POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
4,400 mat. ind. 52km2 232,658 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: NEAR THREATENED (NT) B2ab(v) (IUCN version 3.1) In North Africa, breeding populations are restricted to 10 islands and cliffs with an area of occupancy of approx-imately 52 km2. Although the population was decreasing in the past, it is currently increasing in some localities thanks to increased monitoring and restricted access to the islands. Some threats such as poisoning, distur-bance by people, nest disturdistur-bance and predation are still ongoing in some areas. Emerging threats from tourism activities could affect the main subpopulation in Morocco in the future if access restrictions are not maintained in the long term. The introduction of predators to the islands is also a potential threat which could drastically reduce the number of nest sites, the area of occupancy and the number of mature individuals, especially if it affects the main colony in Morocco. The species is evaluated as Near Threatened under criterion B2ab(v) based on the number of locations, small area of occupancy and high dependency on current conservation actions, especially restrictions on access to breeding colonies.
DISTRIBUTION
The species breeds only in colonies on islands in the Mediterranean Sea and along the north-west coast of Africa (Clark and Davies, 2018). There are ten colonies in total in the region from the Atlantic coast of Morocco (Sidi Moussa cliffs [Salé] and Essaouira islands), through Algeria (western islands in Oran–Honaine and eastern islands in Collo–Annaba) to Tunisia (Galite Islands and Fratelli Islands) (Azafzaf, 2004; Rguibi et al., 2012a; Qninba et al., 2015a; Peyre et al., 2018; Cuzin, 2019). The entire population migrates in autumn to winter mainly in Madagascar but also in the islands of Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues as well as eastern and south-eastern Africa (Clark and Davies, 2018), crossing nearly the whole of Africa including the Sahara desert (López-López et al., 2009).
NT
© Brahim Bakaas
POPULATION
In Morocco some estimates give 1,340 pairs (Qninba et al., 2016; MaghrebOrnitho, 2016; Cuzin, 2019), although a recent census increased this figure to 1,531 pairs, 31 pairs breeding in Salé (I. Cherkaoui, pers. obs.) and 1,500 pairs on the islands, where the population is stabilising (Qninba, 2019). In Algeria, the breeding population is es-timated at 445 pairs (Peyre et al., 2018); some of the colonies are at maximum nesting capacity and the species is now colonising cliffs on the mainland (M. Saheb, pers. obs.). In Tunisia, the population has been estimated at 137 pairs in the past (Rguibi et al., 2012a), whereas more recent estimates indicate it could be between 150 and 200 breeding pairs (H. Azafzaf, pers. comm.). Based on these estimates, the total regional population could fall in the range of 2,000–2,200 pairs (4,400 mature individuals).
The population is increasing throughout the species' North African range (Rguibi et al., 2012a; Qninba et al., 2016;
Peyre et al., 2018), basically thanks to direct and indirect conservation actions which restrict access to the colo-nies. The largest colony in the Essaouira Archipelago in Morocco has doubled its population since 2010 (Cuzin, 2019). However, some small colonies are decreasing and some have even gone extinct in Algeria and Morocco (Touati et al., 2017; Cuzin, 2019).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
Eleonora’s falcon occurs on islands and coastal cliffs during the breeding season (Rguibi et al., 2012a; Clark and Davies, 2018) and hunts in the coastal area, moving up to a few tens of kilometres in search of food in various environments (dunes, river mouths, steppes, cultivated land, cities etc.) (Cuzin, 2019). It occurs in a wide variety of habitats on migration, including coastal seas, islands, islets, open forests, woodlands, savannas, grasslands, agricultural areas, wetlands and deserts (López-López et al., 2009; Clark and Davies, 2018). The species is fully migratory, leaving its Mediterranean breeding grounds in October and November to winter in Madagascar, East Africa and the Mascarene Islands (Clark and Davies, 2018). The return journey begins in late April and May (Orta et al., 2020f). They are generally gregarious (though sometimes solitary), tending to move in small, loose flocks, and on migration often associate with other species flying at high altitudes, including Falco subbuteo (Snow and Perrins, 1998; Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001).
Eleonora's falcons nest in colonies numbering from a few up to a hundred or more pairs during late summer and early autumn at strategic sites where they can hunt migrant passerines and other small birds like common hoo-poes (Upupa epops), swifts (Apus sp.) or European turtle-doves (Streptopelia turtur) to feed their chicks (Rguibi et al., 2012a; Clark and Davies, 2018). It has been estimated that about one and a half million small migrating birds are consumed annually by the large falcon colony in the Essaouira islands in Morocco (Rguibi et al., 2012b).
Eleonora’s falcons even keep some of their captured prey alive as a form of fresh food storage behaviour (Qninba et al., 2015b). They are mainly insectivorous outside the breeding season, feeding predominantly on cicadas, locusts, grasshoppers and Coleoptera in their winter quarters, and they only hunt while flying (Rguibi et al., 2012a; Clark and Davies, 2018).
Birds nest in the holes and ledges of sea cliffs, or on the ground, never far from the sea (del Hoyo et al., 1994; Rguibi et al., 2012a). Clutches usually consist of two or three eggs, laid in late July (Orta et al., 2020f). The female broods for 28–33 days and during this period is supplied with food by the male; the young birds remain in the nest for 28–35 days (Rguibi et al. 2012a).
Falco eleonorae Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List Extant (breeding) Extant (passage)
Falco eleonorae Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List Extant (breeding) Extant (passage)
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Eleonora’s falcon, Falco eleonorae - Géné, 1839 in North Africa. Source: The IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
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THREATS
The species has historically suffered from exploitation and persecution by local people, including the collection of chicks for food (Global Raptor Information Network, 2020), which is a threat not only in breeding colonies but also along its migratory routes and in its winter quarters (Rguibi et al., 2012a). The entire North African region faces the problem of raptor poaching for illegal trade, and falcons are the main species affected (Bergier, 1987; Emile et al., 2014; Brochet et al., 2016; Elhalawani, 2016; MaghrebOrnitho, 2019b,c). In Egypt, Eleonora's falcons may be also trapped for use as lures to attract other target species (Porter, 2005; BirdLife International, 2015). In Libya, individuals are trapped for falconry and fetch high prices on the national market (K. Etayeb, pers. comm.), and in Morocco chicks are collected from the Salé colony and sold in the markets of Salé and Rabat.
Human disturbance and urbanisation associated with tourism development has also been reported to negatively influence birds’ breeding success (Martínez-Abraín et al., 2002; Orta et al., 2020f; Touati et al., 2017; Peyre et al., 2018; M. Saheb, pers. obs.), particularly in relation to the decline of the only breeding colony on the mainland in Morocco, at Salé (Rguibi et al., 2012b; Cuzin, 2019). Urban expansion is pushing this colony towards the north-ern cliffs of Salé. The colony in the Essaouira Archipelago is also threatened by the development of large tourist projects on the stretch of coast opposite the Archipelago, in particular around the mouth of Oued Ksob, where Eleonora's falcons find fresh water for bathing and drinking; in this regard, the construction of a dam upstream on Oued Ksob has stopped the summer water flow and falcons are currently forced to go much further upstream to find temporary pools (A. Qninba, pers. obs.).
Predation by rats, cats, dogs and yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) is also important on some breeding islands (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Rguibi et al., 2012a; Touati et al., 2017; Cuzin, 2019). Interspecific competition with Scopoli’s shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) for nesting crevices has also been found in Algeria (Touati et al., 2017). Additionally, pollution by ornithocide substances was thought to be responsible for the de-cline in some breeding populations (Rguibi et al., 2012a), and on Hadibas Island (Algeria) some adult falcons have been found poisoned with rodenticides (M. Saheb, pers. obs.). The species is also sensitive to the effects of wind energy developments (STRIX, 2012).
It is important to note that Eleonora’s falcon is a long-distance migrant and, hence, population changes may be influenced by factors occurring in widely separated breeding and non-breeding areas and during migration (López-López et al., 2009; Mellone et al., 2013). The importance of humid forests for the conservation of the Ele-onora’s falcon should be of concern, given the current loss of this habitat in Madagascar (Mellone et al., 2012).
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Barcelona convention: Annex II. An In-ternational Species Action Plan was published in 1999 (Ristow, 1999) and was reviewed in 2010. Since 2005 the Conservatoire du Littoral has been coordinating an international programme for promoting and assisting with the management of small Mediterranean islands, known as the PIM Initiative, which is financed by the Fonds Français pour l’Environnement Mondial (FFEM – French Global Environment Facility), the Agence de l’eau Rhône Méditer-ranée–Corse and the City of Marseille. This programme has supported monitoring programmes in Tunisia and Morocco, where Eleonora’s falcon has been monitored for a long time at its main colony in the Essaouira islands (Qninba et al., 2016). Research on the species has been conducted in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. A net expan-sion of the species has been observed in Morocco thanks to the end of direct persecution (Rguibi et al., 2012a).
In Morocco, the species is included in the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/
news/mediterranean/202001/first-steps-towards-a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance).
Conservation actions needed: While there is an International Species Action Plan, the development of local plans would also be beneficial (see Rguibi et al., 2012a). Effective actions to protect coastal areas should be implemented and Environmental Impact Assessments conducted on all developments in coastal areas. National and international coastal tourism policies should discourage the development of new resorts and favour environ-mentally friendly, sustainable tourism, especially around the only mainland colony in Morocco.
Although some colonies are currently undisturbed because access is limited, all colonies should be protected from intrusion by employing staff to monitor and guard the colonies, if necessary, and banning access from 1 July to 1 November. The species’ wintering areas, ecological requirements and threats should be identified and protection implemented for these areas and migration routes. The impact of predation by rats, cats and dogs should be investigated and invasive species eradication programmes should be implemented. Awareness of the species should be raised and the value of its habitat promoted. In addition, further measures should be put in place to study and control the trapping of this species; and coordinated surveys of the full breeding population would also be beneficial for species monitoring purposes.
Assessor(s): Qninba, A., Azafzaf, H., Cherkaoui, I., Saheb, M., Chokri, M.A., Etayeb, K. & Yamoun, B.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Garrido López, J.R.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International Date: 2020–09–08
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7. Least Concern (LC) and marginal species Not Applicable (NA)
Summary justification of the Regional Red List assessments of the breeding raptors of North Africa assessed as Least Concern (LC) and marginal species Not Applicable (NA).