POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
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-NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: REGIONALLY EXTINCT (RE)
This species qualifies as Regionally Extinct because there is no evidence of breeding over the last 30 years. How-ever, it could recolonise Morocco either naturally through an increase in the Iberian population or via a possible reintroduction programme, provided that management measures are adopted to mitigate the impact of threats such as electrocution and disturbance.
DISTRIBUTION
Most of the population of this eagle breeds in Spain, with a small but increasing population in Portugal. The orig-inal breeding range of the species included the Iberian Peninsula, northern Morocco and Algeria. The species bred in northern Morocco (Tangier Peninsula, northern Rharb, Mamora Forest, Zaër, Western Middle Atlas and Rif) until the first half of the 20th century, with only three breeding records later in 1977, 1991 and 1995 in the Rif Mountains (Fouarge, 1992; Thévenot et al., 2003). It was also cited as a breeder in Algeria in the 19th century (Isenmann and Moali, 2000). The species was sighted in the second half of 20th century in western and northern Algeria and Libya (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2016; Morandini et al., 2019). The species was at the southern edge of its range in North Africa, and survived here thanks to immigrants from the larger Spanish population (Ferrer, 2001), although it was never very abundant in this region (Tellería et al., 2019). The species is a regular non-breeding visitor in Morocco and Algeria and frequents a few wintering areas in Morocco, mainly in the south but also in the east of the country (Morandini et al., 2019). There are five main temporary settlement areas in Morocco (Kenifra, Mamora, Low Draa, Missour and Western Coast of Atlantic Sahara) and one in western Algeria around Tindouf (Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía, pers. comm.).
© Daniel Burón
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POPULATION
The North African population is likely to have survived because of immigration from the larger Spanish popula-tion, until it declined during the 20th century due to human persecution (Ferrer, 2001). In Algeria, even when it was breeding in the 19th century, it was already considered very rare and was dependent on immigration from populations outside the country. When the Iberian population almost went extinct in the 20th century, very few individuals crossed to Africa, but the growth in the Spanish population in the last 15 years has resulted in an increasing number of birds crossing to Morocco (Garrido, 2019; Morandini et al., 2019). Young Spanish imperial eagles have been visiting Morocco since 2000 and wintering in the Guelmin/Tan-Tan region because of the high periodic abundance of prey, such as fat sand rats (Psammomys obesus) (Bergier et al., 2017; Garrido, 2019).
Several dozen juveniles are observed each year crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and this number is increasing (A.
Onrubia, pers. comm.). In 2016–19, tagged Spanish imperial eagles with GPS–GSM transmitters from southern Spain moved throughout Morocco, including the north, the Middle and High Atlas, the Anti-Atlas, the Atlantic coast, the Sahara and the eastern provinces, and even into western Algeria and Mauritania (Morandini et al., 2016, 2019; García and Garrido, 2017, 2019; Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía, pers.
comm.). Although most of the eagles returned to Spain in less than a year, there are data showing individuals staying in Morocco for two and three years, until breeding age (Godino et al., 2016; García and Garrido, 2017, 2019). As a result of the population increase in Andalusia and the Iberian Peninsula an increasing number of im-mature Spanish imperial eagles are visiting Morocco, so there is a chance that a Moroccan breeding population may become re-established (Morandini et al., 2019).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species used to breed in large, tall trees in forested plains and hills in North Africa, including in open cork oak woodlands surrounding lowland marshes (Thévenot et al., 2003). These sparsely populated Mediterranean for-ests were similar to the species’ current Iberian habitat. In Spain, tree height and distance from human activities are the most important variables that explain nest site selection (Bisson et al., 2002), but many recently colonised territories are located in human-modified habitats, especially farmlands with high rabbit abundance (González and Oria, 2004; Castaño, 2005; González et al., 2006; Margalida et al., 2007; García and Garrido, 2019).
Breeding birds are sedentary, but immature birds are nomadic, dispersing in Morocco and Algeria through open feeding areas (Moroccan Sahara, eastern Morocco, forest hunting reserves in western Morocco, and the Parc Culturel de l'Atlas Saharien in eastern Algeria) where eagles find sufficient prey, including fat sand rats, Barbary ground squirrels, partridges and large lizards (Morandini et al., 2016, 2019; Fellous, 2017; García and Garrido, 2017, 2019). There are several main temporary settlement areas in Morocco and Algeria (Morandini et al., 2019).
The small number of settlement events in North Africa may be due to the difficulty of finding optimal food patches because of the absence of the eagles’ usual prey (rabbits) and the irregularity of possible alternative prey, such as small rodents of arid zones that have
demographic explosions associated with periods of seasonal rains (Morandini et al., 2019; Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía, pers. comm.). This irregular, seasonal distribution of alterna-tive prey may have led the birds to disperse over greater areas to find food and to move longer distances during exploratory forays, resulting in greater dispersion in their tem-porary settlements in North Africa (Moran-dini et al., 2019).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Spanish imperial eagle, Aquila adalberti - Brehm, 1861 in North Africa. Source: The IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
THREATS
The re-establishment of the species in Morocco can only be successful if the threats to its survival (electrocu-tion, prey scarcity and human persecution and disturbance) are reduced not only in potential breeding areas but also in dispersal and settlement areas, such as protected hunting reserves in northern Morocco and the areas found by Morandini et al. (2019). In south-western Morocco, a 24 km power line is the main known black spot for non-natural mortality of raptors in the Maghreb, killing Spanish imperial eagles dispersing from Spain (Godino et al., 2016). Another power line in south-eastern Morocco also kills dozens of raptors annually, including one Spanish imperial eagle from southern Spain (UICN and DEF, 2020; Garrido and García, 2017). Another eagle was electrocuted in the north-east of the country in 2019 (Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía, pers. comm.). Electrocution is an important threat because the electrification of Morocco has been progressing in the last 30 years without measures to protect birds perching on poles. This problem could limit the chances of the Spanish Imperial Eagle recolonising Morocco (Morandini et al., 2019). Collisions with power infrastructure may also be a significant mortality factor, as in other areas of the world, but the lack of survey and monitoring programmes makes it difficult to assess this threat.
Unintended poisoning, even resulting from Moroccan government measures, was the main reason for the extir-pation of raptors, including Spanish imperial eagles, in the 20th century. The poison was introduced into the envi-ronment to target livestock predators such as jackals, wolves, feral dogs or leopards. However, this threat seems to be less important today (Garrido et al., 2014). In Morocco tagging of large eagles (Spanish imperial, golden and Bonellí's eagles) with GPS loggers is showing they are being shot and hunted (K. Rousselon, pers. obs.).
The increase and spread of the human population has also led to habitat destruction and disturbance (Stuart and Collar, 1988; Garrido et al., 2005; Vernon et al., 2005; Fellous, 2017; Tellería et al., 2019), especially in forests due to the use of wood as fuel for cooking and heating and the felling of large trees to clear land for crops and livestock. Forest destruction and human disturbance due to intense human use especially threatens tree-nesting raptors like the Spanish imperial eagle, leading them to abandon their breeding territories. Human population growth caused a decline of wild ungulates and other prey because these animals were hunted to feed people.
Other anthropogenic threats are fragmentation of habitats due to the increase of road networks, buildings, dams, power lines, etc. (BirdLife International, 2018a). Similarly, the increasing number of massive wind energy projects in northern Morocco could kill Spanish imperial eagles crossing the Strait of Gibraltar.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendices I and II. There are some initiatives to res-cue and release sick and injured wild individuals and to tag eagles (including attaching GPS loggers) in Morocco (K. Rousselon, pers. comm., 2019).
Conservation actions needed: Efforts are needed to increase awareness about biodiversity conservation. Ac-tions to reduce mortality, particularly from electrocution, should include establishing priority areas for power line mitigation work, modifying dangerous power lines, and avoiding the construction of wind farms in key areas for the species. Additionally, new power lines should be constructed using only safe designs, and similar legislation should be in place for fixing existing dangerous power lines. Also a species reintroduction programme could ac-celerate any eventual successful recolonisation. Finally, surveys are required of the Iberian dispersing population to determine, protect and manage potential breeding sites and the key dispersal area.
Assessor(s): Garrido López, J.R., Bergier, P., Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, I., Etayeb, K., Buirzayqah, S. & Fellous- Djardini, A.
Reviewer(s): Monti, F. & Numa, C.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Onrubia, A., Haitham, O., BirdLife International & Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía.
Date: 2020–09–07
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