Instructional Analysis and Design of e-Learning Skills Training for University of The Gambia

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(1)Instructional Analysis and Design of e-Learning Skills Training for University of The Gambia. by Yusupha Touray. Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement of the Degree of. MASTER OF EDUCATION. Major: International Workforce Education and Development Advisor: Steven Chih-Chien Lai, PhD Director of the Graduate Programme. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2009. .

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(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thanks and praises to my Lord for the inner strength He bestowed upon me while I pursue this dream. Life is somehow meaningless if what one does goes without positive effects on lives of others. Again, I thank my wife for the understanding, and my three kids who had to face life without me these two years. Thanks also to my brothers for taking care of my family in my absence. My sincere gratitude goes to my advisor, Dr. Chih-Chien Lai for his unflinching guidance, not only with my thesis process, but with my entire graduate study. His inspirations on service to others gave me fortitude and greater meaning during this graduate programme. I wish to show sincere gratitude to Dr. Shelley Young, my thesis committee member and my elearning lecturer for giving me direction on my e-learning project. Your professorial guidance on how to put together learning and technology has finally paid dividend. Once again my sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Jason Lin, also my thesis committee member, whose weekends I virtually snatched. Your timely support in the area of technology gave me greater understanding of what I was doing. Like a guardian angel, your positive critical mind revealed some interesting dimensions in my research study. I would like to extend my thanks to the Professors of IWED/IHRD and in NTNU in general, who in one way or the other gave me support along the way. And to my interview group, I thank you for your service to education in The Gambia. My Gambian brother, Sankareh, who introduced me to Dr. Young, and stayed by me all through this period, thanks for your good heart; and to all other true Gambian friends here with me in Taipei. I would like to express my gratitude to my Taiwanese sister, Miss Lynn, the Manager of TaiwanICDF programme in my Institute; and to my colleagues in NTNU whose presence has given me international touch. Finally, I wish to give my sincerest gratitude to TaiwanICDF and the Government of Taiwan for the scholarship; and to the Government of The Gambia for the support accorded to me during my entire career development. May the Good Lord bless you all – Amen!. .

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(5) ABSTRACT This era of digital technology has evidenced an institutional rush for embracement of e-learning delivery techniques in education. Hence institutions that are digitally disadvantaged are as well wanting in their provision of effective and efficient education to students. The Gambia’s only university that is supposed to train its human capital for national development is still trapped in the traditional face-to-face delivery system. However, the same university has been selected as a pilot site for Pan African e-Network; a project that is supposed to collaborate more than twenty universities in Africa with universities in India through a viable e-learning system. But, is the University of The Gambia (UTG) ready for elearning implementation? If UTG is ready, what proposed design could be used in this implementation? It is against this backdrop that this research looks at the readiness status of the young University in order to propose an instructional design of an e-learning training programme for lecturers. ADDIE model of instructional design has been adopted to analyse readiness and to propose an instructional design or strategy of the proposed content. As such quantitative and qualitative methods have been employed to analyse data from The Gambia through descriptive and nonparametric statistics, and expert interview data on relevance and delivery, monitoring and evaluation of training content, respectively. Eventually, UTG’s readiness was revealed at marginal levels for three of the support systems; infrastructure, training and human capital, and material and financial capacity, and has been found wanting in incentives for promotion of e-learning. The researcher thereafter draws a strategic map for delivery of a thoroughly analysed e-learning content. This research study therefore does not only reveal UTG’s e-learning readiness status, but also outlined a process that could be utilised by other institutions to appraise their elearning readiness status. Again, it does not only give UTG a competitive advantage over other institutions, but also provides an ADDIE adopted instructional design of e-learning skills training that is applicable in other institutions and corporate entities for staff training. Keywords:. Instructional design, ADDIE model, computer and internet skills, e-learning readiness, learning theories. I. .

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(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................................III LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. V LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. VII CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................1 Chapter Overview.........................................................................................................1 Background of the Research .........................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem..............................................................................................4 Purposes of the Research ..............................................................................................4 Questions and Hypotheses of the Research ...................................................................5 Significance of the Research....................................................................................... 11 Delimitations and Limitations..................................................................................... 11 Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................12 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................15 Chapter Overview.......................................................................................................15 The Gambia’s Higher Education System and its Challenges........................................15 E-learning Critical Success Factors and Readiness Variables ......................................17 Learning Theories.......................................................................................................22 Instructional Design....................................................................................................27 E-learning Training Analysis and Design ....................................................................32 A Pilot Study Review of Current Research .................................................................35 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY........................................................................................37 Chapter Overview.......................................................................................................37 Research Framework ..................................................................................................37 Research Methods ......................................................................................................38 Population and Sampling ............................................................................................39 Instrumentation ..........................................................................................................40 Research Procedure ....................................................................................................41 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................43 III .

(8) Reliability and Validity ...............................................................................................46 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS..................................................................51 Chapter Overview.......................................................................................................51 University Culture in The Gambia ..............................................................................51 Instructional Analysis of UTG E-learning Support Systems ........................................52 Instructional Analysis of Lecturers (Trainees) .............................................................59 Instructional Analysis of E-learning Training Content.................................................84 Instructional Design/Strategies of E-learning Training Content ...................................95 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 105 Chapter Overview..................................................................................................... 105 Conclusions.............................................................................................................. 105 Recommendations .................................................................................................... 107 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................. 110 APPENDIX A. PILOT E-MAIL TO UTG LECTURERS................................................... 116 APPENDIX B. PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE FOR UTG STUDENTS................................. 117 APPENDIX C. PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE FOR UTG LECTURERS .............................. 121 APPENDIX D. PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE FOR UTG ADMINISTRATION.................... 125 APPENDIX E. EMAIL TO UTG GATE-KEEPER ............................................................ 127 APPENDIX F. EMAIL ATTACHED LETTER TO LECTURERS AND MANAGEMENT OF UTG ......................................................................................................................... 128 APPENDIX G. EMAIL SAMPLES TO E-LEARNING EXPERTS.................................... 129 APPENDIX H. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR UTG LECTURERS .......................................... 130 APPENDIX I. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR UTG ADMINISTRATION................................. 133 APPENDIX J. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR E-LEARNING EXPERTS ................................. 136 APPENDIX K. UTG LECTURERS DEMOGRAPHIC CODES........................................ 137 APPENDIX L. SUMMARY RESULTS FOR CHI-SQUARE TESTS................................ 138 APPENDIX M. EXPERT INTERVIEW DATA ON RELEVANCE OF E-LEARNING TRAINING CONTENT............................................................................................ 144 APPENDIX N. EXPERT INTERVIEW DATA ON DELIVERY, MONITORING AND EVALUATION STRATEGIES ON E-LEARNING TRAINING CONTENT ............ 148. IV .

(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1. ADDIE model..................................................................................................30 Figure 3.1. Framework of the research study........................................................................37 Figure 3.2. Framework showing the research procedure of the three steps/phases of the current research process ..............................................................................................43 Figure 4. 1. ICT infrastructural situations in UTG................................................................54 Figure 4. 2. Training and human capital support situations in UTG ......................................56 Figure 4. 3. Graph showing the current budget allocations, material and financial resources capacity/support situations in UTG .............................................................................57 Figure 4. 4. Graph showing the nature of Administration support for e-learning in terms of incentive for motivation of lecturers............................................................................58. V .

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(11) LIST OF TABLES . Table 2.1. Summary of learning theories and some of the implications.................................27 Table 3. 1. Coding instruction used in SPSS quantitative data analysis (demographic data) 455 Table 3. 2. Coding instruction used in SPSS quantitative data analysis of dependent variables (Computer and internet Skills Readiness, Administrative and Operational Readiness) ..45 Table 3. 3. Cronbach’s Alpha scores of the tests for both pilot and actual quantitative items.47 Table 4. 1. Descriptive analysis of lecturers’ readiness in terms of computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills ...............................................................................61 Table 4. 2. Computer skills of lecturers in UTG by % cumulative Likert scales in three levels of skills, and by means and standard deviation, item by item (n = 31) ..........................62 Table 4. 3. Internet skills of lecturers in UTG by % cumulative Likert scales in three levels of skills, and by means and standard deviation, item by item (n = 31)...............................63 Table 4. 4. The Relationship between age of lecturers and their computer & internet training variables ......................................................................................................................66 Table 4. 5. The Relationship between lecturers’ duration of stay in UTG and their computer & internet training variables.............................................................................................67 Table 4. 6. The Relationship between lecturers’ highest academic qualifications and their computer & internet training variables .........................................................................70 Table 4. 7. The influence of lecturers’ gender on their computer and internet, computer, and internet skills ...............................................................................................................74 Table 4. 8. The influence of age groups of lecturers on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills ................................................................................75 Table 4. 9. The influence of the duration of stay as lecturers in UTG on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills..........................................................76 Table 4. 10. The influence of lecturers’ lecture status on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills ................................................................................76 Table 4. 11. The influence of lecturers’ departments on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills ................................................................................77 Table 4. 12. The influence of lecturers’ academic qualifications on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills ......................................................................78 Table 4. 13. The influence of lecturers’ academic qualifications and their computer and VII .

(12) internet skills, computer skills and internet skills..........................................................79 Table 4. 14. The influence lecturers’ access to teaching websites has on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills..........................................................79 Table 4. 15. The influence lecturers’ access to online journals has on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills..........................................................80 Table 4. 16. The influence lecturers’ access to personal computers has on their computer and internet skills, computer skills and internet skills..........................................................81 Table 4. 17. Summary of themes and comments of experts on the content relevance ............86 Table 4. 18. Proposed e-learning training content.................................................................93 Table 4. 19. Summary of instructional methods and strategies as discussed by expert ..........96 Table 4. 20. Lesson sequencing showing instructional methods applicable to each lesson .. 102. VIII .

(13) CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Chapter Overview This chapter introduces the research study by elaborating on the rationale and trends of e-learning related information and communication technology (ICT), research statement, purposes and questions to ask in addressing the purposes. It further discusses significance of the study, and the impending delimitations and limitations, and closes the chapter with the definitions of some relevant terms one shall be coming across all through the research study.. Background of the Research All over the world institutions are embracing e-learning. This is dictated by the new world order in education industry. However, those institutions that cannot maximise the use of internet in their education process are simply at a disadvantage. And if education is closely correlated to development, it could equally be asserted that the institutions referred to above would not be able to disseminate quality knowledge and the requisite skills and attitudes that will steer genuine development in their respective communities. Their mishap is largely due to digital divide; a gap that exists between people and places in their access to Information and Communications Technology (ICT), and also the skills they have in utilising ICT to their advantage, which, according to Bothma and Fourie (2006), is partly because they are at different socio-economic levels. It is therefore inevitable that these institutions cannot harness digital technology, which is an unfortunate situation for third world countries such as The Gambia. And this goes on to charge that their media for educational delivery have negative impacts on the preparation of their youths for the demands of knowledge societies. Moreover, the nature of today’s workforce and knowledge distribution call for introduction of e-learning in order to cut down costs, neutralise former barriers of time and space, and benefit from distributed knowledge, skills and attitudes that are required for institutional specialities. Rosenberg’s (2001:9) citation of Prusak speaks well in favour of this assertion: “Organizations'one major advantage over others in terms of competitive advantage is their swiftness in knowledge acquisition and its use”, Prusak, IBM (1997). For Rosenberg (2001:28), this competitive advantage is supposed to be the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions to enhance learning and performance. One can even 1 .

(14) advance that such disadvantaged institutions face bleak educational future (Harmon & Jones, 1999), and their only option is to join the ‘frenzied drive towards the web-based cliff’. In view of this argument the researcher re-echoes a strong need for a pedagogical paradigm shift in the University of The Gambia (UTG). Hence, in ‘Distance and Distributed Learning Environment’ edited by Harvice and Harvice (2005), Pisel and Ritz (2005: citing Read, 2003) in a chapter on ‘Strategy for Planning, Designing, and Managing Distance and Distributed Learning at the University’ it is reported that online courses alone increased by nearly 20% in 2002 with over 1.6 million students. And in a press release, Moore (2005), the Director of Middle East Learning Technologies (MELT), declared that the industry of e-learning is a $23 billion global industry in 2004, and that there were about 130 million on-line learners across the world. Again, in a research reported by Allen and Seaman (2007), it is revealed that in United States (US) alone 3.48 million students are doing at least one online course, and 20% of all higher education students in US take at least one online course, and about two-thirds of all higher education institutions have some form of online offering (Allen & Seaman, 2007). Unfortunately, low internet penetration and improper library information system (LIS) is already weighing down UTG’s academic standing in the industry. The ill-equipped natures of the University Library and Gambia National Library in terms of human and material resources and internet penetration –the country reportedly has a percentage internet penetration of 5.8 (World Internet Report, 2008) – are undermining factors of such initiatives. Generally, internet service provision is characterised by poor and uneven ICT infrastructural development (Owhotu, 2006), and this impinges on quality access and cost of services (Jobe, 2007). Even though there are five Internet Service Providers; GAMTEL, QuantumNet, Netpage, Airtip, and Unique Solutions, which is all the more the reason for cheaper dial-up services as compared to most countries in Africa (Darboe & Jobe, 2007; Jobe, 2007), yet still, very few academic institutions have ICT incorporated in their curricula (Mangesi, 2007). According to Clarke (2007) and Owhotu (2006) The Gambia is among those countries in the sub-region that are faced with the issues of budget, infrastructure, low internet access, manpower, motivation and even resistance to e-learning pedagogical paradigm shift. Subsequently, as argued by Lai and Touray (2008), The Gambia’s low national ICT penetration is mirrored in UTG; the country’s highest learning institution. And the situation has undermined the claim for a solid academic standing in the knowledge industry at a global level. Even though there is a broadband internet network that links offices and computer. 2 .

(15) laboratories in the UTG’s Administration Building to a central backbone with a recent allotted bandwidth of 512 Kilobits, students could only have reliable access in two computer laboratories, with a student-computer ratio of forty students to a computer (40:1). Worse still, each lucky student has an hour access to internet in a day. Lecture-notes and lessons are often handed down in the traditional face-to-face fashion such as dictating or writing down notes on chalkboards (Lai & Touray, 2008). However, a seeming remedy to the menace created by academic digital divide for The Gambia, and its cohort of disadvantaged third world countries in Africa, is the launching of a pilot phase of the Pan Africa e-Network project in UTG. This is an e-learning initiative in Africa (Daily Observer Newspaper, 2008) designed to develop the ICT infrastructure of twenty-seven countries on the continent. But, is UTG ready for e-learning implementation? And If UTG is ready, what proposed design could be used in this implementation? This argument pre-supposes two key points; first, there is an academic digital gap between The Gambia’s only university and those institutions in other parts of the world; much especially those in the Developed World, which, as well, classifies UTG as one of the aforementioned disadvantaged institutions. Second, even though there is a pilot phase in place, what still remains unanswered is whether UTG is ready enough to embrace e-learning initiative of the proposed magnitude, and if they are ready, how would it be implemented. To this end, the research study is designed to identify UTG’s readiness and proceeds to propose an instructional design that could be developed later into a training programme for lecturers’ empowerment in the field of e-learning. Hence, an empirical study is desired to first analyse UTG’s e-learning support systems, lecturers’ characteristics in relation to e-learning readiness, and the training content, and then propose an instructional design or content delivery, monitoring and evaluation strategies. In this process the researcher did an institutional e-learning support system analysis, learner, objectives and training content analysis as required by ADDIE instructional design model. The proposed instructional design identified a relevant training content, strategies and methods to be adopted in a training process through a case study. The researcher conducted an observation on a Professor teaching an e-learning course to graduate students for thirteen weeks, and later conducted an interview with four renowned Professors in the area of e-learning. This brought into account different knowledge, skills and attitudes to be trained. 3 .

(16) The development, implementation and evaluation of the proposed design (or of the ADDIE model) shall be pursued later.. Statement of the Problem The concern raised in this research study is a genuine one, as long as education and development are intricately linked. It must be noted that UTG is tasked with the responsibility of producing high level workforce; but the institutional pedagogy is shrouded in the traditional face-to-face fashion. Moreover, there is an absence of adequate computer assisted learning, which is quite critical to the call for a pedagogical paradigm shift. And even though there is a pilot programme on e-Network in Africa which is one very vital initiative of the same paradigm shift, the lecturers would need training in order to develop e-learning skills. However, this design is strategic and has been fine-tuned to flow with the readiness status of the Institution and the entry e-learning/ICT skills of lecturers. From a number of indicators, UTG atmosphere seem to be denying its community the opportunity to maximally harness the distributed knowledge on the World Wide Web (WWW). This could be translated as the current undesired market share, other forms of competitive disadvantages such as lack of access to digitised distributed knowledge, and production of highly skilled workforce.. Purposes of the Research The underlying factor to this research study is to empower UTG to have a greater market share, not only in her student enrolment, but also through the preparation of these students or learners to compete successfully in both local and international labour markets. This is possible by preparing the workforce (lecturers) to develop distance learning or online programmes for corporate institutions, students and other organised bodies, such as governmental and non-governmental institutions. The programme is also designed to create the opportunity for gaining access to distributed information as well as other educational opportunities to both learners and instructors. This is UTG’s business goal as dictated by the proposed training programme. It is to create a competitive advantage for UTG in terms of knowledge delivery, enrolment of students and greater financial stability. This would mean the research study should address certain objectives in a bid to create or design a training programme that can later be maximised in UTG to prepare the lecturers for this noble task. These objectives are herein outlined as the purposes of the research study: 4 .

(17) 1. Examining the e-learning readiness status of UTG at the Administrative level (university elearning support systems). This looks into readiness in terms of University ICT infrastructural development, training and human capital support, budget, material and financial capacity, and incentives for motivation of lecturers; 2. Examining the e-learning readiness status of lecturers (learner/lecturer analysis) in UTG by exploring their computer and internet skills, thus revealing some empirical computer and internet related characteristics; 3. Analysing the content of the e-learning training programme that can be adapted later to train lecturers in UTG on e-learning skills; and, 4. Proposing an instructional design or instructional strategy of an e-learning training content delivery, monitoring and evaluation. However, these purposes are meant to be achieved through the adoption of the ADDIE model of instructional design. This model has some generic nature and gives a more thorough analysis process of the environment, learners and the instruction before trainees go into training. ADDIE nonetheless, entails five phases that are all critical to any ADDIE adopted training, but this specific research study looks at only the two most critical phases; analysis and design phases. The other phases; development, implementation and evaluation shall be address in a separate study at a more convenient time. Figure 1.1 below captures the ADDIE model with an indication of the research study delimitation.. Figure 1. 1. ADDIE Model and the flow of the design process with the black coloured arrow showing the delimitation of the research study. Questions and Hypotheses of the Research The nature of this research study has necessitates the use of both quantitative and qualitative research questions to address the aforementioned purposes. For research purpose 5 .

(18) one and two quantitative research method questions have been formulated with hypotheses. This is to address the readiness of UTG at the Administrative level or the university elearning support systems and readiness at lecturers’ level. Fill-in and ‘yes/no’ question types were formulated and administered in self-assessed situations in order to address the demographics of lecturers, including lecturers’ personal demographic and their access to computer and internet demographic variables, and demographics of UTG Administration,. However, five-point Likert scale questions (1; meaning totally disagree through 5; meaning totally agree) for the lecturers’ e-learning readiness in terms of their skills in computer and internet usage, and administrative readiness in terms of university e-learning support systems such as ICT infrastructural development, training and human capital support, budget allocations and material and financial capacity, and incentives for lecturers’ motivation. For research purposes three and four questions were formulated using the qualitative research format; semi-structured and open ended questions, as well as review of literature. The research study questions and their related hypotheses are herein sequentially outlined: 1. E-learning readiness status at Administrative level: 1A: Is UTG ready for e-learning initiative in terms of ICT infrastructural development? 1B: Is UTG ready for e-learning initiative in terms of training and human capital support? 1C: Is UTG ready for e-learning initiative in terms of material and financial capacity? 1D: Is UTG ready for e-learning initiative in terms of incentives for lecturer motivation? 2A. Lecturers’ e-learning readiness status in terms of computer and internet skills: 2A1.. Are UTG lecturers significantly ready for e-learning implementation in terms of prerequisite computer and internet skills?. 2A2.. Are UTG lecturers significantly ready for e-learning implementation in terms of prerequisite computer skills?. 2A3.. Are UTG lecturers significantly ready for e-learning implementation in terms of prerequisite internet skills?. 2B.. Lecturers’ characteristics in relation to computer and internet access:. 6 .

(19) Relationship between lecturers’ gender, age, years spent in UTG, academic qualifications, departments, status, and lecturers’ computer and internet training, teaching website ownership, online journal access, and personal computer access.. Hypothesis 2B1 Ho:. Gender of UTG lecturers has no statistically significant relation to UTG lecturers’ access to computer and internet.. Ha:. Gender of UTG lecturers has a statistically significant relation to UTG lecturers’ access to computer and internet.. Hypothesis 2B2 Ho:. Age difference among UTG lecturers has no statistically significant relation to UTG lecturers’ access to computer and internet.. Ha:. Age difference among UTG lecturers has a statistically significant relation to UTG lecturers’ access to computer and internet.. Hypothesis 2B3 Ho:. The number of years lecturers spent in UTG as lecturers has no statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. Ha:. The number of years lecturers spent in UTG as lecturers has a statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. Hypothesis 2B4 Ho:. The highest academic qualification acquired by lecturers in UTG has no statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. Ha:. The highest academic qualification acquired by lecturers in UTG has a statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. Hypothesis 2B5 7 .

(20) Ho:. The type of faculty or department of lecturers in UTG has no statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. Ha:. The type of faculty or department of lecturers in UTG has a statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. Hypothesis 2B6 Ho:. The lecture status of lecturers in UTG has no statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. Ha:. The lecture status of lecturers in UTG has a statistically significant relation to their access to computer and internet.. 2C.. Lecturers’ characteristics in relation to computer and internet skills: Relationship between lecturers’ gender, age, years spent in UTG, number of courses lectured in UTG, academic qualifications acquired, department, status, computer/internet training acquired, personal computer access, teaching website ownership, online journal access, and lecturers’ computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Hypothesis 2C1 Ho:. The gender of lecturers in UTG does not have any statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Ha:. The gender of lecturers in UTG does have a statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Hypothesis 2C2 Ho:. The age difference of lecturers in UTG does not have any statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Ha:. The age difference of lecturers in UTG does have a statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. 8 .

(21) Hypothesis 2C3 Ho:. The number of years a lecturer spent in UTG does not have any statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Ha:. The number of years lecturers spent in UTG does have a statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Hypothesis 2C4 Ho:. The highest academic qualification acquired by lecturers in UTG does not have any statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Ha:. The highest academic qualification acquired by lecturers in UTG does have any statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Hypothesis 2C5 Ho:. The type of faculty or department of lecturers in UTG does not have any statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Ha:. The type of faculty or department of lecturers in UTG does have a statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Hypothesis 2C6 Ho:. The lecture status of lecturers in UTG does not have any statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Ha:. The lecture status of lecturers in UTG does have a statistically significant influence on their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills.. Hypothesis 2C7. 9 .

(22) Ho:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, lecturers with higher computer and internet training are not statistically significantly different from lecturers with lower computer and internet training.. Ha:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, lecturers with higher computer and internet training are statistically significantly different from lecturers with lower computer and internet training.. Hypothesis 2C8 Ho:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, lecturers who own their own websites collectively or individually are not statistically significantly different from lecturers who do not collectively or individually own teaching websites.. Ha:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, lecturers who own their own websites collectively or individually are statistically significantly different from lecturers who do not collectively or individually own teaching websites.. Hypothesis 2C9 Ho:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, those lecturers who have access to online journals are not statistically significantly different from those lecturers who do not have access to online journals.. Ha:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, those lecturers who have access to online journals are statistically significantly different from those lecturers who do not have access to online journals.. Hypothesis 2C10 Ho:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, lecturers who have personal computers do not have any statistically significant difference with lecturers who do not have personal computers.. Ha:. In terms of their computer and internet skills, computer skills, and internet skills, 10 .

(23) lecturers who have personal computers do have any statistically significant difference with lecturers who do not have personal computers. 3. Instructional analysis of the proposed content of the training programme: Based on expert opinions, results from the analysis and related literature what relevant training content would address the UTG’s goal with respect to e-learning training?. 4. Instructional strategies of delivery, monitoring and evaluation of content: Based on expert opinions, results from the analysis and related literature what delivery, monitoring and evaluation methods and strategies are likely to adequately address the training objectives?. Significance of the Research This research study is designed to empower UTG economically. It shall create the opportunities for building a highly developed workforce with skills to design distance learning and training programmes for educational and business-oriented institutions, which shall in the long run translate into a competitive advantage over other institutions of higher learning. Eventually, it would be a means to access a larger market share. E-Learning delivery pedagogy shall enhance learning by exposing students and lecturers to use and benefits of ICT, which in turn shall adequately prepare the Institution’s teaching and learning community for both local and international labour markets, and as well produce a base for research in the country. It is evident that the use of ICT through e-learning will promote effective educational process in UTG, and at the same time create access to more students and qualified academic instructors in different geographical space and time zones.. Delimitations and Limitations The instructional design of e-learning training programme discusses issues that are related to UTG; an institution situated in one of the disadvantaged third world communities. The full scope of e-learning cannot therefore be explored due to this delimitation. The design is built on the status of UTG and similar institutions. 11 .

(24) The research study adopted the ADDIE model of instructional design but covers only the analysis and the design phases of this model. The other phases such as development, implementation and summative evaluation are beyond the scope of the study. The design of e-learning platform is beyond the scope of this research. That is the responsibility of UTG’s ICT support staff. Issues relating to the e-learning technology have been conveniently avoided on such grounds.. The quantitative data is collected by sending the questionnaire through internet to UTG authorities, who administered them to the participants and send them back through an envoy. This suffered serious shortage and the researcher had to spend a long time calling and appealing to lecturers to respond to the questionnaire. Eventually, only thirty-one respondents out of a total target of sixty-nine lecturers have been pulled. Even though a large size data has been obtained the research analysis of that particular data suffered loss of power during the analysis stage especially in situation where the meagre thirty-one had to be distributed among two groups.. Definition of Terms Instructional Design: It is used in this research with reference to a systematic design of instruction with the intent of soliciting learning. It brings together all the factors that are required in a learning situation with emphasis laid on the learners’ readiness, institutional readiness and suitable pedagogical techniques that will elicit effective learning (Kemp, Morrison, & Ross, 1994:8, 318). ADDIE Model: This is a generic instructional design model that has gained much popularity over other models because of its clarity and thoroughness, beside its generic nature. It is an Acronym meaning Analyse; Design; Develop; Implement; and, Evaluate. Computer and Internet Skills: Refers to skills related to effective use of computer and internet. In this research lecturers’ computer and internet skills are referred to those skills that are mainly prerequisite for their involvement in the e-learning training programme. They are the knowledge and skills necessary for e-learning maximisation in a learning environment. In 12 .

(25) short it could be seen as the efficient interactive ability of lecturers with an e-learning platform. E-learning Readiness: In the researcher’s perspective, this refers to state of preparedness of an institution and its community towards e-learning implementation. Chapnick (2000: cited by Aydin & Tasci, 2005) identified factors categorised under psychological, sociological, environmental, human resource, financial, technological, equipment, and content readiness. In this research emphasis is placed on human resource, environmental, financial, and technological needs, and are identified under skills, ICT infrastructural development, and training and human capital, budget allocations, material and financial capacity and incentives created for lecturer motivation. Blended Learning: According to this research blended learning will refer to a system of learning in which both face-to-face and e-learning techniques are employed (Siemens, 2004; Stuck & Ware, 2007: 13th Sloan-C Conference) to deliver instruction. The nature and intensity of the blend depend on the learning task and the readiness status of the teachinglearning community. E-learning Platform: This refers here to the specific learning management system as presented on a computer and the internet support system. There are different types of platforms, some of which are freeware and others commercial. Learning Theories: These are herein referred to as those behavioural, cognitive and constructivist processes that influence learning. According to Illeris and Ormorod (2000, 1995: Amazine.com, 2009) these are processes that bring together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one' s knowledge, skills, values, and world views. In this research study emphasis is placed on behavioural, gestalt, cognitive and constructivist learning theories. Asynchronous E-learning: The delayed-time form of delivery that is conducted through a Learning Management System (LMS), collaborative spaces, and discussion boards (Siemens, 2004). It is independent of time. Learning materials are normally pre-recorded and made accessible to anyone, any time and as many times as desired. Communications between people are not in real time. In this CD-ROMs and other resources such as disc and other storage devices containing texts, audio and video multimedia learning materials may be used. 13 .

(26) Synchronous E-learning: The real time delivery that is characterised by streaming, conferencing, and stored presentations with use of tools like web chats. It is time bound and dependent mainly on multimedia techniques for instructor-learner interaction at the same time, while they are both online at different parts (Chen, Kinshuk, Ko & Lin, 2005; Siemens, 2004).. 14 .

(27) CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter Overview This chapter forms both the theoretical and analytical deliberations of previous researchers on information related to this research study. Since the design is for lecturers in The Gambia’s only university, the researcher reviewed the literature on higher education system, and established the role of UTG in the country’s human development process. The researcher then looked at the factors that are critical in e-learning implementation by implying the various definitions, categories and delivery methods, and then the readiness variables that were going to be used to assess the situation at UTG at both administrative and academic levels. The researcher proceeded to review the four relevant learning theories and their implications in instructional design before reviewing the instructional design and its models. In the model review, the researcher laid emphasis on ADDIE and tried to justify its use for this research study by adopting the three dimensionality and centrality of culture among other reasons. Thereafter, e-learning training has been reviewed in relation to the ADDIE model of instructional design by elaborating on the analysis and the design phases, leaving out the development, implementation and evaluation phases which, according to the design of the research study, are beyond the research scope. The review of the pilot study concluded the literature review.. The Gambia’s Higher Education System and its Challenges Higher education in The Gambia was never a priority of the colonial powers. For this reason there was no formal higher education system until 1995 when the country’s first and only University started as an extension programme with the assistance of Nova-Scotia Gambia Association (NSGA), and in collaboration with St Mary’s University of Halifax in Canada. Gambia College, Gambia Technical Training Institute (GTTI), and Management Development Institute (MDI) were the post secondary institutions that were providing higher education in The Gambia. In 1999 UTG has been fully established and started offering degrees in undergraduate disciplines, and until August, 2007, the Institution started a master’s programme in history.. 15 .

(28) In the Round Table Conference, organized in London (February, 2008) it was reported that access, quality improvement, human and intellectual resources and physical infrastructure relating to higher education in The Gambia have been outlined in the Poverty Reduction Strategic Programme (PRSP), Millennium Development Goals (MDG), Education Policy 2004-2015 and the Education Sector Strategic Plan 2006-2015. This was geared towards the realization of the country’s ‘2020 Vision’. In this drive, according to the conference report, a new Department of State for Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology has been created in January, 2007 to oversee technical education, teacher education, and university education in The Gambia, with the specific objectives of creating a dynamic and flexible system of education. In the education policy UTG is to: •. Offer graduate programmes with the cooperation of foreign universities;. •. Reduce dependence on expatriate lecturers;. •. Enhance the integration of higher and tertiary institutions in the Gambia, and to collaborate with other universities and programmes that are relevant to The Gambia; and,. •. Be responsible for the accreditation and validation of qualifications which will reduce the dependency on external institutions. According to the same report (Round Table Conference, organized in London,. February, 2008) seven result areas have been identified in the drive to achieve the aforementioned objectives: •. Adherence to standards of professionalism by both staff and student in tertiary institutions;. •. Improved management in all tertiary institutions;. •. Highly qualified and motivated academic staff;. •. Improved regular maintenance of structures and resources for improved access to quality tertiary education;. •. Adequate and timely funding of tertiary institutions;. •. Improved relevant quality education in tertiary institutions; and,. •. Improved access to tertiary education. The Gambia and UTG are not in any position to fulfil these mandates if there is not. going to be any paradigm shift towards e-learning pedagogy. And since it has always been a strong desire to incorporate ICT in education, the higher education system should serve as a springboard to this pedagogical paradigm shift already argued in the introduction of this 16 .

(29) research study. The reports and other policy documents support a system that will enhance effective knowledge delivery. E-learning, properly implemented, shall create a levelled playing ground for all those in today’s knowledge economy.. E-learning Critical Success Factors and Readiness Variables For e-learning to be successful in universities certain factors are said to be critical to its implementation. This part of the review explores these factors through definitions, categories and forms of delivery. After grounding the factors, the researcher proceeds to explore those readiness variables in relation to three of the key success factors in order to provide a scale for measuring the e-learning readiness status of UTG. E-learning Critical Success Factors E-learning is defined as the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance (Rosenberg, 2003:28). From this definition there are three criteria to be considered in the broad conceptualisation of e-learning: Firstly, the platform should allow storage and retrieval of information that is capable of being updated within the system; secondly, there has to be a transmission control protocol or internet protocol (TCP/IP) and also web browsers to allow universal delivery; and thirdly, emphasis has to be put on the principles of learning (Rosenberg, 2003:28-29). Going by this definition and the criteria offered by Rosenberg, the implications are that the traditional classroom and its library systems are being transferred onto the web, which is also a supposition that e-learning cannot take place without the presence of a transmission system, even though emphasis should be placed on learning. That means, from this perspective there are certain factors that are critical to success in e-learning implementation. In a research conducted by Salim (2005) he grouped these factors as instructors, students, information technology and university support. According to him these four factors play significant roles in successful implementation of e-learning in university environments. These are the same factors that are needed in a learning environment with the use of internet technology or computer network. Anderson and Elloumi (2004; cited in Gunga & Ricketts, 2006) expressed the same sentiment when they refer to e-learning as the use of internet by learners and instructors to interact with one another, to access learning materials, and to obtain support in the learning 17 .

(30) process. While internet is inferred here as well, they mentioned those good qualities that portray the occurrence of learning; interaction between learners and instructors, and use of learning materials for the process of the educational interaction. Inductively, those factors that are critical to internet access in a learning situation and for proper learning to take place shall make up the success factors or criteria for e-learning readiness. In a more assertive term, Gunga and Ricketts (2006); Littleton and Light (1999: cited by Angeli, 2008) consider it as a process that puts computers (or computerised gadgets) to a collaborative use so as to achieve higher order learning outcomes. Even though internet has not been specifically mentioned in their definitions, the collaborative use of computers infer a network system which is synonymous to an internet system, and that would mean those critical factors relating to adequate internet access and user ability alongside proper learning are equally inferred herein. Also, in the process of understanding those factors that should be considered when a proper e-learning system is implemented in UTG, the researcher reviews different forms or categories of e-learning. However, in this particular review the researcher keeps in mind the significance of success factors in implementing these forms or categories of e-learning. These categories must also be applicable in UTG in a collaborative manner to help in the development of lecturers and students, which are considered to be two critical factors. To this end, activities such as informal way of learning, community based learning or interactive learning, work-based learning and blending of both electronic and traditional forms of learning came into play. These can be translated into forms of e-learning such as: Informal e-learning: This is characterised by use of search engines, knowledge storage tools and knowledge management tools by learners in their drive for information (Siemens, 2004). It is done outside the normal classroom set-up. Community e-learning: Learning by e-learning blogs, sometimes referred to community blogs. It is another form or category of e-learning that creates both quantitative and qualitative knowledge base (Paechter, Schweizer and Weidenmann, 2003), and helps in the development of the less privileged learners by interacting with more intelligent ones, which leads to ultimate development of skills (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986: cited by Paechter et al., 2003).. 18 .

(31) Work-based e-learning: This form of e-learning lays emphasis on context and the lecturers control in initiating the learning needed (Siemens, 2004), and by which learning content is carefully place where it is most needed by Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS). Blended learning: This brings into play e-learning and face to face situations in a single learning situation. This however means some parts of learning are mediated through the use of computers, and other parts employ traditional face-to-face classroom situations. Learners exposed to this situation can gain more than those in the fully fledged e-learning or fully fledged face-to-face situations (Paechter et al., 2003; Siemens, 2004). All this outlined systems will require the use of internet (a network system) or information technology. In the case of this research study this could be translated as lecturers’ and students’ access to and ability to use information technology. The interaction (learning) is however taking place in a university environment which necessitates the active involvement and support of the institution. This is herein considered as administrative support in terms of training, budgets and motivation. They are all critical to the success of e-learning implementation in UTG. Moreover, the organisational goal of the Institution could be translated into a need for collaborative use of and access to an information technology system, use of and access to distributed knowledge, and the quest to conquer space and time in education. More light is thrown on this by looking closely at the major delivery techniques or models of e-learning. Synchronous and asynchronous e-learning Generally, e-learning lessons are delivered either synchronously or asynchronously. Synchronous e-learning is the real time delivery that is characterised by streaming, conferencing, and stored presentations with use of tools like web chats. It is time bound and dependent mainly on multimedia techniques for instructor-learner interaction at the same time while they are both online at different parts (Siemens, 2004; Chen, Kinshuk, Ko & Lin, 2005). On the other hand, asynchronous e-learning is delayed-time form of delivery and is conducted through an LMS, collaborative spaces, and discussion boards (Siemens, 2004). It is independent of time. Learning materials are normally pre-recorded and made accessible to anyone, any time and as many times as desired. Communications between people are not in real time. In this, CD-ROMs and other resources such as disc and other storage devices containing texts, audio and video multimedia learning materials are used. While the internet 19 .

(32) or intranet is required in the synchronous form of delivery, the asynchronous form of elearning delivery can be conducted in standalone computers and other gadgets that do not necessarily have to have an internet connection. However, if other learners in different geographical and time zones are to take part in the learning process a TCP/IP would be a prerequisite. Asynchronous e-learning frees learners and instructors from the routine schedules typical of synchronous e-learning (Chatterjea, 2004), and makes tracking easier (Chen, Harris, & Shang, 2006) and keeps sessions going. Because different researcher speak for both delivery methods – Beyth-Marom, Caspi, and Saporta (2005) emphasising on the flexible nature of the asynchronous e-learning, while Dillich (2000), laying emphasis on length of time needed in the preparation of synchronous as shorter than that of asynchronous, and the fact that it mimics the traditional delivery system (Oakes, 2002) – emphasis should be laid on their efficacy in relation to the course content that is to be delivered. If there is going to be a blend of both forms of delivery then again the success factors will have to be internet and computer access, requisite skills in use of computer and internet by users, and the support created for these users to facilitate learning. The aforementioned arguments and elaborations of the researcher are justifications of the needs for computer and internet access, requisite skills to use computer and internet, and university support. These justifications necessitate a review of the general readiness criteria or variables in UTG’s e-learning implementation. E-learning Readiness Criteria/Variables In education, readiness is used with reference to learners that have optimal proximity to undergo a learning experience (Vygotsky, 1978). By this reference the intellectual preparedness of learners in terms of prior knowledge, skills and attitudes, and their learningrelated dispositions are in focus. However, it is employed with a greater dimension in elearning where many researchers use it to refer to an institution’s preparedness to embrace elearning as a way of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes. Institutional preparedness subsumes the preparedness of the human capital, the availability of requisite resources and the commitment of the administrators (Aydın, & Tasci, 2005; Educational Technology Division: summarised by Yang, 2004; Bauer, Ivang, Jorgensen, Skakke & Sorensen, 2006; Haney, 2002; Leigh, Triner, &Watkins, 2004; Owhotu; 2006; So, & Swatman, 2006). 20 .

(33) The nature of e-learning implies a good standing in certain related issues that could be used to determine one’s preparedness in the aforementioned dimensions. Owhotu (2006) elaborates on the need for this preparedness using variables recommended for preparing teachers for the incorporation of ICT in academic curriculum in United Kingdom. His formatting has been so elaborative, and is in conformity with findings of other researchers, thus rendering them applicable in this research study as UTG’s e-learning readiness variables. Besides, Owhotu’s (2006) study touched specifically on The Gambia also. Moreover, the education systems of The Gambia and that of United Kingdom share a colonial legacy. After a carefully examination of the reviewed literature, and opinions from a number of e-learning experts (all professors in two major universities in Taiwan) the following success factors have been outlined as e-learning readiness variables for UTG: University administration on e-learning related variables Support systems: •. Internet access (such as bandwidth, server and open time of the internet). •. Lecturer-computer ratio and computer specifications. •. Type and consistency of power supply. •. Budget allocations, training and human capital; and incentives. Skills that will ensure readiness for lecturers in use of computer and internet Word processing skills such as: •. Highlighting text. •. Inserting text. Formatting characters and paragraphs skills such as; •. Searching text. •. Formatting page margin. Database skills such as: •. Retrieving data. •. Display data graphically from database. 21 .

(34) Spreadsheet skills such as: •. Comprehending data. •. Entering and manipulating data. •. Entering formula and setting it on spreadsheet. Internet /Multimedia skills such as: •. Browsing. •. Writing and sending e-mails with attachment. •. Chats and other internet conversations. Accessing teaching resources: •. Using Internet as a virtual library. Other related skills such as: •. Using video camcorder. •. Making audio recordings. •. Using overhead projectors. •. Creating PowerPoint slides and setting up equipment to give a presentation It thereafter became the resolve of the research study to use these factors as e-learning. readiness variables to determine the readiness of the University at the administrative and lecturers’ levels before any training programme is embarked upon. The performance of the University at the administrative level and the prerequisite skills manifested by the lecturers will determine the course content of the training programme. This is also in response to the ADDIE format as featured in the analysis phase of the model.. Learning Theories Learning always takes place in the right environment, and with the provision of the right materials. E-learning, like traditional learning uses technology to create the right media for learning to take place. The same theories that apply to the traditional learning are also applicable in e-learning scenarios. E-learning situation is however a little more complicated in the sense that the classroom is more of a virtual environment which limits control over the. 22 .

(35) learners, and, if not properly monitored, will reduce interaction between learners, and between learners and instructors. To design learning or training programmes there is need for a clearer understanding of how learning takes place, so as to relate to the situational and environmental factors under which learning is facilitated. Herein the researcher explores four theories of learning in a historical sequence, and their relationship to e-learning implementation in a university set up. Learning theories help in solving problems and guiding instructional processes. Behaviourist Learning Theory This is the traditional instructor-centred model that lays emphasis on knowledge and skills that are useful to society. It enforces social and cultural norms that already exist, and undermines the application of knowledge that is derived (Pachler, 2002: cited in Cuthell & Preston, 2007). The model is useful in addressing short courses that could be knowledge related, and would therefore be relevant in familiarising learners with a piece of software or hardware. Small sequential learning steps, and drill and practice are organized, which could be helpful in learning computer skills. Learners in the behaviourist way will be rewarded with avatars and even emoticons when they do well or badly in a specific task. This means they shall be receiving immediate responses from the computer for their actions, and in adult situations too when work is being carried out individually or even collectively with vocabularies and conceptualisation. Still and moving images could be used through behavioural approaches. Behaviourism is based on the premise that we behave the way we do because that behaviour we just manifested has a certain consequence in the past (Skinner, 1968). And the theory focuses on how learners behave with reference to the influence of the external environment. This would mean behaviour of learners can be shaped by adjusting things in ways that can encourage them to behave in ways desired by the instructor. Thus they have negative and positive reinforcement (Green, 2004). According to Thorndike (1910: cited by Kentridge in a lecture reported by Eckart, 2007), of the several responses in a trial and error situation, those actions that are closely related to the will of the learner (animal) should be connected to the desired situation of the learning, and be reinforced so that they will happen often. And that those actions that are discomforting to the learner (animal) should be discouraged and be connected to those undesired circumstances of the learning situation so 23 .

(36) that they will not happen often. However, the behaviourist theory lacks mental representation, and to that end it would be worthwhile for this research study to look also at the gestalt, cognitive and constructivist theories, and their relations to the training programme herein formulated. Nonetheless, elearning, to a large extent, can be approached behaviourally. Gestalt Learning Theory This theory is the most suitable for computer mediated learning or e-learning, since it explores perception and its relationship to learning (Leflore in Abbey, 2000: 102). Leflore in ‘Instructional and Cognitive Impacts of Web-Based Education’ discusses cognitive mapping or webbing, concept attainment activities, and use of motivational graphics as those gestalt approaches that have some cognitive bearings. These are said to be quite applicable in webbased learning or e-learning. However, to throw some light onto the theory, the researcher recalls the explanation of Wertheimer (1924: Wagner [n.d.] About.com) as being a theory which is a determinant of the wholes whose individual elements cannot determine them, but instead the elements owe their explanation to the wholes. Wagner (n.d. About.com); Wijnholds (2008: Concept7) elaborate on this by illustrating the laws of similarity, pragnanz, proximity, continuity and closure. Leflore in Abbey (2000: 102-104) dilated on the laws as principles such as: •. Figure ground contrast, which relates to the need to differentiate the background from the foreground in an instructional screen;. •. Building up the instructional materials from simple graphics to complex ones, which also include the need to avoid using images that will unnecessarily distract learners;. •. Organising the interface in such a way that similar things will form a set of individual wholes, and that diagrams will be placed close to the texts that refer to the said diagrams;. •. Group things that have similar appearances, and facilitate remembrance with the help of animations, contrasting colours; and,. •. Designers should avoid incomplete graphics in the instructional design. For e-learning to be properly implemented in UTG, lecturers should have to carefully. use these principles in the design of their instructional materials for the students. 24 .

(37) Cognitive Learning Theory Cognitive mapping, concept attainment activities, activation of prior knowledge, use of motivational graphics, animations and sounds are all cognitive activities that are referenced by Leflore in Abbey (2000: 105), and are useful in web-based instruction or e-learning. He cited: •. Use of examples and non-examples for synchronous and asynchronous activities;. •. Use of enough questions or scaffolds to arouse the previous knowledge that learners should relate to the current instruction; and,. •. Use of graphics, sounds and animations that will motivate them, and that are related to the current instruction. Conway (1997) draws our attention to the cognitivists’ concern for what is. unobservable, which the behaviourists allegedly ignored. In this theory the context in which learning takes place is very important, as well as the zone of proximal development which shows the difference between what learners can do alone and what they can do with assistance. This creates the need to explore so as to know what learners would be able to know, because all learners go through different stages of development. Piaget believed in cognition as a biological process occurring in specific growth stages, and postulated learning in relation to concepts such as schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Social context and culture, as brought in by Vygotsky, are fundamental factors in cognitive development. In a nutshell, the cognitivists believe in focusing on background knowledge of learners to bridge what is known and what is to be known. Constructivist Learning Theory This encourages learning by doing, and voluntary participation. It is built on the principle that there is a spirit of critical reflection, and self direction and empowerment if learning is collaboratively facilitated (Brookfield, 1986: 9-11: cited in Cuthell & Preston, 2007). In this approach learners are encouraged to explore, while emphasis is laid on what they (learners) would want to change. Therefore, a constructivist environment is natural, and encourages learners to give each other support as they work together. According to Diseko (2005) they are graduated from novice learners to self-regulated experienced learners as a 25 .

(38) result of this process. This means learners built their own knowledge from their learning experiences. Unlike the behaviourist model, the instructor in the constructivist model is more of a guide to learners. There are several characteristics of this theory that are suitable for e-learning. Leflore in Abbey (2000: 111) classifies some of these as learners’ construction of meaning, social interaction to help learners to learn, and learners solving problem. He (Leflore in Abbey (2000: 111-115) places emphasis on: •. Planning activities so that learners will construct their own meaning;. •. Creating peer interaction, and monitoring this interaction with provision of guidance so that learners will construct their own knowledge; and,. •. Helping learners to engage in real problem solving activities by constructing their own answers to solutions. Constructivism is built on the premise that learners must build their own knowledge. and skills (Bruner, 1990 in Huitt, 2003). But how much knowledge and skills can be built from learners who have very little experience of what is being discussed? All these theories are applicable in this e-learning instructional design. The researcher is therefore of the opinion that no one theory can adequately address the research solution all at once, so there is a genuine need for a blend of all the four theories to approach the design. The theories have generally been reviewed from an instructional design angle, and ADDIE as a model has enough allowance for this amalgamation. Moreover, the theories are inter-related. However table 2.1 is adopted from Boetcher (1998) for a clear understanding of how these theories can be interplayed in a design process.. 26 .

(39) Table 2.1. Summary of learning theories and some of the implications for instructional design Learning Theories Behaviorism. Cognitivism. Constructivism. Proponents. B.F. Skinner. Jerome Bruner. Applications. training, e.g. flight simulators. any deep processing: exploring, organizing, synthesizing content. Lev Vygotsky. Collaborative learning. John Dewey. Knowles. Instructional design focus. Instructor designs the learning environmment.. Instructor manages problem solving and structured search activities, especially with group learning strategies.. Instructor mentors peer interaction and continuity of building on known concepts.. View of learner basically passive, just responding to stimuli. Learners process, store, and retrieve information Learners create their own unique education because learning is for use. (Bruner's Discovery Learning) based on prior knowledge.. Assets. integrating complex muscular and cognitive activities. Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development focuses on interactive problem solving.. Implications. Climate for Learning: Does Readiness: Students will learn concepts that are the environment have the right maturing. stimuli to promote learning? Opportunity: Zone of Proximal Development = area between what a learner can do individually vs. when assisted by peer interaction, research and teaching.. Learning is interactive, dialogic. Prior knowledge: Design learning to assist students to build on what they know. Inquiry learning: Adult learners have a mutual vested interest in their learning and want to involve real experience; teachers are not the sole possessors of knowledge and perspective but colearners and guides. (Knowles'andragogy). Learners customize their learning: Provide a range of learning activities and concepts for core course objectives.. Source: http://vccslitonline.cc.va.us/usingweb/bckgrnd.htm. Instructional Design “Anybody with the ability to use the computer can go to the web and put things together and call it e-learning”, said one of the interviewee experts of this research process. The process of learning is a complex process and has to be designed properly for optimal performance. This section of the research reviews aspects of instructional design and some key models in their relative nature. Out of many models the researcher decides to take ADDIE model due to its thoroughness and generic nature. Need for an Instructional Design Instructional design as a process assesses needs of learners, the design and the development of training materials and the effectiveness of training intervention. Hummel, Koper, Manderveld, Sloep, Tattersall, and Vries (2003) saw it as a description of a method enabling learners to attain certain learning objectives in a certain order in the context of a certain learning environment. For them the implication is on method, objectives, sequence, all 27 .