Field locations

at least three sets of personal pronouns in Formosan languages, according to case or function.

As for Paiwan, Zeitoun et al. (1999) suggests a neutral-nominative-genitive-oblique distinction, and Chang (2006) presents a nominative-genitive-oblique distinction.

Space deixis and time deixis are frequently discussed together, since they exhibit a peculiar relatedness (Haspelmath, 1997). Some studies on spatial and temporal expressions of Formosan languages are listed: De Busser (2009, 2013, 2017) and Huang (2016) for Bunun, Jiang (2006) and Lee (2016) for Kavalan, Pan (2007) for Tsou, Tsai (2006) for Saisiyat, and Li (2004, 2005) and Sung (2005) for Paiwan, among others. Concerning Paiwan, Li (2004) investigates the conceptualization of motion events and the spatial frames of reference, Li (2005) focuses on the spatial frames of reference, and Sung (2005) explores temporal expressions in both aspects of semantics and morphosyntax.

1.6 Methodology

This section presents research methods. A description of my field locations are discussed in Section 1.6.1, including an overview of Jinfeng Township and an introduction of each village in Jinfeng. Section 1.6.2 briefly introduces the informants. The techniques and tools I have used for collecting and analyzing data are discussed in Section 1.6.3.

1.6.1 Field locations

The locations where I did field research with consultants are mainly in northern kinzang-gu ‘Jinfeng Township (金峰鄉)’ in Taitung County.¹⁴ Kinzang-gu is located in southwestern Taitung County, with Taimali Township (太麻里鄉) bordering to the east, Pingtung County bordering to the west by high mountains, Beinan Township (卑南鄉) to the north, and Daren Township (達仁鄉) to the south.

14 Kinzang is the Japanese spelling of Jinshan, an old name of Jinfeng; -gu ‘township’ is a ‘loan suffix’ from Japanese.

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The two highest mountains at the western border are North Dawu Mountain (北大武山) and South Dawu Mountain (南大武山), collectively known as Dawu Mountain, which is called kavulungan or tjagaraus (see footnote 5 on p.4) by vuculj. Most areas of Jinfeng Township are mountainous and the terrain goes higher toward the west.

As introduced in Section 1.2, there are five villages in Jinfeng Township. They are:

sinapayan ‘Zhengxing Village (正興村)’, kaʔaluan ‘Jialan Village (嘉蘭村)’, sapulju

‘Xinxing Village (新興村)’, djumulj ‘Binmao Village (賓茂村)’ and rulakes ‘Liqiu Village (歷坵村)’, as shown in Map 1.1 on p.2.

Noticeably, sinapayan and djumulj are the enclaves surrounded by Taimali Township, but they administratively belong to Jinfeng Township. This is, from the outset, formulated by a series of policies, e.g. administrative politics on mountain indigenous area (山地施政要點), of demarcating ‘mountain indigenous township’ (山地鄉)¹⁵ promulgated by the then

Kuomintang Government in 1950s (Taiwan Historica, 1951). The title ‘mountain indigenous township’ was revised to ‘aboriginal township’ (原住民鄉) after the rectification by a

constitutional amendment in 1994. By regulation of Local Government Act (地方制度法), the major inhabitants of an aboriginal township must be aboriginal people and the township mayor of an aboriginal township must have aboriginal identity. Therefore, some villages originally belong to Taimali Township were reassigned to the aboriginal township, Jinfeng Township, and vice versa.

There are three main transmeridional rivers going across Jinfeng Township: Beinan River (卑南溪), Taimali River (太麻里溪) and Jinlun River (金崙溪). Most of the old Paiwan tribes of Jinfeng Villages are located near the river. Map 1.3 shows their approximate location. Due to multiple times of migrations, nowadays, the main population centers (the asterisks in Map 1.3) of Jinfeng Township are concentrated in the eastern side near Taimali.

15 The idea of designating ‘mountain indigenous township (山地鄉)’ comes from ‘indigenous land (蕃地)’

demarcated in Japanese Period.

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Map 1.3

The approximate location of old sites of tribes in Jinfeng villages¹⁶

In addition to Paiwan, there were also some Rukai migrating from Wutai Township.

Nowadays, the approximate proportion of the population of each group in Jinfeng Township is: 85% Paiwan, 10% Rukai and 5% other groups.

Sinapayan ‘Zhengxing Village (正興村)’ is very close to the population center of Taimali Township. The Paiwan residents migrated from the four tribes, kaljatjadran (介達), viljauljaur (比魯), paumeli (包盛) and tjulitjulik (斗里斗里), in the upstream region of Taimali River. Some groups were moved to kadraluljan (新園) in Taitung City by the Japanese. The Rukai settlers migrated from Wutai Township. (Chang, 2008; National Development Initiatives Institute, 2006; Kadrangian, 2014).

16 Inspired by the maps of National Development Initiatives Institute (2006:93-144), Yah (2013:36) and some data on the website of Jinfeng Township office (金峰鄉公所), I drew this map.

http://www.ttjfng.gov.tw. Jinfeng Township Office.

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Kaʔaluan ‘Jialan Village (嘉蘭村)’ is the administrative center of Jinfeng Township. The inhabitants of Jialan Village are concentrated in the eastern side.¹⁷ The Paiwan inhabitants of kaʔaluan came from the tribes, kaʔaluan (卡阿魯灣), madaljalu (馬達壓路), tjuletevetevek (督魯德福德福閣), tjuluuai (都魯烏外), maledep (麻勒得泊), maljivel (麻里弗勒) and valjulu (娃優魯). The Rukai settlers came from Wutai Township and mostly reside in Xinfu Community (新富社區) which is a slope district on the uppermost part of Jialan population area (National Development Initiatives Institute, 2006; Kadrangian, 2014). In addition to these tribes, there is also a small settlement, dralengedreng (拉冷冷), located opposite Jialan Village.¹⁸

Sapulju ‘Xinxing Village (新興村/撒布優)’ is located in the region of Wenli River (文里 溪). The main population of Xinxing Village is concentrated in the eastern side. Almost all the residents are Paiwan people that migrated from the tribes in the upstream region of Jinlun River: tjudjaas (近黃), segadu (史卡多), djumulj (雨沐/舊賓茂), vikidj (富給特) and putung (布頓), where the people of segadu are immigrants from kuljaljau (古樓). The two clans, tjaviljaur (叉飛勞巫勒) and pavavalung (巴法法瀧), have close relationship with the clans in djumulj.

Djumulj ‘Binmao Village (賓茂村)’ is located in the region of Jinlun River.¹⁹ The settlers are mostly Paiwan migrated from djumulj (舊賓茂/雨沐) and tjukuvulj (讀古物) in the upstream region of Jinlun River. The migration sites of people from djumulj and tjukuvulj also include the neighboring place tjudjaas, whose residents have moved to sapulju. Thus, the clans in Xinxing Village and Binmao Village are closely related. Besides, some people from djumulj were moved to kadraluljan (新園) by the policy of the Japanese.

17 kaʔaluan may be a collective call for the present-day Jialan Village including several tribes, or it may refer only to the old tribe o kaʔaluan.

18 Dralengedreng is an onomatopoeic name originated by the sound of water that flows over the stones.

19 Djumulj can be a collective call for Binmao Village including several tribes and clans, or it can also refer only to the tribe of djumulj, which was in the midstream of Jinlun River and now one of the tribe in Binmao Village.

The old site of djumulj is usually called ‘Old Binmao (舊賓茂)’ or ‘Yumu (雨沐)’

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Rulakes ‘Liqiu Village (歷坵村/魯拉克斯)’ is located in the southern side of Taimali River. The inhabitants of rulakes are concentrated in the eastern side in the north of Jinlun River. The Paiwan inhabitants came from gulagus (露拉庫西), tjaljangatuan (出水坡) and kuabar (古華). Gulagus is located in the upstream region of Jinlun River; tjaljangatuan is located in upstream region of Dawu River; kuabar is in Chunri Township. There are Rukai settlers migrated from Wutai Township as well. Compared with other Jinfeng tribes, rulakes has quite different migration backgrounds.