POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
20-40 mat. ind. - 100,336 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) C2a(i,ii); D (IUCN version 3.1) In North Africa, the species has a small and declining population of 20–40 estimated mature individuals in a sin-gle subpopulation in Egypt. It is extinct in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. The species is listed as Critically Endangered under criterion C2a(i,ii); D.
DISTRIBUTION
The species has a wide distribution in Africa, from West Africa across the Sahel to East Africa and further south (Botha et al., 2017), but with significant population declines throughout its range in Africa and the Middle East (Shimelis et al., 2005). It is rare in North Africa.
Currently it breeds only at Wadi el-Gemal National Park, Wadi El-Kharit and Umm El Abbas in southern Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Habid, 2016b; Clark and Davies, 2018; OSME, 2019), although in the early 20th century it was the most abundant vulture in the country occurring from the western desert in the Qattara depression to eastern Sinai and the south (Nicoll, 1919; Meinerzhagen, 1930). In the 20th century it bred in Libya (in the southern Sahara in 1998: Massa, 1999; Isenmann et al., 2016 ), Tunisia (until 1950 in the eastern Sahara:
Isenmann et al., 2005), Algeria (maybe until the 1960s in the western Sahara: Isenmann and Moali, 2000) and Morocco (until the 1950s in the Atlantic Sahara: Bergier, 1987; Thévenot et al., 2003; Bergier et al., 2017). Previ-ously, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it used to breed in non-desert habitats in the Central Plateau and Middle Atlas in Morocco (Thévenot et al., 2003) and Algeria (Isenmann and Moali, 2000). It has also disappeared from northern Niger and northern Mali (Thiollay, 2006) so any recolonisation of Algeria from these countries does
© Daniel Burón
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not seem to be possible soon. However, it could still be breeding in Mauritania (Botha et al., 2017). Vagrants are also occasionally recorded in Algeria, Libya and Morocco (Botha et al., 2017). There is passage migration of lap-pet-faced vultures through Sinai and Nile Valley according to eBird (2020), probably from the Arabian Peninsula.
POPULATION
Data from Shimelis et al. (2005) and Habid (2016b) suggest that the Egyptian subpopulation (the only one re-maining in North Africa) consists only of 10–20 breeding pairs. This gives a total population of 20–40 mature individuals, although further surveys are required given the current trends for this species across the world and the apparently severe declines in the Middle East (Botha et al., 2017).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species inhabits open habitats usually with scattered trees (Clark and Davies, 2018) such as savanna-like forests with Acacia (Thévenot et al., 2003). It ranges widely when foraging (BirdLife International, 2020) and is mainly a scavenger, feeding predominantly on any large carcass or its remains (Mundy, 1982; Mundy et al., 1992).
Lappet-faced vultures gather at carcasses with other vultures, which they dominate, and they steal prey from other raptors and can also take live prey, including fish and terrapin eggs (Clark and Davies, 2018). They build solitary nests (containing just one egg) on cliffs and in Acacia trees in Egypt (Habid, 2016); the species’ distribu-tion is sometimes limited by that of Acacia trees (Boshoff et al., 1997). Lappet-faced vultures do not breed until they are at least six years old, and then fledge ca. 0.4 young/pair/year (Mundy et al., 1992); ringing studies have revealed a very low return rate (Simmons and Bridgeford, 1997). The species' minimum home range has been suggested to be 8 km2, expanding to 15 km2 in some habitats (Shimelis et al., 2005), but now 80–150 km2 may be more appropriate (BirdLife International, 2020d).
THREATS
As with other scavenger species in North Africa, widespread accidental poisoning, largely with strychnine used by many farmers for predator control, and more recently with carbofuran, has contributed significantly to lappet-faced vulture decline and local extinctions (Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017).
Food availability for the species is decreasing due to the almost complete absence of wild ungulates, which is caused by the increase and spread of the human population and habitat alteration, at least in the Maghreb (Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017). Habitat alteration through tree-felling and overgrazing leading to food scarcity is also an important threat to the only breeding population in Egypt (Aspinall, 1996; Rondeau and Thiollay, 2004; Andevski, 2017; A. Riad, O. Haitham, pers. obs.). It has also been impacted during the breeding season by human disturbance near nests in desert areas, where low tree densities mean that homes are often built under or near trees used by this
spe-cies for breeding, contributing to the abandonment of nesting sites (Botha et al.
2017). Another threat could be electrocu-tion or collisions on energy infrastructure, as in other areas of its range (Shimelis et al., 2005). The potential introduction and use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammato-ry drug diclofenac, which is fatal to Gyps spp. when ingested by birds feeding on livestock carcasses, may become a threat to the species in the region as well. Lastly, in Egypt, direct trophy hunting and preda-tion by feral dogs cause direct mortality (A. Riad, O. Haitham, pers. obs.).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Lappet-faced vulture, Torgos tracheliotos - (Forster, 1791) in North Africa. Source: The IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. The species was put forward as a candidate for the CITES Review of Significant Trade in 2004 (BirdLife International, 2020d). It is included in a multi-species action plan for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In 2008, feeding stations were set up at Shalatin in southern Egypt, following the decline of vultures in the area (BirdLife International, 2020d).
Conservation actions needed: Coordinated surveys and monitoring should be instigated throughout its range to clarify population size and rates of decline, beginning with a census of the Egyptian population, including use of satellite tracking; further ecological research is also needed. Awareness campaigns should be initiated aimed at farmers (livestock grazers), local communities, developers and ecotourists to reduce mortality from persecution and disturbance. Actions to reduce mortality from electrocution and collisions on power lines are desirable, including education campaigns, establishing priority areas for power line mitigation works and retrofit-ting dangerous power lines. The provision of feeding stations is also beneficial, particularly when food is scarce.
The laws protecting existing nature reserves in Egypt should be enforced so as to maintain an adequate area of legally protected habitat, and lobbying to outlaw the sale of diclofenac for veterinary purposes could be useful, in addition to the establishment of legal protection for the species in range states. Finally, populations of feral dogs should be controlled to avoid direct predation.
Assessor(s): Riad, A., Haitham, O. & Garrido López, J.R.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Barrios, V.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P. & BirdLife International Date: 2020–09–08
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