POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
16-28 mat. ind. - 34,000 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) A2ace+4ace; C2a(i); D (IUCN version 3.1)
The bearded vulture is a rare breeding resident in North Africa with an extremely small population, which has dra-matically declined in recent decades. The total number of mature individuals is suspected to be only 16–28 and the largest subpopulation numbers 20 or fewer mature individuals. Therefore, the species is listed as Critically Endangered A2ace+4ace; C2a(i); D in North Africa.
DISTRIBUTION
The original breeding range of the bearded vulture in North Africa included Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005), but now the species is believed to breed only in the Moroccan High Atlas between 2,500 and 4,000 m and in Egypt (F. Cuzin, P. Bergier, H. Benmammar, A. Riad, pers. obs.). Its range has been contracting since the 20th century because of human action: in Morocco, the bearded vulture was extirpated during the 1970s in the Rif, Central Plateau, Anti-Atlas, Middle Atlas, eastern Morocco around Figuig, and Sahara (Thévenot et al., 2003; Bergier et al., 2017; Allaoui and Cherkaoui, 2018; Cuzin and Rousselon, 2018). In Algeria it once occurred throughout the north-western mountains (Isenmann and Moali, 2000) and adult birds were observed in Theniet El Had National Park until 2014 (Djardini et al., 2014), but since then it has only been seen in Batna and at Mount Chelia in Babar (A. Si Bachir, pers. comm.); these may have been individuals dispersing from the Moroccan population (they can disperse several hundred kilometres from their breeding areas; Botha et al., 2017), so the species is possibly extinct in Algeria. In Tunisia the species survived in the southern mountains until the 1930s but it is now extinct
CR
© Daniel Burón
(Isenmann et al., 2005). The last sightings were made in 1975 by Paul Geroudet at Djebel Terozza in southern Tunisia. In Egypt, a few breeding pairs survive in the Sinai–Red Sea Mountains (Goodman and Meininger, 1989;
Habib, 2016a; Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017).
POPULATION
In Morocco there are currently 6–10 pairs (Cherkaoui, 2005; Cuzin and Rousselon, 2018; Cuzin, 2019), which is sig-nificantly fewer than the previous estimates of 100 pairs in the 1980s and 50 pairs at the beginning of the 21st century (Thévenot et al., 2003). Abdelgurefi and Ramdane (2003) estimated not more than 20 breeding pairs in Algeria with a rapid decline since the previous estimate of 30 pairs (Isenmann and Moali, 2000), and today there are very few sight-ings from the country (A. Si Bachir, pers. comm.) and no sign of breeding. However, more intensive surveys would be needed in the country to confirm the species’ status. In Egypt, 2–4 breeding pairs have been estimated, while about 16 pairs were estimated during the 20th century (Goodman and Meininger, 1989). Therefore, the overall mini-mum breeding population size for North Africa is estimated to be 8–14 breeding pairs or 16–28 mature individuals.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species occupies remote, mountainous areas with precipitous terrain usually above 1,000 m, particularly in areas where there are herds of wild ungulates, sheep and goats (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). In Morocco, it is currently found between 2,000 and 4,000 m, especially above 2,500 m (Cuzin, 2019). In Algeria, it occurs above 1,300 m. It is resident where it occurs, but it has vast home ranges and juveniles will wander much more widely than adults (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). While the species can be extremely philopatric, individuals are not very territorial.
In North Africa it is almost entirely dependent on carcasses of livestock (either domestic or feral) due to the rarity of wild ungulates across much of its range (Cuzin, 2019). The species will forage over vast distances (up to 700 km in one day has been recorded) using a soaring mode of flight (BirdLife International, 2020c). As scavengers, bearded vultures consume prey remains left by predators or other scavengers; 70% of the biomass of their diet is bones, 25% soft tissue and 5% skin (Botha et al., 2017), and its primary food is the marrow and bone from small to large bones (Clark and Davies, 2018).
Bones too big to be swallowed whole are dropped onto a rocky surface from 20–70 m height, and the fragments and marrow are collected afterwards (Boudoint, 1976). Tortoises are generally treated in the same way as bones (Clark and Davies, 2018) and this has been documented in Algeria. Only during the period when they are raising young do they need to consume soft tissue (Botha et al., 2017).
The species is typically monogamous, but polyandrous trios have been documented (Botha et al., 2017; F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). Nesting occurs in January, and fledging at the beginning of July. Individuals construct large nests (on average 1 m in diameter), composed of branches and lined with animal remains such as skin and wool, as well as dung and occasionally also rubbish (BirdLife International, 2020c). Nests are located on remote overhung cliff ledges or in caves and will be re-used over the years (Fergu-son-Lees and Christie, 2001), although some pairs may have more than one nest.
Clutches consist of 1–2 eggs, but in cases where two eggs are laid, obligate ‘cainism’
occurs in which the older sibling kills the younger (Thaler and Pechlaner, 1980).
Both parents take part in nest building, nest defence, incubation, brooding and feeding of chicks (Orta et al., 2020a).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Bearded vulture, Gypaetus barbatus - (Linnaeus, 1758) in North Africa. Source: The IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
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THREATS
As with other scavenger species, widespread accidental poisoning, largely with strychnine used by many farmers for predator control, and more recently with carbofuran, has contributed significantly to bearded vulture decline and local extinctions in Morocco (Garrido et al., 2014; Cuzin et al., 2009; Cuzin, 2019), at least until the 1980s (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.), and it is still a major threat (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat).
Cuzin et al. (2009) also found that the decline of the breeding population in Morocco might be due to illegal shoot-ing in the past, and the species is still persecuted by shepherds in Toubkal National Park (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat), probably because they sometimes confuse the species with the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), a predator of small livestock (Cuzin, 2019). Nevertheless, poisoning was not a major threat in Algeria, where there was neither direct persecution in the 20th century nor widespread poisoning campaigns. Although there have been cases of raptor poisoning in the country, none of them is doc-umented as involving this species (A. Fellous-Djardini, H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). Poisoning is not a threat in Egypt either, although hunting and poaching are (Andevski, 2017).
Abdelguerfi and Ramdane (2003) point out that the worrying situation in Algeria is due to changes in livestock-rearing practices that reduce food availability and disturb breeding birds, especially in Djurdjura National Park. The decline of wild ungulates (resulting in food scarcity) and habitat loss are also significant threats in Egypt (Andevski, 2017). Dis-turbance by human activities is also a major threat in Egypt (Andevski, 2017) and Morocco, where Cuzin et al. (2009) discovered that the decline in the breeding population might be due in part to general disturbance by shepherds and rock climbers (a very localised threat today in Taghia, High Atlas), by military activities (helicopter flights) and by "he-li-skiing" in the Toubkal National Park (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat).
Collision with power lines is considered a risk in Egypt (Andevski, 2017), but not in breeding areas at high al-titude in Morocco and Algeria, where there are no power lines. However, it could be important for dispersing young bearded vultures (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat). Finally, this small, isolated population could experience a reduction in genetic diversity over time, which could influence breeding success and the long-term survival of such populations unless they are carefully managed.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II.
Multi-species action plan for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco, the species is included in the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202001/first-steps-to-wards-a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance) and in a national population monitoring programme (UICN and DEF, 2020). In Morocco, besides data collection, various local awareness-raising activities have been carried out in conjunction with Spanish Cooperation, GEF Project, Fundación Gypaetus, and Fundación Global Nature (Cuzin et al., 2009). A workshop to develop an “Action Plan for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) in Morocco” was organised by the management of the Toubkal National Park at Imlil, High Atlas, on 21–22 October 2015.
Conservation actions needed: Non-intensive livestock management systems should be maintained to ensure a food supply. The provision of feeding stations is also beneficial, particularly when food is scarce in winter. Ef-fective protection in areas with a plentiful supply of food (which often includes carcasses of domestic animals) has been shown to lead to impressive population recoveries, and reintroduction has been successful in parts of its range. Disturbance in and around nesting areas should be reduced, and the impacts of power lines should be mitigated in the species' range. Additionally, the threat of persecution should be countered by means of law enforcement and awareness-raising activities. Finally, coordinated surveys are required to monitor the species' population trend, as well as to produce a Population Viability Analysis, to investigate the specific impact of certain threats, and to come up with best practice guidelines for conservation actions.
Assessor(s): Cuzin, F., Riad, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Fellous-Djardini, A., Bergier, P., Radi, M., Saheb, M., Essetti, I., Noaman, M. & Onrubia, A. / Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Barrios, V. / Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., BirdLife International & Si Bachir, A.
Date: 2020–09–10