POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
2,600-2,700 mat. ind. - 3,779,403 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: NEAR THREATENED (NT)
This species occurs over a wide range, with a breeding population estimated to be around 2,600–2,700 mature individuals distributed in 3 subpopulations, with 98% of individuals in the Maghreb subpopulation. There are signs of decline in the past for the Maghreb subpopulation, but currently the species is considered common and thus does not seem to be in ongoing decline.
Therefore, this species is listed as Near Threatened C2a(ii) in North Africa.
DISTRIBUTION
This eagle breeds in North Africa, including Morocco, northern Algeria, north-western Tunisia and north-eastern coastal and west-central Libya (Cowan, 1982; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Clark and Davies, 2018; S. Buirzayqah, pers. obs.). It has bred locally in Egypt as well and there are two recent confirmed observations of breeding pairs in Sinai and on the southern coast (A. Riad, pers. obs.).
There are also recent records of breeding in Moroccan Atlantic Sahara, but they are considered isolated (Bergier et al., 2017). The Tunisian range does appear to have shrunk though, due to deforestation (Isenmann et al., 2005).
A few migrants winter in North African countries, e.g. Morocco and Algeria (P. Bergier, A. Fellous-Djardini, pers.
obs.), but the entire breeding population of Europe and North Africa winters in the Sahel, passing through all North African countries (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Bergier et al., 2017; Clark and Davies, 2018).
© Daniel Burón
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Migrants pass especially across the Strait of Gibraltar and through Morocco (MaghrebOrnitho, 2018h), and through the Nile Valley, Red Sea Mountains and Sinai Peninsula in Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989), with very few individuals migrating through Sicily and Tunisia. Some immature short-toed snake eagles leave their Sa-helian wintering grounds by mid-April and, after crossing the Sahara Desert, may settle in north-eastern Morocco and northern Algeria, not returning to Europe until their second or third summer (Mellone et al., 2011).
POPULATION
In Morocco there were estimated to be more than 1,000 breeding pairs in the 1980s (Thévenot et al., 2003). The species seems more abundant in the northern part of the country, with smaller populations in the south. How-ever, the population is now suspected to be around 500 breeding pairs in the country (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). In Algeria the species is distributed over the northern part of the country from the coast to the Saharan Atlas; the population appears to have been stable since the 1980s at around an estimated 500 breeding pairs nationwide (A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb, H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). In Tunisia this eagle is considered quite common.
Here the population is suspected to be around 300 breeding pairs (I. Essetti, pers. obs.), whereas in Libya only 15 breeding pairs are regularly reported (S. Buirzayqah, pers. obs.). There are also two recently confirmed sightings of breeding pairs in Sinai and on the coast of southern Egypt (A. Riad, pers. obs.).
In total there are three subpopulations: a Maghreb subpopulation covering Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, a Lib-yan subpopulation and an Egyptian subpopulation. The total breeding population in North Africa is estimated at around 1,300 to 1,350 breeding pairs or 2,600–2,700 mature individuals.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species inhabits open areas but nests in a wide variety of wooded habitats (such as Acacia savanna, Ber-gier et al., 2017), from sea level up to 2,300 m elevation in Morocco (Thévenot et al., 2003). Although it occurs in open habitats, the species generally requires some degree of tree cover (del Hoyo et al., 1994), and it has been observed to visit oases (e.g. in Algeria, A. Fellous-Djardini, pers. obs.). It breeds from late March until early May (Is-enmann and Moali, 2000; Is(Is-enmann et al., 2005). Nests can be found in large trees, usually in the crown, and are constructed of sticks and twigs, and lined with green leaves or grass, occasionally even pine needles (Thévenot et al., 2003; Orta et al., 2020g). Usually only a single egg is laid (Orta et al., 2020g).
Birds breeding in the Palaearctic are migratory. Migrants move south between August and November, and north between February and May (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). Breeding birds arrive at their North African nest-ing sites around February and March (Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005). Birds are usually observed singly or in pairs, even during migration, though migrants sometimes form groups of up to 12 (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). During good rainy years,
the species makes quite prolonged pre-nuptial migratory stopovers, individually or in pairs, south of the Atlantic Sahara, tak-ing advantage of the abundance of snakes and lizards (A. Qninba, pers. comm.).
Short-toed snake-eagles prey primarily on snakes and lizards, but also take mice, amphibians and birds, and hunt them from the air, spending much of their time hov-ering and kiting (Clark and Davies, 2018).
Circaetus gallicus Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List Extant (breeding) Extant (passage)
Circaetus gallicus
Map created 17/2/2021The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List Extant (breeding) Extant (passage)
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Short-toed snake eagle, Circaetus gallicus - (Gmelin, 1788) in North Africa. Source: The IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
THREATS
The loss of nesting sites due to logging as well as disturbance seem to be the main threats in North Africa (Red List review workshop Tunisia, 2020). The growth and spread of the human population has resulted in disturbance of raptors and destruction of their habitats, especially in forests because of the use of wood as fuel for cooking and heating and the felling of large trees (which are used for nesting) to clear land for crops and livestock (Bergier, 1987; Stuart and Collar, 1988; Garrido et al., 2005; Vernon et al., 2005; Cherkaoui et al., 2009; BirdLife Inter-national, 2018a; Tellería et al., 2019). This is of particular importance for this species because it seeks suitable habitats outside the most populated areas (Tellería et al., 2019). In addition, snake populations may have been reduced by the increase in monocultures, hedge destruction, pesticide use and the abandonment of traditional farmland and subsequent afforestation. Habitat fragmentation due to forest fires and road construction has also been reported. Nests of the species are often destroyed (Tucker and Heath, 1994; Thévenot et al., 2003) and it can be affected by power lines (Tucker and Heath, 1994; UICN and DEF, 2020). It is also highly vulnerable to the effects of wind energy developments (STRIX, 2012). Trade in North African specimens has been reported; how-ever, these cases are considered isolated and trade is not thought to be widespread (North African Birds, 2014b;
Isenmann et al., 2016; A. Fellous-Djardini, I. Essetti, pers. comm., 2020; A. Qninba, pers. obs., 2020).
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II and CMS Appendix II. An initiative to identify and correct dangerous power lines has started in Morocco with the collaboration of governmental bodies and NGOs (Godino et al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019).
Conservation actions needed: Wide-scale habitat conservation measures are required, including the main-tenance of low-intensity farming with the preservation of hedges and a reduction in pesticide use. Appropriate management of woodlands should maintain old trees, prevent fires and limit road construction. Any unavoidable afforestation or deforestation should occur outside the breeding season and should only result in partial habitat change. Monitoring should be conducted to assess the potential impact of wind farms in northern Morocco; and awareness of biodiversity conservation should be reinforced. Surveys and monitoring of the population to de-termine, protect and manage potential breeding sites and key dispersal areas, including migration corridors, are also important. Such work could also identify any further key threats to the species. Efforts should also be made to combat any illegal trade in the species.
Assessor(s): Saheb, M., Cuzin, F., Fellous-Djardini, A., Essetti, I., Bergier, P., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Buirzay-qah, S., Radi, M., Riad, A., Onrubia, A., Noaman, M., Etayeb, K. & Haitham, O.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International & Qninba, A.
Date: 2020–09–07
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