, 1995), pp. 71-72;Curtis A. Bradley, “Breard, Our Dualist Constitution, and the Internationalist Conception,” Stanford Law Review, Vol. 51, Issue 2, February 1999, pp.
529, 531, Duke University, <http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1974&context=faculty_scholarship>;一般而言,當一項條約有 要求需要立法的行動,就不能視為自動執行。該原則首先出現於美國高等法 院的案例。請見“Foster & Elam v. Neilson 27 U.S. 253 (1829),” U.S. Supreme Court, June 7, 2015, Accessed, <https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/
us/27/253/case.html>。
“The Constitution of the United States,” Article I, Section 8, The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, June 7, 2015, Accessed, <http://www.
archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html>.
有關貿易促進法歷史的相關討論,請見 United States Government Accoun-tability Office, “An Analysis of Free Trade Agreements and Congressional and Private Sector Consultations under Trade Promotion Authority,” Report to the Chairman, Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate, GAO-08-59, November 2007, pp. 20-28, United States Government Accountability Office, <http://
ww.w.gao.gov/new.items/d0859.pdf>;“The Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act of 1934,” United States House of Representatives, March 29, 1934, <http://
(fast track authority)或《貿易促進授權法案》(Trade Promotion Authority,
TPA,以下簡稱《貿促法案》)。
88《貿促法案》賦予總統權力,不僅是貿易協定的談判,而且將條約文本提交給國會,國會則必須以全部的 方式接受或拒絕。89換言之,當行政部門具有《貿促法案》的授權時,
國會沒有權力行使逐條項目的否決、阻撓,或法案接受條件的修訂、
附件、限制性條款,以及其他的條件。90
美國總統從 1974-1994 年持續擁有《貿促法案》的授權。91然而,
圍繞國會批准《北美自由貿易協定》(North American Free Trade
ment, NAFTA)和 1994 年《烏拉圭回合協議法案》(Uruguay Round Agree-ments Act of 1994)引發的爭議,亦即執行建立世貿組織《馬拉喀什協
定》(Marrakesh Agreement)的立法,國會拒絕持續八年的《貿促法 案》。92共和黨(Republican Party)多數控制的國會最終結束了分裂的問 題,並且根據 2002 年的《兩黨貿易促進授權法》(Bipartisan TradePro-motion Authority Act of 2002)授予布希政府《貿促法案》。
93該法案在 2007 年到期,要求行政部門在整個貿易協定的談判過程中,與國會、history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/36918>.
David A. Gantz, “The ‘Bipartisan Trade Deal,’ Trade Promotion Authority and the Future of U.S. Free Trade Agreements,” p. 117.
David A. Gantz, “The ‘Bipartisan Trade Deal,’ Trade Promotion Authority and the Future of U.S. Free Trade Agreements,” pp. 131-132.
David A. Gantz, “The ‘Bipartisan Trade Deal,’ Trade Promotion Authority and the Future of U.S. Free Trade Agreements,” pp. 131-132.
David A. Gantz, “The ‘Bipartisan Trade Deal,’ Trade Promotion Authority and the Future of U.S. Free Trade Agreements,” pp. 130-131.
Villalta Puig Gonzalo & Georgios Andreou Avgousti, “Ignite a New Era of Global Economic Growth through Free Markets and Free Trade: The Rejection of Multilateral Trade Liberalisation by the National Security Strategy of the United States (2002-2006),” International Trade Law &
Regulation, Vol. 16, No. 4, October 2010, pp. 96-97.
國內利害關係人,以及民營部門諮詢委員會進行磋商。94
在過去,美國行政部門已憑藉《貿促法案》,成功地在國會通過 貿易協定。95在沒有《貿促法案》的情況下,要通過任何貿易協定的立 法將難上加難,幾乎不可能使條約生效。96沒有《貿促法案》,美國國 會勢將要求重新起草協定文本的規定,並且增加談判和刪減同意的義 務。該協定的另一方不大可能同意回應美國國會的要求,而重新談判 條約的重要部分。因此,作為實質的問題,《貿促法案》視為是需要 得到任何貿易協定制定的前提。97
事實上,布希政府在第二任期談判了許多貿易的協定,包括與南
“19 U.S. Code § 3801 - Short title and findings,” Cornell University Law School, August 6, 2002, <https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/19/3801>;
“19 U.S. Code § 3802 - Trade negotiating objectives,” Cornell University Law School, August 6, 2002, <https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/19/3802>;
“19 U.S. Code § 3803 - Trade agreements authority,” Cornell University Law School, August 6, 2002, <https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/19/3803>.
“19 U.S. Code § 3804 - Consultations and assessment,” Cornell University Law School, August 6, 2002, <https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/19/3804>;
“19 U.S. Code § 3812 - Interests of small business,” Cornell University Law School, August 6, 2002, <https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/19/3812?
qt-us_code_temp_noupdates=1#qt-us_code_temp_noupdates>.
United States Government Accountability Office, “An Analysis of Free Trade Agreements and Congressional and Private Sector Consultations under Trade Promotion Authority,” p. 9.
David A. Gantz, “The ‘Bipartisan Trade Deal,’ Trade Promotion Authority and the Future of U.S. Free Trade Agreements,” p. 153; C. O’Neal Taylor,
“Regionalism: The Second-Best Option?” p. 162.
David A. Gantz, “The ‘Bipartisan Trade Deal,’ Trade Promotion Authority and the Future of U.S. Free Trade Agreements,” p. 122; C. O’Neal Taylor,
“Regionalism: The Second-Best Option?” pp. 162-63.
韓、98巴拿馬99及哥倫比亞的自貿協定。100歐巴馬上任不久,該等自 貿協定便遭到民主黨人的反對。歐巴馬政府於是重新進行談判。民主 黨人認為,哥倫比亞暴力對待勞工活動人士的歷史有顧慮,而巴拿馬 遭指責存在洗錢問題。與南韓協定遭擱置則是因為南韓汽車市場向美 國汽車開放的問題。迄至 2011 年 10 月經過參眾兩院通過後,歐巴馬才 正式簽署。
雖然《貿促法案》至關重要,但美國國會在 2007 年屆滿後一直不 願意授予。101經過美國內部多次的政治角力,2015 年 6 月 18 日美國眾 議院以 218 票贊成,208 票反對,通過《貿促法案》;緊接著 6 月 24 日,美國參議院以 60 票贊成 38 票反對,通過該法案。同月 29 日,總 統歐巴馬簽署該法案。然而,誠如歐巴馬所言,這些法案能得到國會 同意並不容易,外界多次認定《貿促法案》會失敗,「宣告已死好幾 次」。然其亦表示,《貿促法案》雖已簽署生效,惟艱難的貿易談判 仍在進行,而《貿促法案》生效不代表相關議題的辯論就此結束。其 重申,如不能完全確定貿易協議達高標準,達到保護美國勞工、促進
Alan Beattie, “Obama Aims to Renegotiate S Korea Trade Pact,” Financial Times, June 26, 2010, <http://journalisted.com/alan-beattie?allarticles=yes>.
Office of the United States Trade Representative, “Panama Trade Promotion Agreement,” Office of the United States Trade Representative, December 16, 2014, Accessed, <http://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/panama-tpa>.
100. Office of the United States Trade Representative, “Colombia FTA,” Office of the United States Trade Representative, December 17, 2014, Accessed,
<http://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/colombia-fta>.
101. CQ Politics, “Levin Argues Against Fast-Track Trade Authority,” Citizens Trade Campaign, December 15, 2009, <http://www.citizenstrade.org/ctc/
wp-content/uploads/2011/05/20091215_levinarguesagainstfasttrack_cqpolitics.
pdf>.
美國經濟,將不會簽名讓協定生效。102