POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
1,500 mat. ind. 6,300,621 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: ENDANGERED (EN) A4bcde (IUCN version 3.1)
The resident population of Egyptian vultures is suspected to be around 1,500 mature individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. Most of the available data come from Morocco, where there has been an estimated population decline of at least 98% in the last 40 years (2.2 generations). However, the population size in Algeria and Tunisia seems stable, while little information is available from Libya and Egypt. Based on the available data it is likely that the ongoing decline in the species in this region is in the range of 50–79% over three genera-tions (ca. 53 years). Therefore, it is assessed as Endangered under criterion A4bcde.
DISTRIBUTION
The species is uncommon to rare and a local summer breeder in North Africa, mainly along the Mediterranean coast from Morocco to Egypt (Clark and Davies, 2018). Apart from in Algeria, the species' population has de-clined throughout its range in North Africa, mainly because of indirect poisoning, as has happened throughout its global distribution area (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco it currently seems to survive only in the Middle Atlas and Tazekka National Park, since it was extirpated in the rest of the country during the 20th century, mainly by poison-ing (Thévenot et al., 2003; Amezian and El Khamlichi, 2016; Cuzin, 2019; UICN and DEF, 2020). However, it may still occur in unsurveyed areas which need more field work (Cuzin, 2019), and a possible breeding pair has recent-ly been located in Missour in eastern Morocco, but this still needs confirmation (UICN and DEF, 2020). In Algeria the Egyptian vulture appears to breed from the coast southward to the Saharan Atlas and beyond (Isenmann and Moali, 2000), with a large resident population in the south-east (Clark and Davies, 2018; Buij et al., 2017); the
EN
© Íñigo Fajardo
country has the largest population in the Maghreb (North African Birds, 2014a). It also occurs in north-western Tu-nisia (Isenmann et al., 2005), northern and south-eastern Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016) and south-western Egypt (Aswan, Shalateen, and Wadi El-Gemal National Park), as well as in the Sinai Peninsula, although it is extinct in the western desert of Egypt and the Nile Valley (Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Buij et al., 2017; Habib, 2016c).
A large part of the Eurasian breeding population passes through the Strait of Gibraltar and the Red Sea Flyway on migration to its wintering sites in Africa (Phipps et al., 2019), but some individuals also pass through Cap Bon and the Tunisian coast (Isenmann et al., 2005; M. Amezian, pers. obs.). European and North African Egyptian vultures winter in the Sahel region of Africa (Botha et al., 2017), with a few migrants potentially wintering in Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989). Three separate subpopulations can be distinguished: the Maghreb subpopula-tion, including Mediterranean breeding populations in Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia and northern Libya; the Desert subpopulation in south-eastern Algeria and Libya, which is more closely related to the Afrotropical pop-ulation than to the Mediterranean; and the Egyptian subpoppop-ulation, isolated from the Mediterranean and Desert subpopulations and more closely related to the Arabian subpopulation of the species.
POPULATION
The North African population can be estimated at more than 750 breeding pairs or 1,500 mature individuals.
There are ca. 20 pairs in Morocco (M. Amezian and R. El Khamlichi, pers. obs.; Cuzin, 2019; UICN and DEF, 2020), which is significantly less than the previous estimate of 500–1,000 pairs in the 1980s (Thévenot et al., 2003). There are around 500 breeding pairs in Algeria, where they are more frequent in the south and less abundant in the western part of the country (M. Saheb, A. Fellous-Djardini, pers. obs.). There are 100–150 pairs in Tunisia, where the population seems stable (I. Essetti, pers. obs.). And there are fewer than 20 pairs in Egypt, with only two in Sinai (A. Riad, pers. obs.). There are no available population estimates from Libya, although the species has not been seen since 2010 in the Cyrenaica region, where it is suspected to have disappeared, but this information is difficult to verify (K. Etaleb, pers. obs.). More than 4,000 individuals have been observed on migration across the Strait of Gibraltar (A. Onrubia, pers. obs.). Based on these data, the ongoing decline in the species in this region is likely to be 50–79% over three generations (ca. 53 years).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The species occurs in a variety of habitats, from Mediterranean woodlands to arid areas, but also near human habitation, especially rubbish dumps and cultivation (Clark and Davies, 2018). In Morocco it is currently observed in cultivated plateaux and wooded environments, where there are gorges with cliffs at moderate altitude (400 to 1,400 m) (Cuzin, 2019). This species typically nests on ledges or in caves on cliffs (Thévenot et al., 2003). Egyptian vultures usually build nests with sticks but also use artificial materials and they raise one or two chicks, rarely three (Clark and Davies, 2018; H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). Cases of polyandry have been reported in Europe
(Perennou et al., 1987; Tella, 1993).
According to Clark and Davies (2018) it is primarily a scavenger, though it is less de-pendent on large carcasses, on which it can feed only after other large vultures have eaten. It can also capture live prey such as turtles and insects, and it will feed on birds’
eggs and on organic remains at rubbish dumps and slaughterhouses. In Algeria, groups of Egyptian vultures are present at all rubbish dumps, along with common ravens (Corvus corax) and black kites (Mil-vus migrans) (A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb, pers. obs.), whereas in Egypt, it occurs in
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Egyptian vulture, Neophron percnopterus - (Linnaeus, 1758) in North Africa. Source: The IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
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areas with low human population density (A. Riad, pers. obs.). The species is usually solitary, but vultures con-gregate at feeding and roosting sites (Ceballos and Donázar, 1990; Amezian and El Khamlichi, 2016).
The majority of individuals from northern breeding populations are long-distance migrants that overwinter in sub-Saharan Africa, with juveniles often remaining in the winter range for more than a year after their first migra-tion (López-López et al., 2014; Oppel et al., 2015; Buechley et al., 2018). A few migrants presumably winter in Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989).
Communal night roots of non-breeding birds are formed, usually on cliffs, but also occasionally in trees (Ceballos and Donázar, 1990; Clark and Davies, 2018). In North Africa, only one communal roost has been found in the Middle Atlas breeding area in Morocco (Amezian and El Khamlichi, 2016) and two in Ain Mlila (Mount Kef Nsser) in Algeria (M. Saheb, pers. obs.).
THREATS
In Morocco the species may have suffered unintentional poisoning leading to the extirpation of the species from most of the country in the 20th century (Thévenot et al., 2003; Bergier et al., 2017), and it can still be a threat locally today (Amezian and El Kalimchi, 2016; Cuzin, 2019; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat). Poisoning is also a potential threat in Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016). In Tunisia, some very local cases of poisoning have been observed and this threat must be properly evaluated (M. Petretto, pers.
comm., M. Amezian, pers. obs.). However, it does not seem to be a conservation problem in Algeria and Egypt, according to local experts. Due to its diet, the species might also be susceptible to poisoning when feeding at landfills (Cuzin, 2019) but these could actually be key feeding habitats if properly managed (JMM and Associates, 2015). The increasing use of agricultural pesticides across the species’ habitat also constitutes a potential threat, as it can cause secondary poisoning through consumption of poisoned corpses (Cuzin, 2019).
Amezian and El Khamlichi (2016) found that there is pressure from dealers in vulture parts that are used in ‘tradition-al’ medicine in the Middle Atlas in Morocco, and illegal trade has been mentioned for Tunisia (North African Birds, 2014b); however, this seems not to be common at present, and it is not a threat in Algeria, Libya or Egypt. Collision with and electrocution by power lines is a further threat (Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017; AMFCR, 2018; UICN and DEF, 2020; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat), and the species is highly vulnerable to the effects of wind energy developments (STRIX, 2012; Andevski, 2017), so the increasing number of massive wind energy projects in northern Morocco could be a major threat to migrants crossing the Strait of Gibraltar, and the future wind farm near Taza could affect the Moroccan breeding population in Tazekka National Park. The on-going hydroelectric project in the Gorges of Sebou is also being built next to the only known breeding site in Morocco (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat; Red List review workshop Tunisia, 2020). Other potential threats are disturbance, hunting and poaching (North African Birds, 2014b; Andevski, 2017;
MaghrebOrnitho, 2018f; Cuzin, 2019; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, Rabat). In con-trast, there do not seem to be any major threats to the largest breeding population in Algeria, or in Libya and Egypt.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix I. CITES Appendix II. It is included in a multi-species action plan for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco, the species is included in the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202001/first-steps-towards-a-mo-roccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance) and in a national population monitoring programme (UICN and DEF, 2020). An initiative to identify and correct dangerous power lines has also started in Morocco with the collaboration of governmental bodies and NGOs (Godino et al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019). There are some initiatives to rescue and release sick and injured wild individuals and to tag vultures (including attaching GPS loggers) in Morocco (AMFCR, 2018). In northern Morocco a vulture restaurant and a rehabilitation centre are in operation (R. El Khamlichi, pers. comm., 2020). In Algeria, the Tlemcen National Park has developed an action plan for the species, which was implemented in 2017–19 (H. Benmammar, pers. comm., 2020).
Conservation actions needed: Efforts to increase awareness of biodiversity conservation and to build local capacity should be conducted in countries along the migration flyways and in the breeding and wintering areas.
All known breeding sites in Morocco should be conserved, and the construction of energy infrastructure in key areas for the species should be avoided. The ban on poisoned carcasses should be enforced and the leaving of dead animals encouraged, while open landfill sites can become key feeding habitats for Egyptian vultures if properly managed. Indeed, further supplementary feeding stations should be set up. Work is needed to halt the illegal taking of vultures for traditional medicine in Morocco and for illegal trade throughout the species’ range.
Finally, surveys of the population should be conducted to determine, protect and manage potential breeding sites and key dispersal areas, including migration corridors in the western and eastern flyways. Such work could also more accurately estimate the size of the population and identify the specific impacts of certain threats.
Assessor(s): Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Fellous-Djardini, A., Essetti, I., Saheb, M., Haitham, O., Buirzayqah, S., Riad, A., Noaman, M., Etayeb, K., Cuzin, F., Bergier, P., Radi, M., Onrubia, A. & Amezian, M.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., BirdLife International, El Khamlichi, R. & Petretto, M.
Date: 2020–05–17
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