Chapter 3: Noun and Verb Phrases
3.2 Nouns
As presented in Section 2.3.4, nouns are structurally divided into two types: primary nouns and derived nouns.
Table 3.1
Classification of nouns according to morphosyntactic features43
Common Can naturally occurs in possessive/associative
construction
+ − + − + +
Can naturally be marked by stative location marker i-
(+) − − + + (+)
Can naturally be marked by past marker ta- / ka- and irrealis marker nu-
− − − − − +
Can naturally occurs in reduplicated form without overt change of meaning
− − − − + (+)
43 + yes; − no; (+) for specific members; (−) in specific context
44 Case pattern A: a/nu/n(u)a/t(u)a/tu; case pattern B: ti/ni/tjai in singular and tia/nia/tjaya in plural. Place names, spatial nouns and temporal nouns do not occur with case markers.
45 The structures [numeral + kinship term] and [adjectival + kinship term] are not attested in my database.
Logically, numerals may occur with some kinship terms cross-linguistically, probably with some limitations (e.g. two cousins, ??two fathers). Generally, adjectives may occur with kinship terms (e.g. beautiful mother, tall brother).
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N a tio na
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Functionally, nouns may be classified into several categories. Chang (2006) classifies nouns into four classes, common nouns, personal nouns, kinship terms and locative nouns, by both of their semantic and morphosyntactic features. This thesis classifies nouns mainly on the basis of morphosyntactic criteria and shows that there are the six main categories:
common nouns, personal names, kinship terms, place names, spatial nouns and temporal nouns. Table 3.1 shows the criteria, the description of which are included in the subsequent subsections.
3.2.1 Common nouns
Common nouns refer to generic categories. They generally act as subjects and objects of clauses, as vatu ‘dog’ and nemanga ‘thing’shown in (3.5a). They may occur with
demonstratives, numerals, possessors and adjectival verbs, as lubuk ‘bag’ and tjalupung ‘hat’
shown in (3.5b) and (3.5c).
(3.5) a. s<em>eʔu~seʔu a vatu ta nemanga.
<AV>PROG~smell NOM.CMN dog OBL.CMN thing
‘A dog is smelling something.’ (sinapayan)
b. a za (a) tjelu a ʔu~dji~djilj a lubuk
NOM.CMN that (LIG) three LIG red~RED~red LIG bag
‘those three red bags’ (kaʔaluan) c. ku=tjalupung
GEN.1SG=hat
‘my hat’ (kaʔaluan)
Common nouns that denote locations may be marked by the stative location marker i-, as kadjalanan ‘main road’ shown in (3.6).
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N a tio na
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(3.6) i-kadjalanan=anan ti lavi?
LOC-main.road=CON NOM.PRL.SG PR.M
‘Is Lavi still on the road?’ (sinapayan)
Common nouns may take CVCV- reduplication that denotes plurality, locations where the noun is present in large quantity, or diminution. The expression of plurality by
reduplication is usually on human beings, as examples given in (3.7). However, there is actually no overt distinction between the base and the reduplicated form. The base itself may express single or plural individuals. (3.8) gives examples of reduplication denoting locations where there is large quantity of base. (3.9) gives examples of reduplication denoting
diminution.
(3.7) Common noun CVCV-reduplicated form taʔaljan ‘villager’ ta~ʔalja~ʔaljan ‘villagers’
vavayan ‘woman’ va~vaya~vayan ‘women’
uʔaljay ‘man’ u~ʔalja~ʔaljay ‘men’
(3.8) Common noun CVCV-reduplicated form
cemel ‘grass; underbrush’ ceme~cemel ‘hunting place; grassland’
kasiv ‘tree’ kasi~kasiv ‘forest’
(3.9) Common noun CVCV-reduplicated form lubuk ‘bag’ lubu~lubuk ‘pocket; pack’
vatu ‘dog’ vatu~vatu ‘toy dog’
ʔatjuvi ‘snake’ ʔa~tjuvi~tjuvi ‘worm’
kakedrian ‘child’ ka-kedri~kedri-an ‘little child’
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立 政 治 大 學
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N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
3.2.2 Personal names
Personal names generally act as subjects and objects of clauses, as mia ‘(female name)’
and kai ‘(female name)’ shown in (3.10a). In most context, they do not occur with
demonstratives, numerals, possessors and adjectival verbs. However, in specific context, as attested in my database, the personal name may occur with the distal demonstrative za, as shown in (3.10b).
(3.10) a. p<en>angul ti mia tjai kai.
<AV>hit.(with.hammer) NOM.PRL.SG PR.F OBL.PRL.SG PR.F
‘Kai was hit by Mia (with the hammer).’ (sinapayan)
b. izua ita ʔadav, a za ti
EXIST one day NOM.CMN that NOM.PRL.SG
mautjukutjuku kacu-in a za marekaka
PR.F bring-UVP NOM.CMN that brothers
ma-vavua uri ki-vurati
go.to-field will obtain-sweet.potato
‘One day, the Mautjukutjuku brought the boys to the mountain for picking sweet potatoes.’ (narrative2)
(3.11) a. ki-ki-rivuan ti vikung.
PASS-obtain-rebuke NOM.PRL.SG PR.M
‘Vikung was scolded.’ (sinapayan)
b. a ngadan na umaq lja-pakedavay.
NOM.CMN name GEN.CMN house belong.to-PR.F
‘Their family name is Pakdavay.’ (narrative1)
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N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
A full personal name consists of a first name and a ngadan na umaq ‘name of house’, which is like last name. The first name is marked by a case marker, as vikung ‘(male name)’
shown in (3.11a), and the house name is preceded by the prefix lja- ‘belong to (house)’, as is clear in (3.11b).
3.2.3 Kinship terms
Kinship terms share properties with common nouns and personal names. They are typically marked by case markers for personal nouns, as shown in (3.12a). Nevertheless, when a kinship term is modified by any other adnominals, a common case marker is used for the noun phrase headed by the kinship term, as shown in (3.12b).
They typically serve as subjects or objects in a clause. Like common nouns, kinship terms can be modified by possessive clitics, as shown in (3.12b). Sometimes they are used to address someone, as shown in (3.12c).
(3.12) a. ʔecap-an ti kama ta vuculj.
pick.up-IMP.EXCL.UVL NOM.PRL.SG father OBL.CMN meat
‘Pick up the meat for grandfather!’ (sinapayan)
b. paʔaljai=itjen ta ku=vuvu.
respect=NOM.1PL.INCL OBL.CMN GEN.1SG=grandfather
‘We respect our grandfather.’ (sinapayan) c. ʔanglic=anga su=vasa, kaka!
scorch=COS GEN.2SG=taro sibling
‘Your taro has been scorched, sister!’ (sinapayan)
Common kinship terms are listed in Table 3.2. ʔama ‘father/uncle/male elder peer as mother’ and ʔina ‘mother/aunt/female elder peer as mother’ are the only two forms that
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discriminate genders. In addition, kinship terms do not discriminate between age categories as well. For examples, kaka ‘sibling/peer relative’ can be used to call an elder brother, an elder sister, a younger brother and a younger sister.
Table 3.2 Kinship terms
Kinship term Meaning Kinship term Meaning
vuvu ‘grandparent; grandchild; elder
peer as grandparents’ kaka ‘sibling/peer relative’
ʔina / kina ‘mother; aunt; female elder
peer as mother’ mare-kaka ‘siblings’
ʔama / kama ‘father; uncle; male elder peer as father’
bai ‘daughter; wife [VOC]’
cekelj ‘spouse’ unu ‘son; husband [VOC]’
mare-cekelj ‘husband and wife’ vetjek ‘(all) siblings’
tarev ‘son or daughter in law’ sikatjaraʔita ‘cousin’
3.2.4 Place names
Place names are characterized by the obligatory occurrence with the stative location marker i-, as we can see in (3.13a-c). The specific location marker tja- and the motion prefix like pasa- ‘move toward’ or k<em>asi- ‘come back from’ may also be used with them, as shown in (3.13b) and (3.13c), respectively.
Place names typically serve as obliques, as taihuku ‘Taipei’ in (3.13a), though they may also be a syntactic subject, such as akav ‘Pingtung’ in (3.13b). In most cases, they are not modified by demonstratives, numerals, possessors and adjectival verbs.
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‘There are many schools in Taipei’ (sinapayan) b. Place name occurring with tja- and i-
a i-akav i-tja-i-lauz tja-i-taiwan.
NOM.CMN LOC-PR.place LOC-SPEC-LOC-south SPEC-LOC-Taiwan
‘Pingtung is in the south of Taiwan.’ (sinapayan) c. Place name occurring with motion prefix pasa- and i-
maʔinacap=itjen a ma-pasa-i-ljaveavek.
hunt.head=NOM.1PL.INCL LIG go.to-move.toward-LOC-PR.place
‘We go head-hunting in Ljaveavek.’ (sinapayan)
3.2.5 Spatial nouns
Generally, spatial nouns serve as neither subjects nor objects. Typically, they may be accompanied by the stative location prefix i-, the specific location marker tja-, verbal prefixes that express motion, the superlative circumfix tjalja- -an or some other prefixes related to locations. In most cases, they do not occur with demonstratives, numerals, possessive clitic.
Remarkably, they often occur in CVCV-reduplicated forms. See Section 4.3.1, Section 4.3.2 and Section 4.3.3 for detailed descriptions.
3.2.6 Temporal nouns
Generally, temporal nouns serve as neither subjects nor objects. Typically, they may be accompanied by ka- / ta- ‘past’, nu- ‘irrealis’, the stative location prefix i-, the specific location marker tja- or some other prefixes related to time. In most cases, they do not occur with demonstratives, numerals and possessive clitics. Remarkably, they often occur in
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CVCV-reduplicated forms. See Section 4.3.2, Section 4.3.4 and Section 4.3.5 for detailed descriptions.