北金峰鄉排灣語形態句法—以指示語為研究核心 - 政大學術集成

全文

(1)國立政治大學語言學研究所碩士論文 National Chengchi University Graduate Institute of Linguistics Master Thesis. 指導教授：戴智偉博士 Advisor: Dr. Rik De Busser. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 北金峰鄉排灣語形態句法—以指示語為研究核心. ‧. Aspects of the morphosyntax of North Jinfeng Paiwan - with a focus on deixis. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 研究生：黃鈺閔撰 Student: Yumin Huang 中華民國 107 年 8 月 August, 2018. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(3) Aspects of the morphosyntax of North Jinfeng Paiwan - with a focus on deixis. 立. BY 政治大 Yumin Huang. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. io. y. sit. Graduate Institute of Linguistics. er. Nat. A Thesis Submitted to the. n. a lin Partial Fulfillment of the i v nof C h for the Degree Requirements U engchi Master of Arts. August, 2018. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.


(5) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Copyright © 2018 Yumin Huang All Rights Reserved. iii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.


(7) Acknowledgements My deepest thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Rik De Busser (戴智偉), for his guidance throughout my research and for his helpful comments on the first draft of this work. My enthusiasm on Austronesian languages came from his courses ‘the Austronesian languages’ and ‘Field Research’ and his MOST projects. He kindly assisted me with the development of my field study of Paiwan. He is not just my supervisor but a mentor. When I encountered difficulties during my fieldtrips, he encouraged me a lot, built up my confidence and gave me a lot of useful advices. Through Dr. De Busser’s arrangement, in the early stages of my fieldtrips, I stayed in the house of his relatives, Tian-lai Wu (吳天來) and Wumi Tian (田秋妹), in kaʔaluan (嘉蘭村). They offered me a place to stay and took care of me a lot, making me soon accommodate myself to the surroundings when I first stepped into the territory of Paiwan. I am very grateful for them. I want to thank all members of Wu’s family and some friends and. 政治大 neighbors of Wu, who brought me a great memory during the semancavilj ‘harvest festival’ in 立 August 2016. I especially want to thank Shih-yuan Yeh-li (葉李世源) and Uden, who showed. ‧ 國. 學. me around the villages in Jinfeng Township and shared a lot of knowledge about hunting culture with me. I am extremely grateful to Pastor Chung-ming Wang (王忠明) and his wife.. ‧. They took care of me a lot, often cooked for me, and always treated me like a member of their family. Words are not enough to express my gratitude to Pastor Mazeljzelj Curimudju (黃進成),. y. Nat. sit. my first and the main informant for this thesis, who lived in sinapayan (正興村). He spent his. n. al. er. io. precious time providing me a large amount of language data and patiently answered me lots of boring questions in many evenings after long and tiring work. Other than the knowledge of language, I also learned a lot from him. He took pleasure in sharing his extensive knowledge of Paiwan naming, traditional rituals, culture and history with me. He also encouraged me a lot on my research. Though we have never met, I want to thank pastor of Presbyterian church of sapulju (新興村), Muni Madilin (瑪迪林．慕妮), for introducing me three informants: Ljumiyan Tjakulavu (溫待青), Sabu Daljawlep (左玉芳) and Selep Taveljengan (菈露依). I am grateful. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. for them, who spent several afternoons answering my questions in sapulju. Besides providing language data, they also pleasurably shared information about their living domains with me. I especially want to thank Selep again. Whenever I want to give an interview with Ljumiyan and Sabu, she always helped me contact them, arrange an interview location, and made a special trip to sapulju from her village, djumulj (賓茂村), which is about 15 kilometers away from sapulju, just for serving as the communication assistant in the interview. I also thank her for spending a long afternoon sharing her knowledge of immigration history of tribes with me in djumulj.. iv. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(8) I am grateful for the staff in Jinfeng Township Office. Through contact with them, I met another informant, Acudus Talealan (曾孝) living in kaʔaluan. I am very grateful to him, for taking his time on answering my questions in several mornings and afternoons. He also shared interesting things about his life with me. My special thanks go to Bi-xin Lin (林碧鑫), who spent an evening sharing me with his knowledge of Paiwan history and culture in kaʔaluan. I would like to thank the staff of Taimali Research Center of Taiwan Forestry Research Institute (林業試驗所太麻里研究中心), who helped me find the accommodation place in the urban area of Taimali Township and tolerated me for about two weeks. I would like to show my sincere gratitude to all my committee members, who took their time in reading this long thesis. They are Dr. Stacy Fang-ching Teng (鄧芳青), Dr. Amy Peijung Lee (李佩容) and Dr. Claire Hsun-huei Chang (張郇慧). They pointed out many problems and gave me lots of nice suggestions. I am thankful to Dr. Teng for providing me financial support. Furthermore, I especially want to thank Dr. Elizabeth Zeitoun (齊莉莎).. 政治大 She voluntarily attended my oral defense and gave me elaborate suggestions on the 立 modification of the thesis.. ‧ 國. 學. I would like to thank Dr. One-soon Her (何萬順). During the time in participating in Dr.. ‧. Her’s projects, he shared a lot of research experience with me. It was a great time to work for him. He has a great sense of humor and always made academic research be an interesting thing. I am also grateful for Dr. Hsiu-chuan Liao (廖秀娟). She offered me many. y. Nat. opportunities, making me more involved in the academic circle of research of Austronesian. sit. al. er. io. languages. I want to thank Dr. Chin-lung Lin (林慶隆), Chung-yi Chiu (邱重毅) and all other. n. colleagues in Research Center for Translation, Compilation and Language Education in National Academy for Educational Research. They gave me a lot of suggestions and advices on my academic career. I want to thank all my friends, who have made my life cheerful and colorful. I especially want to thank all my best friends I have met in the period of my undergraduate study in National Tsing Hua University. Every time I get together with them, my batteries get recharged. My sincerest thanks go to my girlfriend, Chen-yao Chao (趙鎮瑤), for all her. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. accompany during the hard times of my writing. Last but not least, I want to thank my parents and my younger brother. They have always supported me, no matter how roundabout the route I chose to go. They are always my spiritual pillars in my life. Finally, I want to thank Jinfeng Township, a beautiful land full of cultural atmosphere, that gave me nutrition and made this work possible.. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(9) Table of contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iv List of tables ............................................................................................................................ viii List of figures, maps and pictures ............................................................................................. ix Lists of conventions ................................................................................................................... x Chinese abstract ......................................................................................................................xiii English abstract ....................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Motivations ...................................................................................................................... 1. 治政大 ................................................................................................... 3 立 ....................................................................................................... 3. 1.2 Objective.......................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Organization of this thesis 1.4 Introduction on Paiwan. ‧ 國. 學. 1.5 Literature review ............................................................................................................... 7 1.5.1 Dialectology ........................................................................................................... 7. ............................................................................................ 10 1.5.3 Morphosyntactic typology ....................................................................................... 12 1.5.4 Deixis ................................................................................................................. 13 1.5.2 Descriptive grammars. ‧. Nat. sit. y. 1.6 Methodology................................................................................................................... 14 1.6.1 Field locations ...................................................................................................... 14. io. n. al. er. 1.6.2 Informants ........................................................................................................... 18. i n U. v. 1.6.3 Data collection and analysis..................................................................................... 19. Ch. engchi. Chapter 2: Grammatical Profile ............................................................................................... 27 2.1 Phonology ...................................................................................................................... 27 2.1.1 Phonemes ............................................................................................................ 27 2.1.2 Syllable structure ................................................................................................... 32 2.1.3 Stress .................................................................................................................. 36 2.2 Morphology .................................................................................................................... 36 2.2.1 Roots and stems .................................................................................................... 36 2.2.2 Affixes and clitics .................................................................................................. 38 2.2.3 Reduplication ....................................................................................................... 40 2.3 Lexical categories ............................................................................................................ 42 2.3.1 Categories of roots and stems ................................................................................... 42 2.3.2 Nominal affixes..................................................................................................... 44 2.3.3 Verbal derivational affixes ....................................................................................... 48 2.3.4 Nouns and verbs .................................................................................................... 54. vi. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(10) 2.3.5 Other word classes ................................................................................................. 57 2.4 Argument structure ........................................................................................................... 60 2.4.1 Predicates and arguments ........................................................................................ 60 2.4.2 Case System ......................................................................................................... 63 2.4.3 Voice System ........................................................................................................ 65 2.4.4 Valence-adjusting mechanism .................................................................................. 66. Chapter 3: Noun and Verb Phrases .......................................................................................... 69 3.1 Constituent order ............................................................................................................. 69 3.2 Nouns ............................................................................................................................ 73 3.2.1 Common nouns ..................................................................................................... 74 3.2.2 Personal names ..................................................................................................... 76 3.2.3 Kinship terms ....................................................................................................... 77. 政治大 ..................................................................................................... 79 立. 3.2.4 Place names ......................................................................................................... 78 3.2.5 Spatial nouns ........................................................................................................ 79 3.2.6 Temporal nouns. 3.3 Numerals and sortal affixes ................................................................................................ 80. ‧ 國. 學. 3.4 Verbs ............................................................................................................................. 84 3.4.1 Dymamic vs. stative verbs ....................................................................................... 84. ‧. 3.4.2 Adjectival verbs .................................................................................................... 86 3.4.3 Auxiliary verbs ..................................................................................................... 87. y. Nat. 3.5 Mood, aspect and voice ..................................................................................................... 89. io. sit. Chapter 4: Deixis ..................................................................................................................... 99. er. 4.1 Personal pronouns ............................................................................................................ 99. al. n. v i n C.................................................................................... 4.3 Spatial and temporal constructions 110 hengchi U 4.3.1 Stative location prefix i-........................................................................................ 110 4.2 Demonstratives .............................................................................................................. 106. 4.3.2 Morphosyntax of spatial and temporal nouns ............................................................ 112 4.3.3 Specific location prefix tja- ................................................................................... 118 4.3.4 Temporal adverbs ................................................................................................ 119. Chapter 5: Conclusion............................................................................................................ 125 References .............................................................................................................................. 127 Appendix: Texts of Narratives ............................................................................................... 135. vii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(11) List of tables. Table 1.1 - Dialect basis of previous works on grammatical description of Paiwan ............... 11 Table 1.2 - List of informants .................................................................................................. 18 Table 1.3 - A sample of collecting word lists by derivation and back-formation: Ca- -an ...... 21 Table 2.1 - Consonant inventory of North Jinfeng Paiwan ...................................................... 28 Table 2.2 - (Near) minimal pairs of consonant phonemes ....................................................... 29 Table 2.3 - Vowel inventory of North Jinfeng Paiwan ............................................................. 32 Table 2.4 - Nominal affixes...................................................................................................... 44 Table 2.5 - Internal structure of nouns ..................................................................................... 55. 政治大. Table 2.6 - Internal structure of verbs ...................................................................................... 56. 立. Table 2.7 - Basic numerals ....................................................................................................... 57. ‧ 國. 學. Table 2.8 - Case markers .......................................................................................................... 63 Table 2.9 - Voice affixes in indicative mood............................................................................ 66. ‧. Table 3.1 - Classification of nouns according to morphosyntactic features ............................ 73 Table 3.2 - Kinship terms ......................................................................................................... 78. sit. y. Nat. Table 3.3 - Numerals with sortal affixes .................................................................................. 81. io. er. Table 3.4 - Ordinal and multiplicative expressions of numerals ............................................. 83 Table 4.1 - Personal pronouns ................................................................................................ 100. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Table 4.2 - Demonstratives with case markers ...................................................................... 110. engchi. Table 4.3 - Spatial and temporal nouns .................................................................................. 114 Table 4.4 - Temporal adverbs ................................................................................................. 120. viii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.


(13) List of figures, maps and pictures. Figure 1.1 - Cheng (2016a)’s classification of Paiwan dialects................................................. 9 Map 1.1 - Villages in Jinfeng Township .................................................................................... 2 Map 1.2 - The approximate distribution of the subgroups of Paiwan ....................................... 6 Map 1.3 - The approximate location of old sites of tribes in Jinfeng villages ......................... 16 Picture 1.1 - (Stimulus) ............................................................................................................ 24. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. ix. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.


(15) Lists of conventions. Orthography This thesis generally adopts the orthographic system formulated by Ministry of Education (教育部) of Taiwan in 2005, since most Paiwan textbooks of Paiwan use the transcription.1. Phoneme. Grapheme. Phoneme. /p/. p. /ʦ/. /b/. b. 立/v/. /t/. t. c /ʎ/ 政治大. Grapheme lj. /s/. s. /j/. y. d. /z/. z. /a/. a. dr. /h/. h. /e/. /m/. m. /i/. /n/. n. /u/. /ɟ/. dj. /k/. k. /g/. g. a l /ŋ/ Ch. /ʔ/. ʔ. /ɭ/. io. tj. n. /r/. ng. e n g cr h i. i u. er. Nat. /c/. e. y. w. sit. /w/. ‧ 國. v. ‧. /ɖ/. Phoneme. 學. /d/. Grapheme. i n U. v. l. In the official document, The comma ’ is set for the representation of glottal stop /ʔ/. However, in my thesis I would use ʔ to avoid confusion with the comma for punctuation.. 1. See http://ws.moe.edu.tw/001/Upload/6/RelFile/6508/7828/aboriginal.pdf. x. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(16) Glossing abbreviations. 1. First person. NEG. Negative. 2. Second person. NMZ. Nominalizer. 3. Third person. NOM. Nominative. AUX. Auxiliary. OBL. Oblique. AV. Actor voice. OPT. Optative. CAUS. Causative. ORD. Ordinal. CL. Sortal affix. PFV. Perfective. CMN. Common. COMP. Comparative. CON. 政治Plural大 PL. 立. Continuous. PRL. Personal. COS. Change of state. PROX. Proximal. CPL. Completive. PST. Past. DIM. Diminutive. RECP. Reciprocal. DIST. Distal. RED. Reduplicant. EXCL. Exclusive. REF. Reflexive. EXIST. Existential verb. IRR. Future. SPEC. Specific. GEN. Genitive. STAT. Stative. HAB. Habitual. SUPL. Superlative. IMP. Imperative. UVC. Circumstantial undergoer voice. INCL. Inclusive. UVL. Locative undergoer voice. IRR. Irrealis. UVP. Patient undergoer voice. LIG. Ligature. VIS. Visible. MULTI. Multiplicative. VOC. Vocative. n. i n C h SG Singular engchi U. xi. y. sit. io. er. Nat. al. ‧. ‧ 國. Progressive. 學. PROG. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(17) The abbreviations listed on the previous page generally follow the appendix of Leipzig Glossing Rule.2. Interlinearlization Representation The morpheme-by-morpheme interlinearlization in this thesis typically follows the conventional format of the Leipzig Glossing Rule. The following shows the representation of each morphological unit.. Representation. Prefix. X-. Suffix. -X. <X>. Enclitic Ruduplicant. X- -Y. Representation X= =X. X~ / ~X~. ‧. Circumfix. ‧ 國. Infix. 立. Unit 政治大 Proclitic. 學. Unit. sit. y. Nat. io. er. There is no solution for the root-internal reduplicant in the Leipzig Glossing Rule. In this thesis, I use ~RED~ to represent it, such as ʔa~tjuvi~tjuvi 'worm', which is a derived from. al. n. v i n the root ʔatjuvi ‘snake’. In addition,C thehgloss of bipartite elements are repeated, as shown in engchi U (1) and (2). Infixes are treated as left-peripheral elements, as shown in (3).. (1) ʔa~tjuvi~tjuvi. 2. (2) ka-ʔatjuvi-an. (3) c<in>avu. snake~DIM~snake. genuine-snake-genuine. <UVP>pack. 'worm'. ‘hundred-pacer’. ‘be packed’. See https://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php. xii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.


(19) 國. 立. 政. 治. 大. 學. 研. 究. 所. 碩. 士. 論. 文. 提. 要. 研究所別：語言學研究所論文名稱：北金峰鄉排灣語形態句法—以指示語為研究核心指導教授：戴智偉研究生：黃鈺閔. 政治大. 論文提要內容：（共 1 冊，32758 字，分 5 章 17 節）. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 本論文為北金峰鄉排灣語的形態句法描述，並以指示語為研究之核心。所有語料皆採集自九次的短期田野調查，而每次的田野調查平均為期兩週。田野地點包含了正. Nat. y. ‧. 興村 (sinapayan)、嘉蘭村 (kaʔaluan) 以及新興村 (sapulju)。. sit. 在音韻方面，本文探討了音素、音節以及重音；在構詞方面，本文闡述如何定義. n. al. er. io. 及分類各種語素與詞類；在論元結構方面，本文針對述語、論元進行了概述，探討語. i n U. v. 態系統如何運作論元之排列模式。根據句法構詞特徵，本論文對名詞及動詞作了分. Ch. engchi. 類，並探討名詞組及動詞組結構之修飾語。本文的核心——指示語 (deixis)，將分為人稱代名詞、指示詞 (demonstrative) 及表達空間與時間之結構，進行系統性之探究。本文的最後為結論與未來研究方向之建議。. xiii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.


(21) Abstract. This thesis is a morphological description of Paiwan as spoken in the north of Jinfeng Township, with a focus on deictic expressions. The field locations include sinapayan ‘Zhengxing village’, kaʔaluan ‘Jialan village’ and sapulju ‘Xinxing village’. All data are. 政治大. collected in nine short periods of my field research, each of which lasted for two weeks on average.. 立. In the discussion of phonology, phonemes, syllable structure and stress are covered. As. ‧ 國. 學. for morphology, this thesis discusses how morphemes and lexical items are defined and. ‧. classified. Concerning argument structure, this thesis gives an overview of predicates,. y. Nat. arguments and discusses how voice system operates argument alignment. Based on. er. io. sit. morphosyntactic features, this thesis presents a classification on nouns and verbs and the constituent elements of noun phrase and verb phrase. As the core part, deictic markers are. al. n. v i n C h which include personal investigated systematically in this thesis, pronouns, demonstratives engchi U and spatiotemporal constructions. The conclusion and suggestions for future research are given in the final.. xiv. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.


(23) Chapter 1: Introduction. This chapter specifies the significance of this thesis and gives a broad overview of Paiwan. Section 1.1 gives the motivation. Section 1.2 states the objective of this thesis. Section 1.3 presents the organization of this thesis. Section 1.4 gives a brief overview of some basic information, origin and ethnic subgroups of Paiwan. Section 1.5 is literature review, which consists of dialectology, descriptive grammars, morphosyntactic typology and deixis. Section 1.6 is methodology, which mainly presents information of my fieldwork.. 政治大. 立. 1.1 Motivations. ‧ 國. 學. My research on Paiwan started with my participation in the two projects of Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST 104-2410-H-004-139 and MoST 105-2410-H-004162). ‧. proposed by Dr. Rik De Busser. The first project aimed to investigate the encoding of some. sit. y. Nat. concepts of Christianity in indigenous cultures and explore the linguistic influence of. al. er. io. Christianity on the Bibles of three of the Formosan languages: Bunun, Atayal and Paiwan. I. v. n. was responsible for the investigation of the Paiwan data, and I selected Jinfeng Township as. Ch. my field location (see Section 1.4.1).. engchi. i n U. In the beginning, I decided to write a sketch grammar about the dialects spoken in Jinfeng Township, because they are generally unexplored (see Section 1.5.2). After collecting and analyzing data for a period of time, I found that there is much potential for locative and temporal expressions in my database to be presented systematically. Since they are quite relevant to deixis, I particularly selected deixis as a focus for my thesis, which is presented as a whole chapter (see Chapter 4).. 1. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(24) 1.2 Objective This thesis aims at describing morphosyntax and deictic expressions of Paiwan as spoken in sinapayan ‘Zhengxing Village (正興村)’, kaʔaluan ‘Jialan Village (嘉蘭村) and sapulju (新興村) in kinzang ‘Jinfeng Township (金峰鄉)’ in Taitung County (臺東縣). I call the dialect ‘North Jinfeng Paiwan’. As shown in Map 1.1, the three villages are all located in the north of the Taimali River (太麻里溪), which roughly bisects the area of Jinfeng Township. Djumulj ‘Binmao Village (賓茂村)’ and rulakes ‘Liqiu Village (壢坵村)’ are located in the south of Jinfeng Township.. Map 1.1 Villages in Jinfeng Township3. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. 3. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The white regions, including the two enclaves, belong to Jinfeng Township. 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(25) Here, I explain why I use the name ‘North Jinfeng Township’. First, the dialects spoken in sinapayan, kaʔaluan and sapulju are generally the same or belonging to the same dialect group (see Section 1.5.1). Second, rulakes, one of the south Jinfeng villages, speaks a quite different dialect, due to its entirely different sources of migration compared with other four Jinfeng villages (see Section 1.6.1). Therefore, I use ‘North Jinfeng Paiwan’ to roughly refer to the dialect. Actually, another south Jinfeng village, djumulj, also speaks the same dialect, since there is close family relationship between djumulj and sapulju for historical reasons (see Section 1.6.1).. 1.3 Organization of this thesis. 立. 政治大. This section presents the organization of this thesis. Section 1.4 to Section 1.6 provides. ‧ 國. 學. introductory information. Chapter 2 gives a grammatical profile and includes an overview of. ‧. phonology, morphology, word class, nominal affixes, verbal affixes and grammatical. y. Nat. relations. Chapter 3 deals with classifications of nouns and verbs, complements of nominal. er. io. sit. and verbal heads and the structure of noun and verb phrase. Chapter 4 presents deictic expressions, including personal pronouns, demonstrative and spatiotemporal expressions. The. al. n. v i n Cgives final chapter makes a conclusion and for future research. h e suggestions ngchi U 1.4 Introduction on Paiwan. The people of Paiwan are distributed mainly in the east side of Pingtung County and central and southern Taitung County in the south of Taiwan. According to statistics from Council of Indigenous Peoples (原住民族委員會) of Taiwan, in May 2018, the population of Paiwan is 100,775, which is second only to Amis (population: 209,668) among the indigenous population. Following the anthropological classification of Utsurikawa et al. (1935), there are two. 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(26) subgroups of Paiwan: ravar (拉瓦爾) and vuculj (布曹爾).4 The residence of ravar is mainly in Sandimen Township and is close to that of Rukai. Therefore, their customs and habits are influenced by each other (e.g. the wear of lily). Different from vuculj (except paqaluqalu) who refer to kavulungan or tjagaraus ‘Dawu Mountain (大武山)’5 as the most sacred place where the souls of ancestors have returned to, the supreme place for ravar is tjaivuvu ‘Damumu Mountain (大母母山)’ (Bima, 2002; Tan, 2007). Vuculj make up more than 90% of the total Paiwan population. Their distribution range is much wider than that of ravar, since they have migrated around for several times. In the process of migration, the contact with different groups such as Chimo (箕模族)6, Puyuma,. 政治大 Rukai, Makatao, Amis, and some other aborigines living in the plains made the high internal 立 ethnical complexity of vuculj. The cultural characteristics and language have changed.. ‧ 國. 學. Therefore, the subgrouping of vuculj is a troublesome issue, where the boundary between. ‧. some subgroups are quite blurred. In general, the most frequently mentioned subdivisions of. y. Nat. vuculj are paumaumaq, caupupulj, paljizaljizav, and paqaluqalu among most literature. er. io. sit. (Bima, 2002; Kadrangian, 2014; National Development Initiatives Institute, 2006; Tan, 2007; Yah, 2013). Since the subgroups have been widely discussed in the abovementioned. al. n. v i n Callhof them in my thesis. ethnological studies, I do not discuss This thesis investigates Paiwan engchi U spoken in Jinfeng Township, and I only discuss the eastern subgroups.. In most literature, the paqaluqalu refers to all Paiwan people who live in Taitung County. However, according to Pan (2017:51) and my informants, paqaluqalu is rarely used by most eastern Paiwan people. Instead, they use seqaluqalu to refer to the subgroup which. 4. In some literature, ravar is spelled as Raval, and vuculj as Butsul. Moth kavulungan and tjagaraus refer to Dawu Mountain. The former means ‘the real residence of ancestors’ (the root vulung means ‘old’), while the latter is name of a god also used to indicate Dawu Mountain out of its sanctity. 6 According to Li (1956:58), The ethnic group of Chimo resided in central Pingtung County, north to the region of Linbian River (林邊溪) and south to the region of Fenggang River (楓港溪). Some of them might have migrated to Taitung County. Nowadays, they are almost Paiwanized and are regarded as Paiwan people in general. 5. 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(27) has close contact with the katripulr (知本) Puyuma and use sezayazaya to call other subgroups.7 Long ago, the katripulr Puyuma migrated southward and ruled the people of vuculj who migrated from the west, Amis and Makatao. Their reigning territory was once widespread throughout almost the entirety of Taitung County and southeastern Hengchun Peninsula before. Most of them gradually blended in with the vuculj society and spoken the language of Paiwan. The seqaluqalu, staying in northern Taimali Township, have especially close contact. 政治大 Paiwan and katripulr Puyuma (Pan, 2017). Some of them believe that they are originated 立 with the southward-migrating Puyuma. The customs of seqaluqalu exhibit a mixture of. from luvuqan (陸發案) rather than kavulungan.8. ‧ 國. 學. The Puyuma influence on the sezayazaya, who inhabit in southern Taimali Township,. ‧. Jinfeng Township, Daren Township and Dawu Township, is not as great as that on the. y. Nat. seqaluqalu. Like western vuculj, the sezayazaya believe that their origin is from kavulungan.. 8. n. 7. al. er. io. 台鄉) to Jinfeng Township.. sit. Besides, there were some Rukai emigrating southward from present-day Wutai Township (霧. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In some literature, paqaluqalu is spelled as paqaroqaro, and seqaluqalu as seqaroqaro. Luvuqan (陸發案) is located in the eastern coastline in northern Taimali Township.. 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(28) Map 1.2 The approximate distribution of the subgroups of Paiwan9. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 9. Inspired by Yah (2013:36), I drew this map. The star marks indicate the center of the tribes or traditional territories as possible. Some of the locations indicated by the star marks are no longer inhabited. 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(29) 1.5 Literature review This section gives a description of existing research on subjects central to this thesis. Section 1.5.1 discusses Paiwan dialects. Section 1.5.2 lists the previous works of descriptive grammar of Paiwan. Section 1.5.3 presents typological sketch of Paiwan morphosyntax from previous studies.. 1.5.1 Dialectology According to most official classifications10, there are four dialects of Paiwan: North. 政治大 roughly includes Sandimen Township (三地門鄉), Majia Township (瑪家鄉) and northern 立 Paiwan, Central Paiwan, South Paiwan and East Paiwan. The territory of North Paiwan. Taiwu Township (泰武鄉); that of Central Paiwan roughly includes southern Taiwu Township. ‧ 國. 學. (泰武鄉), Laiyi Township (來義鄉) and northern Chunri Township (春日鄉); that of. ‧. Southern Paiwan roughly includes southern Chunri Township (春日鄉), Shizi Township (獅. y. Nat. 子鄉), Mudan Township (牡丹鄉) and Manzhou Township (滿洲鄉); and that of East Paiwan. er. io. sit. includes all the Paiwan-populated townships in Taitung County (Bima, 2002; National Development Initiatives Institute, 2006:85). The main problem of this classification is that. al. n. v i n Csweepingly each of the demarcated dialect group various dialects. In the following, h e n g cinclude hi U. we discuss some recent studies on the classification of Paiwan dialects. As far, there is still no consensus in the classification of Paiwan dialects. However, there have been considerable results in recent years. Ho (1978) compares five dialects of Paiwan and tries to reconstruct Proto-Paiwan. His selected locations for the five dialects are: stimur (地磨兒), payuan (筏灣/排灣), butanglu (丹路), tjavualji (大王/太麻里) and tjuabar (土坂). Ho divides Paiwan into two dialectal branches: Northwest and Southeast. The palatal phonemes, tj /c/ and dj /ɟ/, have dentalized to. 10. See http://lokahsu.org.tw. Accreditation of the Aboriginal Languages Proficiency (原住民族語言能力認證測驗).. 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(30) t /t/ and d /d/ in the former; the latter preserves the distinctions. However, recent research (Cheng, 2016) confirms that the dentalization takes place only in a small number of northern dialects. Ferrell (1982:6) divided Paiwan into six dialect area by a phonological comparison in his dictionary work. The six dialect areas are: A1 for kaljaljau (古樓), payuan (筏灣/排灣) and tjuaqaciljay (加芝來), A2 for lekeleke (力里) and pacavalj (大鳥), B1 for tjukuvulj (德文) and kaviangan (佳平), B2 for makazayazaya (瑪家) and tjaljakavus (來義), B3 for tjalilig (森永) and B4 for tjavualji (大王/太麻里).. 政治大 assumes that the eastern dialects should be grouped under the Southeast group proposed by 立 Lee (2011:18-20) provides several criteria for the classification of eastern dialects and. Ho (1978), which can be further divided into three sub-branches: Northern, Central and. ‧ 國. 學. Southern. The dialects of kadraluljan (新園), sinapayan (正興), and putung (布頓) and. ‧. tjudjaas (近黃) belong to the Northern branch.11 The Central branch includes lalawlan (新香. io. er. (愛國埔), pacavalj (大鳥) and aljungic (安朔).. sit. y. Nat. 蘭), tjubar (土坂) and tjavualji (大王/太麻里). The Southern branch cavali (多良), djaqup. Cheng (2016) did an elaborate survey of sounds in 90 locations for his doctoral. al. n. v i n dissertation. He drew several maps C that show phonological h e n g c h i Ufeatures of dialects spoken in. these locations. He divided Paiwan dialects into two main groups, Northern and Southern, with multi-level sub-branches, as shown in Figure 1.1. The dialect boundary is generally the boundary between Taiwu Township and Laiyi Township. The primary feature for his subgrouping is the pronunciation of tj and dj. In Northern dialect group, they are pronounced as stops /c ɟ/ or /cj ɟj/; in the Southern dialect group they are pronounced as affricates /tɕ dʑ/. In a small number of northern dialects, /c/ and /ɟ/ are dentalized to /t/ and /d/. Secondary features are shown as (1.1).. 11. Putung (布頓) and tjudjaas (近黃) are old tribes that are related to the present-day sapulju (新興) (see Section 1.6.1). Tjudjaas is spelled as djudjaʔas in Lee (2011). 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(31) Figure 1.1 Cheng (2016a)’s classification of Paiwan dialects12. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. (1.1). a.. /q/ > /ʔ/.. b.. /k/ > /ʔ/.. c.. /ɭ/ > /ɣ/.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. (1.1a) takes place in northern and northeastern dialects (except for those in Taimali Township). (1.1b) occurs in dialects originating from tjaljaʔavus (內社/來義) such as some southern dialects and tjavualji (大王/太麻里). (1.1c) takes place in dialects originating from lekeleke (力里) such as rulakes (歷坵) in southern Jinfeng Township and some dialects in. 12. This figure only shows the first to the third level of subbranches. 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(32) southern Taitung County. Besides, there are various regional and tribal features as well. By synthesizing early records (Ogawa and Asai, 1935), Lee (2011) and Cheng (2016), Ang (2018:56-57) divided Paiwan dialects into three branches: Northern, Southern and Highland. The features for his subgrouping are shown as (1.2).. (1.2). a.. /q/ > /ʔ/ or ø. b.. /c/ > /ʨ/ and /ɟ/ > /ʥ/. c.. /k/ > /ʔ/ or ø. d.. /ɭ/ > /ɣ/, /r/ > /ʁ/ and /r/ > /χ/. 立. 政治大. (1.2a) takes place in the Northern dialect branch. (1.2b) occurs in the Southern dialect. ‧ 國. 學. branch, which is divided into two main subgroups: dialects originating from tjaljaʔavus (內社. ‧. /來義) and those originating from lekeleke (力里). (1.2c) takes place in the former, and (1.2d). y. sit. io. n. al. er. general.. Nat. occurs in the latter. All these sound changes do not occur in the Highland dialect branch in. 1.5.2 Descriptive grammars. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. This section gives an overview of descriptive grammars of Paiwan according to the time of their publication, as listed in Table 1.1. Ferrell (1982) gave a grammar sketch in his Paiwan dictionary based on the dialect spoken in kuljaljau (古樓) in Laiyi Township (來義鄉). Chen and Ma (1986) published a brief introduction of Paiwan spoken in pucunug (文樂) in Laiyi Township. Egli (1990) surveyed the dialect spoken in tjatjigel (大溪), which is located between Taimali Township (太麻里鄉) and Dawu Township (大武鄉). He is the first researcher who wrote a grammatical description of Paiwan spoken in Taitung County. His grammar contains abundant lists of examples but unfortunately lacks a detailed description. Chang (2000) 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(33) published a sketch grammar of Paiwan spoken mainly in tjaylaking (賽嘉) in Sandimen Township (三地門鄉) and vecekadan (三和) in Majia Township (瑪家鄉). Early and Whitehorn (2003) laid out a grammar sketch as an appendix in their work of Paiwan text collections.. Table 1.1 Dialect basis of previous works on grammatical description of Paiwan Work. Page. Language. Ferrell (1982:1-50). 50. Chen & Ma (1986). 139. Egli (1990). 349. kuljaljau (古樓), Laiyi Twp., Pingtung Cty. 政治大 pucunug (文樂), Laiyi Twp., Pingtung Cty. Chinese 立. ‧ 國. German. tjatjigel (大溪), Taimali Twp., Taitung Cty.. tjaylaking (賽嘉), Sandimen Twp., Pingtung Cty.. 222. Chinese. vecekadan (三和), Majia Twp, Pingtung Cty.. ‧. Chang (2016). 193. y. 482. English. io. sit. Chang (2006). 24. valjulu (馬兒), Sandimen Twp., Pingtung Cty. makazayazaya (瑪家), Majia Twp., Pingtung Cty.. er. (2003:559-582). Nat. Early & Whitehorn. English. 學. Chang (2000). Main dialect basis. n. tjaylaking (賽嘉), Sandimen Twp., Pingtung Cty. aEnglish iv l C n (地磨兒), Sandimen Twp., Pingtung Cty. h e ntimur gchi U Chinese. tjanaʔasia (義林), Laiyi Twp., Pingtung Cty.. On the basis of Chang (2000) and further fieldwork, Chang (2006) completed a PhD dissertation entitled ‘A Reference Grammar of Paiwan’. The dialects she investigated are spoken in tjaylaking (賽嘉) and timur (地磨兒) in Sandimen Township. Though the dialects are generally the same as those explored in Chang (2000), there are richer and more extensive description and analysis in her doctoral dissertation, which includes phonology, morphology, phrase structure, simple and complex clauses and several grammatical systems. Chang (2016). 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(34) is a sketch grammar of Paiwan spoken in tjanaʔasia (義林) in Laiyi Township in the new Series of Austronesian Languages in Taiwan.. 1.5.3 Morphosyntactic typology Two main categories of parts of speech in Paiwan are nouns and verbs. There are no categories of adjectives and adverbs in Paiwan. Adjectival meanings are expressed by verbs (Wu, 2004). Paiwan is a predicate-initial language, where the predicate may be a verb or a noun. 政治大 predominant word orders in Formosan languages and western Austronesian languages. In 立. (Chang, 2006:60; Chang, 2016:42-45). As mentioned by Li (2008:524), VSO and VOS are. Paiwan, VOS is predominant, though other word orders such as VSO and SVO are attested as. ‧ 國. 學. well (Chang, 2016:37).. ‧. The main device used to express argument alignment in a clause is the case markings on. y. Nat. noun phrases, whose pattern is associative with the voice of verb. The voice system is one of. er. io. sit. the most prominent morphosyntactic characteristics in Austronesian languages. According to Himmelmann (2002), Paiwan belong to the ‘Philippine-type’ languages, as opposed to the. al. n. v i n ‘Indonesian-type’ languages. VoicesC of Philippine-type languages h e n g c h i U are generally divided into four types in indicative mood: actor voice (AV), patient undergoer voice (UVP), locative. undergoer voice (UVL) and circumstantial undergoer voice (UVC), where the last three are collectively belong to the category of undergoer voice (UV), and UVC mainly subsumes benefactive undergoer voice (UVB) and instrument undergoer voice (UVI) (Ross, 2002; Zeitoun, 2005).13 In most studies, the case markers are divided into three sets of categories. In the analysis of Huang et al.’s (1998) and Tang et al.’s (1998), the three sets of cases are nominative,. 13. In some studies (Li, 2008), ‘focus’ is used to refer to ‘voice’ mentioned here. There is considerable discussion on the term for thr voice/focus system (Blust, 2002; Himmelmann, 2002; Ross and Teng, 2005). 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(35) genitive and accusative; in the works of Chuang (2002) and Chang (2000, 2006, 2016), they are nominative, genitive and oblique; Starosta (1997) proposes an ergative hypothesis. However, the ergative system is not universally accepted, since it involves the issue about the transitivity, which is still in debate in Paiwan and many other Philippine-type languages (Kroeger, 1993; Himmelmann, 1999; Chang, 2004; Reid & Liao, 2004; Aldridge, 2012). Voices interact closely with mood and aspect. Ross (1995) points out a primary mood division between the indicative and non-indicative. Zeitoun et al. (1996) suggests a mood distinction between realis and irrealis. As for aspect, there is a primary distinction between. 政治大 With respect to Paiwan, the irrealis is marked lexically and the perfective is marked 立. perfective and imperfective (Zeitoun et al., 1996; Zeitoun and Huang, 1997; Weng, 2000).. morphologically (Zeitoun and Huang, 1997; Weng, 2000).. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 1.5.4 Deixis. y. Nat. Deixis refers to a word or a marker that carries an expression whose interpretation is. er. io. sit. relative to the contextual information. Levinson (1983:54) describes deixis as “concerning the ways in which languages encode or grammaticalize features of the context of utterance”. The. al. n. v i n major grammaticalized categories ofCdeixis include person, h e n g c h i Uspace and time deixis (Fillmore, 1971).. Person deixis encodes the participant roles in a speech event. The main manifestation of person deixis is the pronominal system (Hartmann and Stork, 1972:168; Levinson, 1983:62,69). Space deixis (or place deixis, spatial deixis) is reference to spatial location relative to the location of the participant roles in a speech event (Levinson, 1983:79). Time deixis (or temporal deixis) in concerned with the encoding of time relative to a temporal reference point, which is usually the time of utterance (Levinson, 1983:62; Lyons, 1977:682). The pronominal system of Formosan languages receives a fair amount of attention (Li, 1997; Zeitoun et al., 1999; Ross, 2006), and there are usually free and bound forms. There are 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(36) at least three sets of personal pronouns in Formosan languages, according to case or function. As for Paiwan, Zeitoun et al. (1999) suggests a neutral-nominative-genitive-oblique distinction, and Chang (2006) presents a nominative-genitive-oblique distinction. Space deixis and time deixis are frequently discussed together, since they exhibit a peculiar relatedness (Haspelmath, 1997). Some studies on spatial and temporal expressions of Formosan languages are listed: De Busser (2009, 2013, 2017) and Huang (2016) for Bunun, Jiang (2006) and Lee (2016) for Kavalan, Pan (2007) for Tsou, Tsai (2006) for Saisiyat, and Li (2004, 2005) and Sung (2005) for Paiwan, among others. Concerning Paiwan, Li (2004). 政治大 (2005) focuses on the spatial frames of reference, and Sung (2005) explores temporal 立. investigates the conceptualization of motion events and the spatial frames of reference, Li. expressions in both aspects of semantics and morphosyntax.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 1.6 Methodology. y. Nat. This section presents research methods. A description of my field locations are discussed. er. io. sit. in Section 1.6.1, including an overview of Jinfeng Township and an introduction of each village in Jinfeng. Section 1.6.2 briefly introduces the informants. The techniques and tools I. al. n. v i n C hdata are discussed U have used for collecting and analyzing in Section 1.6.3. engchi 1.6.1 Field locations. The locations where I did field research with consultants are mainly in northern kinzanggu ‘Jinfeng Township (金峰鄉)’ in Taitung County.14 Kinzang-gu is located in southwestern Taitung County, with Taimali Township (太麻里鄉) bordering to the east, Pingtung County bordering to the west by high mountains, Beinan Township (卑南鄉) to the north, and Daren Township (達仁鄉) to the south.. 14. Kinzang is the Japanese spelling of Jinshan, an old name of Jinfeng; -gu ‘township’ is a ‘loan suffix’ from Japanese. 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(37) The two highest mountains at the western border are North Dawu Mountain (北大武山) and South Dawu Mountain (南大武山), collectively known as Dawu Mountain, which is called kavulungan or tjagaraus (see footnote 5 on p.4) by vuculj. Most areas of Jinfeng Township are mountainous and the terrain goes higher toward the west. As introduced in Section 1.2, there are five villages in Jinfeng Township. They are: sinapayan ‘Zhengxing Village (正興村)’, kaʔaluan ‘Jialan Village (嘉蘭村)’, sapulju ‘Xinxing Village (新興村)’, djumulj ‘Binmao Village (賓茂村)’ and rulakes ‘Liqiu Village (歷坵村)’, as shown in Map 1.1 on p.2.. 政治大 but they administratively belong to Jinfeng Township. This is, from the outset, formulated by 立 Noticeably, sinapayan and djumulj are the enclaves surrounded by Taimali Township,. a series of policies, e.g. administrative politics on mountain indigenous area (山地施政要點),. ‧ 國. 學. of demarcating ‘mountain indigenous township’ (山地鄉)15 promulgated by the then. ‧. Kuomintang Government in 1950s (Taiwan Historica, 1951). The title ‘mountain indigenous. y. Nat. township’ was revised to ‘aboriginal township’ (原住民鄉) after the rectification by a. er. io. sit. constitutional amendment in 1994. By regulation of Local Government Act (地方制度法), the major inhabitants of an aboriginal township must be aboriginal people and the township. al. n. v i n C hhave aboriginal identity. mayor of an aboriginal township must Therefore, some villages engchi U. originally belong to Taimali Township were reassigned to the aboriginal township, Jinfeng Township, and vice versa. There are three main transmeridional rivers going across Jinfeng Township: Beinan River (卑南溪), Taimali River (太麻里溪) and Jinlun River (金崙溪). Most of the old Paiwan tribes of Jinfeng Villages are located near the river. Map 1.3 shows their approximate location. Due to multiple times of migrations, nowadays, the main population centers (the asterisks in Map 1.3) of Jinfeng Township are concentrated in the eastern side near Taimali.. 15. The idea of designating ‘mountain indigenous township (山地鄉)’ comes from ‘indigenous land (蕃地)’ demarcated in Japanese Period. 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(38) Map 1.3 The approximate location of old sites of tribes in Jinfeng villages16. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 sit. y. Nat. al. er. io. In addition to Paiwan, there were also some Rukai migrating from Wutai Township.. v. n. Nowadays, the approximate proportion of the population of each group in Jinfeng Township. Ch. engchi. is: 85% Paiwan, 10% Rukai and 5% other groups.. i n U. Sinapayan ‘Zhengxing Village (正興村)’ is very close to the population center of Taimali Township. The Paiwan residents migrated from the four tribes, kaljatjadran (介達), viljauljaur (比魯), paumeli (包盛) and tjulitjulik (斗里斗里), in the upstream region of Taimali River. Some groups were moved to kadraluljan (新園) in Taitung City by the Japanese. The Rukai settlers migrated from Wutai Township. (Chang, 2008; National Development Initiatives Institute, 2006; Kadrangian, 2014).. 16. Inspired by the maps of National Development Initiatives Institute (2006:93-144), Yah (2013:36) and some data on the website of Jinfeng Township office (金峰鄉公所), I drew this map. http://www.ttjfng.gov.tw. Jinfeng Township Office. 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(39) Kaʔaluan ‘Jialan Village (嘉蘭村)’ is the administrative center of Jinfeng Township. The inhabitants of Jialan Village are concentrated in the eastern side.17 The Paiwan inhabitants of kaʔaluan came from the tribes, kaʔaluan (卡阿魯灣), madaljalu (馬達壓路), tjuletevetevek (督魯德福德福閣), tjuluuai (都魯烏外), maledep (麻勒得泊), maljivel (麻里弗勒) and valjulu (娃優魯). The Rukai settlers came from Wutai Township and mostly reside in Xinfu Community (新富社區) which is a slope district on the uppermost part of Jialan population area (National Development Initiatives Institute, 2006; Kadrangian, 2014). In addition to these tribes, there is also a small settlement, dralengedreng (拉冷冷), located opposite Jialan. 政治大 Sapulju ‘Xinxing Village (新興村/撒布優)’ is located in the region of Wenli River (文里立. Village.18. 溪). The main population of Xinxing Village is concentrated in the eastern side. Almost all. ‧ 國. 學. the residents are Paiwan people that migrated from the tribes in the upstream region of Jinlun. ‧. River: tjudjaas (近黃), segadu (史卡多), djumulj (雨沐/舊賓茂), vikidj (富給特) and putung. y. Nat. (布頓), where the people of segadu are immigrants from kuljaljau (古樓). The two clans,. er. io. in djumulj.. sit. tjaviljaur (叉飛勞巫勒) and pavavalung (巴法法瀧), have close relationship with the clans. al. n. v i n Djumulj ‘Binmao Village (賓茂村)’ region of Jinlun River. C h is located in the U engchi. 19. The. settlers are mostly Paiwan migrated from djumulj (舊賓茂/雨沐) and tjukuvulj (讀古物) in the upstream region of Jinlun River. The migration sites of people from djumulj and tjukuvulj also include the neighboring place tjudjaas, whose residents have moved to sapulju. Thus, the clans in Xinxing Village and Binmao Village are closely related. Besides, some people from djumulj were moved to kadraluljan (新園) by the policy of the Japanese.. 17. kaʔaluan may be a collective call for the present-day Jialan Village including several tribes, or it may refer only to the old tribe o kaʔaluan. 18 Dralengedreng is an onomatopoeic name originated by the sound of water that flows over the stones. 19 Djumulj can be a collective call for Binmao Village including several tribes and clans, or it can also refer only to the tribe of djumulj, which was in the midstream of Jinlun River and now one of the tribe in Binmao Village. The old site of djumulj is usually called ‘Old Binmao (舊賓茂)’ or ‘Yumu (雨沐)’. 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(40) Rulakes ‘Liqiu Village (歷坵村/魯拉克斯)’ is located in the southern side of Taimali River. The inhabitants of rulakes are concentrated in the eastern side in the north of Jinlun River. The Paiwan inhabitants came from gulagus (露拉庫西), tjaljangatuan (出水坡) and kuabar (古華). Gulagus is located in the upstream region of Jinlun River; tjaljangatuan is located in upstream region of Dawu River; kuabar is in Chunri Township. There are Rukai settlers migrated from Wutai Township as well. Compared with other Jinfeng tribes, rulakes has quite different migration backgrounds.. 政治大 Six informants aged 49 to 81 participated in my field research, as shown in Table 1.2. 立. 1.6.2 Informants. From August 2016 to September 2017, I conducted nine short periods of field research, which. ‧ 國. 學. lasted for two weeks on average.. ‧ y. sit. io. al. n. Name. Acudus Talealan (曾孝). Gender. C Mh. Bixin Lin (林碧鑫). M. Ljumiyan Tjakulavu (溫待青). Age. er. List of informants. Nat. Table 1.2. Interview location. iv. nkaʔaluan U engchi 78. Information language. ?. kaʔaluan. culture/history. F. 81. sapulju. language. Mazeljzelj Curimudju (黃進成). M. 68. sinapayan. language. Sabu Daljawlep (左玉芳). F. 70. sapulju. language. Selep Taveljengan (菈露依). F. 49. sapulju/djumulj. communication culture/history. 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(41) The main informant providing language data for this thesis is Mazeljzelj Curimudju. Other informants are: Ljumiyan Tjakulavu, Sabu Daljawlep, Selep Taveljaengan and Acudus Telealan. Selep Taveljaengan served as a communication assistant in my interviews with Ljumiyan Tjakulavu and Sabu Daljawlep. In addition, for a better understanding of Paiwan culture and history, I have taken particular interviews about the culture or migration history of tribes. The consultants for this are Lin Bixin and Selep Taveljaengan.. 政治大 This section presents aspects of data collection and analysis. Section 1.6.3.1 presents the 立. 1.6.3 Data collection and analysis. equipment and conditions for audio recording.. ‧ 國. 學. The types of data I collected include word lists, individual sentences, and traditional. ‧. narratives. The method for collecting word lists is shown in Section 1.6.3.2. To collect. y. Nat. individual sentences, three main methods were adopted. They are (i) sentence paraphrasing,. er. io. sit. (ii) correctness test, and (iii) stimuli using pictures, which are respectively discussed in Section 1.6.3.3, Section 1.6.3.4 and Section 1.6.3.5. The method of collecting narratives are. al. n. v i n C hprogram adopted forUanalyzing linguistic data is discussed in Section 1.6.3.6. The main engchi FieldWorks Language Explorer (FLEx)20. 1.6.3.1 Recording equipment and conditions A ZOOM H1 Handy Recorder and a laptop were used for audio recordings. Each informant was asked for oral permission to record their information before the first recording in which they participated. They were informed that the recorded data would be used only for academic research and would not be disseminated without further permission. The informants. 20. See https://software.sil.org/fieldworks. SIL Fieldworks. 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(42) can also request for a break at any time in the duration of interview. The recording time of each interview ranges from 30 to 120 minutes.. 1.6.3.2 Collecting word lists I used three methods to collect word lists. The first way is to ask randomly, or under a theme (e.g. animals, weather, numbers). The second way is to get vocabulary from the individual sentences. After the informant gives a sentence, I then ask him or her to explain each element in the sentence.. 政治大 derive words or to create words by removing affixes. We can show some words and their 立. The third way is by derivation or by back-formation, that is, we ask the informant to. derived forms, and ask the informant if the kind of derivation can be applied to another base.. ‧ 國. 學. We can also show some possible derived words and check if they can be segmented. A. ‧. example is given in Table 1.3.. y. Nat. Regarding the technique of derivation, we show kivangavang ‘play’ and ka-. er. io. sit. kivangavang-an ‘place for entertainment’, and taʔed ‘lie’ and ta-taʔed-an ‘bed; bedroom’ to the informant. Then, we ask the informant if the kind of derivation can be applied to vecik. al. n. v i n C hreturns va-vecik-anU‘blackboard; workbook; notebook’ ‘write’ and seʔetj ‘put’. The informant engchi and sa-seʔetj-an ‘cabinet; storage place’ and also tells the word va-vecik-en ‘homework; assignment’ when mentioning va-vecik-an. Regarding the technique of back-formation, we guess that the words for ‘chopping board’ and ‘vase; flower pot’ should be derived forms. By inquiring, we get tjatjagetjagan ‘chopping board’ and papuhanaan ‘vase; flower’. By checking the words for ‘chopping board’ and ‘vase; flower’, we find that they can be segmented into tja-tjagetjag-an and papu-hana-an. By asking the informant, the word tjagetjag ‘cut’ and puhana ‘put flowers’ do exist. The informant also point out the word pu-hana-an ‘garden’.. 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(43) Table 1.3 A sample of collecting word lists by derivation and back-formation: Ca- -an21 Stem. Meaning. Derived word. Meaning. kivangavang. ‘play (玩)’. ka-kivangavang-an. ‘place for entertainment (玩樂場所)’. taʔed. ‘sleep (睡)’. ta-taʔed-an. ‘bed; bedroom (床；臥室)’ ‘blackboard; workbook; notebook (黑. va-vecik-an. ‘write (寫)’. vecik. 板；練習簿；筆記本)’ va-vecik-en. ‘homework; assignment (作業)’ ‘cabinet; storage place (櫃子；存放處)’. seʔetj. ‘put (放)’. sa-seʔetj-an. tjagetjag. ‘cut (切)’. tja-tjagetjag-an. ‘put flowers. pa-puhana-an. ‘vase; flower pot (花瓶；花盆)’. puhana-an. ‘garden (花園)’. ‧ 國. (放花)’. ‧. (sinapayan). 學. puhana. 立. 政治 ‘chopping 大 board (砧板)’. y. Nat. io. sit. 1.6.3.3 Collecting sentences - sentence paraphrasing. n. al. er. In sentence paraphrasing, I prepare several groups of written Chinese sentences before. Ch. i n U. v. the interviews. And the informants are asked to paraphrase the Chinese sentences in Paiwan.. engchi. The sentences are created with a specific purpose in mind. For sentences in each group, I would envisage both the commonness and the divergence of some compositions. The commonness means that each group may represent one grammatical category, while the divergence refers to the difference we expect to see. An example is shown in (1.3). The compositions to compare is underlined. In (1.3), the commonness we have assumed is that both of the compositions are noun phrases, and the divergence we expect to see is that there is the difference of some uses between non-human and human noun phrases. The Paiwan data collected for (1.3) are shown 21. Information collected by inquiring the informant are shown in the gray lattices. 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(44) in (1.4). In (1.4a), the NP construction is [NUM ADJV LIG N], and in (1.4b), the numeral is preceded by an element. We may guess that the element marks human referents.. (1.3). Commonness: Noun phrases Divergence: a.. Animacy (non-human vs. human). Chinese sentence: 巷子裡有兩棵老樹。 English translation: In the alley are two old trees.. b.. Chinese sentence: 我家一共有四個人。. 政治大. English translation: There are four people in my family.. a.. 立. izua. drusa. EXIST. two. vulu~vulung. a. kasiv. RED~elder. LIG. tree. i-tja-ljapitjapi.. 學. ‧ 國. (1.4). malje-sepatj=amen. a. ta. CL.H-four=NOM.1PL.EXCL. LIG. OBL.CMN. umaʔan.. y. Nat. io. sit. family. er. b.. ‧. ‘There are two old trees in the alley.’ (sinapayan). LOC-SPEC -alley. ‘There are four people in my family.’ (sinapayan). n. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. However, by this method, the data collected may not be in line with our expectations (we may get some other results by serendipity, however). The possible reasons may be:. i.. The language of Chinese affects the expression of the informant.. ii.. The usage of the sentence we expect to get is grammatical, but it is unnatural.. iii. The informant paraphrases the sentence in another way.. 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(45) 1.6.3.4 Collecting sentences - correctness test The second method for collecting individual sentences, the ‘correctness test’, is to modify sentences by some rules we have found (add or remove some elements, replace an element with another, etc.) and check if the modified sentences are grammatical and natural by inquiring the informants. The informants may then get some inspirations from the modified sentences and tell us more about some situations in which some sentences may be uttered. An example is shown in (1.5). The original sentence we have is (1.5a). We modified it into (1.5b) and asked the informant if it is grammatical. The informant says that it is not and returns (1.5c), (1.5d) and (1.5e).. a.. 立. vaik-u. go-IMP.EXCL.AV. a. sa-kungkuan!. LIG. <AV>go.to-school. 學. ‧ 國. (1.5). 政治大. ?vaik-an. a. sa-kungkuan!. y. Nat. <AV>go.to-school. io. er. go-IMP.EXCL.UVC LIG. sit. b.. ‧. ‘Go to school!’ (sinapayan). ‘Go to school (for the thing the speaker refers to)’ (sinapayan). n. al. c.. vaik-an. v i n aC h e nsa-kungkuan gchi U. go-IMP.EXCL.UVC LIG. <AV>go.to-school. a. kan!. LIG <AV>eat. ‘(Bring the breakfast and) Go to school to eat!’ (sinapayan) d.. vaik-an. a. go-IMP.EXCL.UVC LIG. sa-kungkuan. a. kisupu!. <AV>go.to-school. LIG. study. ‘(Take to textbook and) Go to school to study!’ (sinapayan). By (1.5c) and (1.5d) inspired by the informants, we find out that the command should emphasize a referent (e.g. breakfast, textbook) related to what the addresser would do in the school. Although the informant refuses the sentence of (1.5b), we can not say that it is 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(46) ungrammatical, since some improbable sentences may reasonably be uttered in very specific contexts. This is the main problem of this technique.. 1.6.3.5 Collecting sentences - stimuli using pictures By stimuli using pictures, I give the informant a picture as stimulus. As the name implies, the informants are asked to describe the picture in any way. An example is shown in Picture 1.1, and the sentences in (1.6) is what two of the informants have given. The advantage of this method is that it may avoid unnaturally produced sentences.. 立. Picture 1.1. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. (1.6). a.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Informant 1 ma-ledep. a. ʔadav,. p<in>a-pe-ʔudjerelj=anga. STAT-sunset. NOM.CMN. sun. <UVP>CAUS-become-reddish=COS. 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(47) na. suliap. a. ljaveʔ.. GEN.CMN. red.sky. NOM.CMN. sea. ‘The sun goes down. The pink clouds, make the sea red.’ (sinapayan) b.. Informant 2 ma-ledep=anga. (a). ʔadaw,. ʔudjerelj. a. STAT-sunset=COS. NOM.CMN. sun. reddish. NOM.CMN. kalevuluvan. sky. 政治大. ‘The sun has already gone down. The sky is reddish.’ (sapulju). 1.6.3.6 Collecting narratives. 立. ‧ 國. 學. In collecting narratives or collecting another other style of monologue such as. ‧. exposition, lecture, speech, procedure description and ritual talk, an informant would tell long. y. Nat. texts in Paiwan and explain them by Chinese. The Paiwan and Chinese texts uttered by the. er. io. sit. informant are sometimes not perfectly corresponding to each other. The meaning of some texts would be uncertain in the initial analysis so that multiple times of further inquiries are. al. n. v i n C h are shown inUthe appendix. Both of them are required. The transcriptions of two narratives engchi collected in sinapayan.. Collecting long texts is essential for linguistic field research. In long texts, there are a lot of context-sensitive usages, which are hardly collected by the methods introduced in the previous sections. Besides, some of the usages and words are only used endemically, and that would be important for investigating the variation of dialects.. 25. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(48) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 26. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(49) Chapter 2: Grammatical Profile. This chapter presents basic grammatical characteristics of North Jinfeng Paiwan. Section 2.1 gives an overview of phonology. Section 2.2 deals with word structure and word formation. Section 2.3 discusses categories of roots, stems and words. Section 2.4 presents the argument structure.. 2.1 Phonology. 政治大 distinction between North Jinfeng 立Paiwan and other dialects. Section 2.1.2 describes syllable This section consists of three parts. Section 2.1.1 treats phonemes, with some notes on. ‧ 國. 學. structure, including syllable combinations, some restrictions on consonant clusters and vowel sequences. Section 2.1.3 discusses stress.. ‧ sit. y. Nat. 2.1.1 Phonemes. al. er. io. Paiwan has a large number of consonant phonemes. In contrast with other Formosan. v. n. languages, Paiwan does not show extensive mergers and splits among PAN stops. Ferrell. Ch. engchi. i n U. (1982:1) mentions that “Paiwan is the only Formosan language having a phoneme inventory directly comparable to the PAN inventory proposed by Dempwolff and emended by Dahl’s (1973:101)”. There are at least 22 native consonant phonemes in any dialect investigated in previous studies (Ferrell, 1982:7; Chang, 2006:21; Chen, 2009:595; Yeh, 2011:9; Huang, 2012:11; Chang, 2016:9). As shown in Table 2.1, there are 22 native consonant phonemes in North Jinfeng Paiwan.. 27. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(50) Table 2.1 Consonant inventory of North Jinfeng Paiwan22 Labial. Dento-Alveolar. voiceless. /p/. /t/. voiced. /b/. /d/. /m/. /n/. Retroflex. Palatal. Velar. Glottal. /c/. /k/. /ʔ/. /ɟ/. /g/. Stop Nasal voiceless. /ɖ/. /ŋ/. /s/. (/h/). Fricative voiced Affricate. /v/. /z/. 立. Liquid /w/. /ʎ/ /j/. ‧ 國. 學. Glide. /ʦ / 治政大 /r/ /ɭ/ h. voiceless. ‧. My survey has found no overt phonemic distinction among the dialects spoken in. sit. y. Nat. sinapayan (正興), kaʔaluan (嘉蘭) and sapulju (新興). A subtle distinction is that speakers in. io. er. sinapayan and kaʔaluan tend to pronounce /-v/ instead of /-w/, whereas in sapulju, some. al. preserve /-w/ and some do not. This finding corresponds to Lee’s (2011) research.23. n. v i n C h is proved by minimal The contrast of consonant phonemes e n g c h i U pairs or near minimal pairs in. Table 2.2. Among the 22 native consonant, there are 14 obstruents, containing 10 stops, 4 fricatives and 1 affricate. All obstruents besides the affricate /ʦh/ are unaspirated. Onset obstruents are all released, whereas coda obstruents except /ʔ/, /s/ and /ʦh/ do not have audible release. /h/ is a loan phoneme that occurs only in the position of onset. There are three nasals, three liquids and two glides. The underlying word-internal onset. 22. The loan phoneme is shown in parenthesis. Paiwan residents in sapulju migrated from the tribes in the upstream region of Jinlun River, including tjudjaas, segadu, djumulj, vikidj and putung (see Section 1.6.1). Thus, the dialect in sapulju exhibit a mixture of accents originating from different tribes. In Lee’s (2011) survey, the sound change /-w/ > /-v/ is found in speakers from putung but not in speaker from tjudjaas. As for my research, one of my informants in sapulju belongs to the system of segadu and pronounces /-v/, the another one came from djumulj and pronounces /-w/. 23. 28. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.

(51) labiovelar glide /σ.w-/ and the word-initial palatal glide /#j-/24 occur only in loanwords, such as /w/ in taiwan [taj.wan] ‘Taiwan’ and /#j-/ in yuziru [ju.zi.ru] ‘roselle’.25. Table 2.2 (Near) minimal pairs of consonant phonemes Phoneme. (Near) minimal pairs. p b /p b/. pai [paj] ‘please; well’. bai [baj] ‘daughter; wife [VOC]’. t d /t d/. tutu [tu.tu] ‘breast’. dudu [du.du] ‘anger’. d dr /d ɖ/. dingding [diŋ.diŋ] ‘snail’. tj dj /c ɟ/. kula [ku.ɭa] ‘leg’. gula [gu.ɭa] ‘cancel’. k ʔ /k ʔ/. kata [ka.ta] ‘and’. ʔata [ʔa.ta] ‘bead’. g ʔ /g ʔ/. gemugu [gə.mu.gu] ‘shout’. ʔemuʔu [ʔə.mu.ʔu] ‘wash hair’. b v /b v/. buka ‘[PR.M]’. vuka [vu.ka] ‘shovel’. s z /s z/. sa [sa] ‘(visible proximal)’. za [za] ‘(distal)’. s c /s ʦh/. sema [sə.ma] ‘tongue’. m n /m n/. ma- [ma] ‘STAT’. n ng /n ŋ/. nasa [na.sa] ‘seem to be’. ngasa [ŋa.sa] ‘crack’. l lj /ɭ ʎ/. alu [a.ɭu] ‘eight’. alju [a.ʎu] ‘sugar’. l r /ɭ r/. linima [ɭi.ni.ma] ‘be done by hand’. rinida [ri.ni.da] ‘slice of meat’. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. k g /k g/. 政治dringai大[ɖiŋ.ŋaj] ‘two’ matjaʔ [ma.caʔ] ‘unripe’ ladjap [ɭa.ɟap̚] ‘not know; maybe’ 立. cemas [ʦhə.mas] ‘spirit’. v i n Ch U ‘[GEN.CMN]’ e n g c hnai [na]. The dento-alveolar fricatives /s/, /z/ and affricate /ʦh/ in North Jinfeng Paiwan are palatalized to the palato-alveolars [ʃ], [ʒ] and [tʃh], respectively, before the high front vowel. 24. No word-initial /w-/ is found in North Jinfeng Paiwan. The phonetically surfaced glides are not counted here (e.g. [w] in kavuavuan [ka.vu.wa.vu.wan] ‘field; garden’, [j] in nutiav [nu.ti,jav] ‘tomorrow’). 25. 29. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIL.002.2018.A07.