遊戲設計背後之電腦輔助語言教學教師思維:一位高中英文老師的個案研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學英國語文學系英語教學組碩士論文. 指導教授：招靜琪. 博士. Advisor: Dr. Chin-Chi Chao. 遊戲設計背後之電腦輔助語言教學教師思維:一位高中英文老師的個案研究. 政治大. CALL Teacher Cognition Behind Game-based Language Instruction:. 立. A Case Study on a High School English Teacher. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. 研究生：林世恩 Name：Shih-En Lin 中華民國一百零五年七月 July, 2016. v.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(3) CALL Teacher Cognition Behind Game-based Language Instruction: A Case Study on a High School English Teacher. Department of English,. National Chengchi University. 學. ‧ 國. 立. A Master治 Thesis 政大 Presented to. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts. by Shih-En Lin July, 2016.


(5) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Dr. Chin-Chi Chao, for her support, insightful guidance and constant encouragement throughout my research for this work and during my study in National Chengchi University. Her suggestions on extended reading and comments on new perspectives to analyze data all open up a new world for me and, in turn, lead me to accomplish the thesis bit by bit.. 政治大. My warm thanks also go to Professor Chieh-Yue Yeh and Yi-Ping Hunag for. 立. their rigorous reading of this thesis and helpful suggestions. I am also grateful for. ‧ 國. 學. their instructions and assistance during my study in National Chengchi University. My gratitude is also extended to Jane, my participant, for sharing her experiences. ‧. and teaching with me. This selfless sharing is believed to be inspiring to teachers and. y. Nat. io. sit. educators who are willing to innovate their teaching by integrating technology.. n. al. er. Finally, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my family. It was their. i n U. v. emotional support and encouragement that made this work possible.. Ch. engchi. iii.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................... iii CHINESE ABSTRACT .............................................................................................vii ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 5 Teacher Cognition .................................................................................................. 5 Schooling……………………………………………………………………7 Professional Coursework (Teacher Education)……………………………. 8 Context……………………………………………………………………...9 CALL Teacher Education ...................................................................................... 9. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)……………….12 Game-Based Language Learning ......................................................................... 16 Scavenger Hunt……………………………………………………………16 Conclusion from Literature Review..................................................................... 17. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 19 Participant and Context ........................................................................................ 19 Criteria for Choosing the Participant………………………………………19 The Participant…………………………………………………………….20 The Context………………………………………………………………..21 Data Collection .................................................................................................... 22 Presentation………………………………………………………………..22 Semi-Structured Interviews………………………………………………..23. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Documentation…………………………………………………………….24 Informal Talks with Students………………………………………………24 Procedure ............................................................................................................. 24 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 27 Trustworthiness .................................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ........................................................................................... 29 The Scavenger Hunt Activity ............................................................................... 29 Preparation………………………………………………………………...30 Implementation…………………………………………………………….31 Reflection………………………………………………………………….38 The Presentation................................................................................................... 39 iv.

(7) Analyzing the Scavenger Hunt Activity through TPACK ................................... 42 Technological Knowledge (TK)…………………………………………...43 Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)……………………………………………..43 Content Knowledge (CK)………………………………………………….45 Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)……………………………48 Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)………………………………...49 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)…………………………………..50 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)……………….50 Analyzing the Participant's Life Experiences and Her Cognitions behind the Activity ................................................................................................................ 53 Past Schooling- Middle School……………………………………………53 Past Schooling- College Instructor and Courses…………………………..58 Past Schooling- Peer Learning from a Roommate………………………...61 Past Schooling- Experiences in Clubs……………………………………..62 Professional Coursework…………………………………………………..63. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Contexts- Teaching Mandarin Overseas…………………………………...66 Contexts- Four-Year Teaching Career in High Schools in Taiwan………..67 Everyday Life Experiences………..………………………………………72. ‧. CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 79 Research Question 1 ............................................................................................ 79 New Applications of TPACK on the Analysis of the Scavenger Hunt Activity…………………………………………………………………….79 The Two Suggested Items to Complement the Original TPACK………….80 Various Proportions of Influence Existing in TPACK Elements…………..84 Research Question 2 ............................................................................................ 88 Past Schooling……………………………………………………………..88 Professional Coursework…………………………………………………..89 Contextual Factors…………………………………………………………90. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Implication into CALL Teacher Cognition and Teacher Education..................... 95 Cultivation of Teamwork…………………………………………………..96 Cultivation of Teacher Autonomy…………………………………………97 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION.................................................................................. 99 Overview of the Study ......................................................................................... 99 Theoretical Implications .................................................................................... 100 Pedagogical Implications ................................................................................... 102 Limitation and Direction for Future Research ................................................... 103 Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................... 104 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 107 v.

(8) APPENDIX ............................................................................................................... 111 Appendix A: Questions for the First Interview .................................................. 111 Appendix B: Questions for the Second Interview ............................................. 112 Appendix C: Questions for Informal Talks with Students ................................. 113. LIST OF FIGURES/ TABLES. 政治大 Figure 1: Elements and processes in language teacher cognition (Borg, 2006, 立 p. 283) .................................................................................................... 6. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 2: The components of the TPACK framework (Schmidt et al., 2009, P. 124) .................................................................................................. 15. ‧. Figure 3: The possible integration of the two frameworks .......................... 18 Figure 4: Google form for "Know more about Christmas facts" ................. 35 Figure 5: A picture from the book titled The Kids' Giant Book of Games .. 37 Figure 6: The modified, integrated framework for language teacher cognition .............................................................................................. 95. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Table 1: The timeline for the procedure of data collection .......................... 25 Table 2: The name of the missions and the corresponding target skills....... 47 Table 3: The correspondence between elements mentioned in TPACK and the scavenger hunt activity................................................................... 51 Table 4: The participant's life experiences and the cognitions behind the activity.................................................................................................. 75. vi.

(9) 國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班英語教學組碩士論文摘要 CHINESE ABSTRACT 論文名稱：遊戲設計背後之電腦輔助語言教學教師思維:一位高中英文老師的個案研究指導教授：招靜琪博士研究生：林世恩論文摘要內容：. 立. 政治大. 教師思維一向被認為與教師的實際教學有重要的關聯。本個案研究探討一位現. ‧ 國. 學. 職語言教師設計的行動學習活動背後之教師思維，以期更深入了解此行動學習活動之設計，並為電腦輔助語言教學師資培育之設計提供新的思維與洞察。. ‧. 本個案研究為質性研究。研究工具包括受訪教師對於此活動的公開分享、半結. y. Nat. sit. 構式訪談、文件收集及與學生的非正式談話。在訪談中，個案詳述了她的課室教學. n. al. er. io. 及其他經驗，包括過往的學習、專業教師訓練及其在不同場域的經歷。這些資料則. i n U. v. 進一步透過 Borg (2006)和 Mishra & Koehler (2006) 提供的架構(分別為教師思維框. Ch. engchi. 架及 TPACK 架構圖)進行討論。此研究首先詳細說明此行動學習活動中的九個關卡及其中教師表現出的各項知識。接著從過往學習經驗、專業教師訓練及不同場域等角度去追溯教師思維的形成。此研究並藉此進一步討論將上述兩個架構融合、調整的可能性以及電腦融入語言教學師資培育課程設計的新思維。研究結果顯示，以上兩個架構皆未含括與教師本身或教師自主有關之元素，而這些元素在此個案研究中皆扮演教師思維和相應教學活動成形之關鍵角色。此外，研究結果也顯示，Mishra & Koehler (2006)的 TPACK 中涵蓋的各種元素可能有不同的權重，進而彰顯此框架在應用上有更複雜的潛力。此個案研究期能提供更多思維及啟發給對於科技融入教學，或電腦融入語言教學師資培育課程設計有興趣者。 vii.

(10) ABSTRACT Teacher cognition has been regarded to have strong connections with teachers' teaching practices. The case study intends to investigate a practicing language teacher's cognition behind her mobile-learning activity, an outdoor scavenger hunt activity with multiple missions. The main purpose of this study is to explore how the activity was designed and to further provide insights into CALL teacher education.. 政治大. This is a qualitative study and data were collected through the participant's. 立. presentation about the activity, two semi-structured interviews, documentation and. ‧ 國. 學. informal talks with students. In the semi-structured interviews, the participant detailed her classroom practices and other related experiences, including past learning experiences,. ‧. professional development and her experiences in other contexts. The participant's. y. Nat. io. sit. experiences were then reconstructed and analyzed with Borg (2006) and Mishra &. n. al. er. Koehler (2006) as the frameworks. The study first detailed the nine missions included in. i n U. v. the participant’s scavenger hunt activity and analyzed the teacher's knowledge shown in. Ch. engchi. the activity. Then, the formation of the teacher's cognitions was traced mainly in three aspects: past schooling, professional coursework and classroom practices under various contexts. Finally, the revised, integrated framework and some insights into CALL teacher education were discussed. The result showed that the frameworks are lacking elements related to teachers themselves and teacher autonomy, both of which serve as a premise in the complex interaction of the elements in teacher cognitions and the resulting classroom practices. Other than that, it was found that the elements in the framework provided by Mishra & Koehler (2006) might carry different weights, which indicated more complexity in the viii.

(11) framework. It is expected that those who are interested in technology integration into language teaching or CALL teacher education will find this study insightful and inspiring.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. ix. i n U. v.


(13) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Being an English teacher for over six years, I am often asked the question: "Won't you feel bored in teaching students the same materials year after year?" When confronted by this question, I always reply, "Not at all. My ways of teaching and the supplementary materials are always changing in order to cater to students' needs." Nowadays, with rapid. 政治大. advancement of technology and its integration into language teaching, teachers who are. 立. unaware of the need to grow constantly are likely to open up an invisible chasm between. ‧ 國. 學. themselves and their students. If the chasm grows wider, teachers as well as students are unlikely to enjoy their time in the classroom. Language teaching, therefore, should not be. ‧. thought of as static or unchanged; instead, it is dynamic and worthy of exploration.. y. Nat. io. sit. Koehler, Mishra and Cain (2013) refer to teaching as a complicated practice since. n. al. er. various kinds of specialized knowledge is expected to be skillfully interwoven in teaching.. i n U. v. This ill-structured nature of teaching makes it reasonable to infer that there is hardly any. Ch. engchi. best solution to possible problems arising in language teaching. In other words, competent language teachers tend to be life-long learners since they are constantly keeping up with new knowledge related to their subject matter and striving to satisfy students' changing needs in different contexts. The expectations for teachers to be life-long learners supports the assumption in Borg's (2003) view on teacher cognition in language teaching; that is, "teachers are active thinking decision-makers who make instructional choices by drawing on complex, practically-oriented, personalized, and context-sensitive networks of knowledge, thoughts, and beliefs"(p.81). This assumption indicates that teachers' decisions to design and 1.

(14) conduct certain teaching activities are tied closely to teacher cognition, which is defined as "the unobservable cognitive dimension of teaching – what teachers know, believe, and think" (Borg 2003, p. 81) . Teacher cognition, then, plays a critical role in shaping a teacher's classroom practices. The discussion on how teacher cognition can shape classroom practices highlights teachers' significant role in teaching. Quoted in Koehler and Mishra (2008), Joseph Schwab's (1983) description of teachers' role serves as "a reminder that the teacher is the primary, if not exclusive, conduit for any changes that can occur in the classroom"(p. 245).. 政治大 Teachers will not and cannot be merely told what to do… Teachers are not 立. As Schwab says:. assembly line operators, and will not so behave… There are thousands of. ‧ 國. 學. ingenious ways in which commands on what and how to teach can, will, and must. ‧. be modified or circumvented in the actual moments of teaching. Teachers practice. sit. y. Nat. an art. Moments of choice of what to do, how to do it, with whom and at what. io. er. pace, arise hundreds of times a school day, and arise differently every day and with every group of students. No command or instruction can be so formulated as. al. n. v i n Cjudgment to control that kind of artistic with its demand for frequent, h e n gandc behavior, hi U instant choices of ways to meet an ever-varying situation.. The view that teachers are active participants and that teaching practices needed to be supported by life-long learning implies the importance of teacher education. What kind of teacher education or professional development is effective? How are teachers trained to become life-long learners to face challenges constantly popping out in teaching? These are all intriguing questions that teacher education research has long attempted to address. As is mentioned in the very beginning, since technology advances rapidly and is now a frequent element in language teaching due to its affordances for learners to interact with the world, the investigation has to include how teachers learn to incorporate 2.

(15) technology in language teaching. Garrett (2009) also pointed out in her research the major roles technology can play in foreign language teaching and learning. She surveyed how technology or technology-based materials are already being developed and reached the conclusion that technology can not only assist foreign language teaching but also create supportive environments for language learning. Corresponding to the conclusion that technology can promote language learning, CEO of HTC, Xue-Hong Wang, donated 6000 HTC tablets to six high schools in Taipei in 2012, with the prospect of building an environment suitable for students and teachers. 政治大 2013, on the other hand, the Ministry of Education (MOE) has begun to advocate a 立. to interact and share thoughts without being constrained by time or place. From the year. project called Taiwan Mobile Learning Program for High Schools. This project is. ‧ 國. 學. established to assist high schools to incorporate portable devices into teaching and. ‧. learning. According to a promotional video (produced in September, 2014) posted on the. sit. y. Nat. project's webpage, "mobile learning has changed the way classroom activities were. io. er. traditionally conducted with limited resources and further increased the flexibility and convenience of learning." The video also points out that the combination of mobile. al. n. v i n C h learning contentsUare expected to fulfill the goal of learning and the provision of various engchi ubiquitous learning. This kind of learning has "not only fostered students' learning but. also altered teachers' teaching style, and thus created potential in education." To ensure the effectiveness and smooth implementation of the project, in August, 2013, the MOE even established a counseling team to help high school teachers develop and involve mobile learning into their course. Mobile learning has been promoted in Taiwan officially by the Ministry of Education for about two years and the school I work at also spares no effort in encouraging mobile learning. However, most teachers tend to adopt more traditional ways in order to be on the safe side and to reduce the possibility of failure. For example, some 3.

(16) teachers uploaded their handouts or teaching materials onto an online platform, and students were asked to respond to or reflect on the assigned materials at the online forum. Others asked students to use their tablets to take pictures or make a video related to the topic they were learning and then shared with their peers. Although some teachers are willing to try to involve mobile learning into their teaching and these new ways of learning undoubtedly change how and with whom students learn, the real challenge actually lies in how to sustain teachers' willingness and enthusiasm to constantly innovate their teaching so as to keep up with the new development in teaching with digital media.. 政治大 technology-integrated mobile learning activity for their students to celebrate Christmas, 立 To my great delight, I happened to notice two of my colleagues' design of a. which aroused my curiosity to dig deeper into how and why they did so.. ‧ 國. 學. Considering teachers' pivotal role in teaching and current inclination to. ‧. incorporate mobile learning with education, it is sensible to explore deeper into teacher. sit. y. Nat. cognition in Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and how CALL teachers. io. er. design their activities. The present study intends to investigate a practicing teacher's cognition behind her innovative, mobile-learning activity. Through the exploration, this. al. n. v i n study is expected to dig deeper intoC CALL teacher cognition h e n g c h i U behind game-based language instruction.. 4.

(17) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW To provide a comprehensive literature background to this study, three main topics will be discussed respectively in this literature review chapter, including teacher cognition, CALL teacher education, and game-based language instruction. Teacher Cognition. 政治大. Borg's (2003) definition for teacher cognition is "what teachers know, believe and. 立. think" (p. 81). Similar claims can be seen in Duarte's (1998) summary of Wood's (1996). ‧ 國. 學. research, Teacher Cognition in Language Teaching, in which Duarte described it as "an in-depth look at the decision-making processes of a group of experienced teachers and the. ‧. way their knowledge and beliefs shape their decisions"(p. 618). This description reveals. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. decisions in classroom.. sit. that teacher cognition is about knowledge, belief and thinking which can lead to various. i n U. v. Borg (1997) develops a conceptual framework which sheds light on the intertwined. Ch. engchi. relationships among teacher cognition, teacher learning (schooling and professional coursework) and classroom practices. This framework summarizes key questions commonly addressed in teacher cognition research, such as how cognition evolves or how it interacts with classroom practices. The framework also provides some common ground and thus opens up dialogues on the research of teacher cognition. In 2006, Borg's book treatment of teacher cognition proposed an updated version of the framework shown in Figure 1 below. This updated version of framework not only adds broader experiences to the schooling box but also redefines contextual factors as around the classroom practice. Narrowing the central concept as language teacher 5.

(18) cognition (instead of the general term: teacher cognition), the framework also further refines mental constructs about language teacher cognition, and the issues language teachers have cognitions about. Borg (2006, p. 284) suggested that such a framework is useful in raising awareness of how these elements relate to existing work, highlighting key dimensions in the study of language teacher cognition and further drawing attention to areas worth exploring in this field.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 1: Elements and processes in language teacher cognition (Borg, 2006, p. 283) The framework illustrates what cognitions language teachers have and what mental constructs can be used to refer to teacher cognition. Furthermore, the framework shows that language teachers' experiences as learners may not only have an influence on their future professional coursework but also continue to shape their teacher cognition throughout their career. Professional coursework and classroom practices, on the other hand, are believed to shape language teacher cognition and vice versa. In the following section, each of the elements listed in the framework will be discussed in detail. 6.

(19) Schooling The concept of schooling in Borg's framework is elaborated in Figure 1 as “personal history and specific experience of classrooms which define preconceptions of education”(p. 283). In Borg's framework, teachers' learning experiences as learners can "inform cognitions about teaching and learning and that these cognitions may continue to exert an influence on teachers throughout their career"(p. 284). Previous research supported the idea that schooling has something to do with teacher cognition. For example, Bailey, Bergthold, Braunstein, Jagodzinski Fleischman, Holbrook, Tuman,. 政治大 teacher educator examined whether their experiences as language learners had any impact 立. Waissbluth and Zambo (1996) described a project in which seven teacher-learners and a. on their teaching philosophy and practices through autobiographical writing and. ‧ 國. 學. reflection. The participants identified several factors that made their language learning. ‧. experiences positive, such as teacher personality and positive classroom environment.. sit. y. Nat. Through similar exploration of their own past learning experiences, the researchers of the. io. er. study felt that they themselves were able to claim the origins of their teaching theories. In addition to positive experiences, Numrich (1996) found that teachers tend to avoid certain. al. n. v i n instructional strategies because C of their own negative experiences as learners. Another hengchi U. study conducted with a focus of grammar teaching concluded that two primary sources that ESL teachers have been influenced are their educational background, including past schooling and graduate course work, and their teaching experiences (Johnston & Goettsch, 2000). Although a consensus seems to exist in the literature about the influence of schooling on teacher cognition, little has been done on how previous schooling or teachers' experiences as learners influence their CALL practices. As a result, the present study expects to further probe into how and what experiences might have shaped teacher cognition and influenced language teachers' decision in using digital devices. 7.

(20) Professional Coursework (Teacher Education) Teacher education, or professional coursework in Borg's framework, refers to professional preparation courses or training designed for teachers. Even though professional coursework seems essential for both pre-and in-service teachers, the impact that teacher education has on teacher cognition has not been found consistent among related studies. Kagan (1992) suggested that the relationship between teacher education and teacher cognition is not significant, while Almarza (1996) revealed the incongruence between behavioral and cognitive change after receiving teacher education.. 政治大 CALL-related studies on teacher education seem to have reached some consensus. Egbert, 立 Despite the lack of agreement on how teacher education shapes teacher cognition,. Paulus and Nakamichi (2002) provided their observation in their review of research. ‧ 國. 學. related to computer and education that opportunities for teachers to practice, apply what. ‧. they learned and see students' progress are more likely to bring about teachers' technology. sit. y. Nat. use in teaching contexts than the fact of having taken the coursework. Wong and Benson. io. er. (2006) found that factors like situated learning experiences or mentoring by teachers with Information Technology (IT) experience were also valued besides CALL teacher. al. n. v i n education (CTE) itself. Chao (2015)Cfurther pointed out inU h e n g c h i her study that direct. application of tools that had been introduced to trainees in CTE turned out to be rare. However, "engaging teachers in critical examinations of their positions toward issues of digital media may lead to continuous reflection on CALL pedagogy long after the course"(Chao, 2015, p. 115). Considering that experiences related to teachers' technology use were valued in the above literature, the present study thus adopts a reversed method in which a CALL teacher's teaching practice was analyzed. Through the examination of a CALL teacher's cognition behind the teaching activity, the present study expects to shed light on the curriculum on CALL teacher education. 8.

(21) Context Contextual factors in Borg's (2006) book treatment were addressed as "around and inside the classroom" (p. 283). Borg further stated that context "mediates cognitions and practice" and "may lead to changes in cognitions or create tension between cognitions and classroom practices" (p. 283). Specific examples of contextual factors pointed out by Borg (1998 c) based on prior literature were "parents, principals’ requirements, the school society, students’ characteristics, curriculum mandates, classroom and school layout, school policies, standardized tests, and the availability of resources" (p. 30).. 政治大 which hinders the integration of IT into teaching is teachers themselves (Mithem et al, 立. Besides the above contextual factors, some research pointed out that one key factor. 2003; Franklin et al., 2002). Lam (2000) also supported the idea that teachers' belief in IT. ‧ 國. 學. integration is an influential factor. It is interesting that teachers themselves are regarded as. ‧. one of the contextual factors in how teacher cognition is reflected on classroom practice.. sit. y. Nat. Although language teacher cognition seems to be discussed extensively using the. io. er. framework provided by Borg, little is mentioned about teachers' everyday life experiences. If teachers are really active, thinking decision-makers as mentioned above, some. al. n. v i n modifications to the framework,C adding particularly the h e n g c h i Uteacher’s own point of view, might be needed.. In addition to language teacher cognition, how teachers' classroom practices are shaped with the integration of technology is further discussed below, centering on CALL teacher education. That is, the following section intends to explore the relationship between CALL teacher education and teachers' practice of CALL in classroom. CALL Teacher Education Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) began to draw researchers' attention to a limited scale as early as the 1970s (Delcloque, 2000). In the early 1990s, the notion of providing teachers with knowledge related to CALL was fully recognized as an essential 9.

(22) component of teacher training (Kessler, 2006). Nowadays, with the rapid development of technology and easy access to the Internet, CALL is more and more prevalent within language programs (Kessler, 2006) because it connects learners to a world without boundaries. Connection to the Internet then creates an opportunity for learners to interact with target language speakers even in an EFL environment, thus increasing learners' exposure to authenticity. The importance of CALL draws attention to CALL teacher education. Northrup and Little (1996) stated that ongoing training and support about instructional technology is. 政治大 was echoed by Kessler (2006), who argued that: 立. needed when investigating what kind of CALL teacher education is effective. This idea. ...the utilization of CALL requires an intimate and extensive knowledge of. ‧ 國. 學. technology that is pedagogically focused and informed by the literature. Our. ‧. knowledge and use of CALL should not rely solely on the skills we acquire as we. sit. y. Nat. dabble in personal use of the Web, email and online chatting. (p.26). io. er. This suggests that ongoing retraining on how teachers implement emerging technology into their classroom practices is as essential as developing teachers' knowledge on new. n. al. technology.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. However, Kessler's (2006) research revealed the predicament that formal CALL teacher education faces. He surveyed 240 graduates of North American TESOL master's degree programs between December 2003 and February 2004. 84% of the respondents agreed that the amount of time dedicated to learning about CALL was either insufficient or extremely insufficient. When asked about their general perception of formal CALL training, 91% of the participants responded that they had taken courses outside of their degree program to learn more about teaching with technology. Unsurprisingly, more than half of the participants (60.8%) thought there was no course in their degree program that involved any training for teaching with technology. Kessler concluded that despite being 10.

(23) a significant component of teacher training, CALL training is not supported by the majority of teacher training programs. He further discovered that many respondents chose to engage themselves in self-directed lifelong learning in the hope of keeping up with the development of technology and to tap into technological knowledge in their teaching practices. Another issue raised in CALL teacher education is some mismatches between what is provided in coursework and what is expected in the real-world context. Common mismatches proposed by Robb (2006) are as follows:. 政治大 2. Teachers' little control over available software or hardware at school 立. 1. Mismatches between what is learned and what can be used in relevant teaching context. 3. Poor orientation of the school towards technology. ‧ 國. 學. 4. Students' and other staff's low level of mastery of technology. ‧. 5. Few opportunities to practice and review what is learned in formal training. sit. y. Nat. 6. A lack of local support for teachers to learn to solve their own problems (p.339). io. er. Even when teachers use technology in teaching, they still tend to rely on those technology-related skills and knowledge required in personal use (Egbert et al., 2002). As. al. n. v i n Cinhhis study that mostUteachers surveyed learned to use early as in 1997, Galloway found engchi. computers not because of their formal training in CALL but because of the help from. their colleagues and friends. Research suggests that lack of access to resources, including hardware, software, time and technical, emotional and curricular support (Egbert et al., 2002), is most often pinpointed as why technology for instruction remains unused. Considering the insufficient formal programs in CALL and various mismatches regarding CALL teacher education, teachers' ability to self-instruct is essential. Robb (2006) pointed out that the goal of CALL teacher education is: "Teachers can autonomously upgrade their knowledge and be able to apply new technology"(p.335). This statement reveals the importance of teachers' constant requiring knowledge in both 11.

(24) technology and pedagogy. With self-acquisition, teachers can not only have the confidence to use new technology through trial and error but also be able to develop the habit of being aware of resources available to them. Since constant self-learning is essential for CALL teachers, there is a need to further investigate what kind of knowledge is needed for CALL teachers. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) As discussed above, rapidly-changing technology makes application to everyday classroom practice no longer straightforward for teachers, which highlights the. 政治大 defined technologies in the literature nowadays as "newer and digital and have some 立. importance of the need to rethink teacher education. Koehler and Mishra (2009) clearly. inherent properties that make applying them in straightforward ways difficult" (p.61). On. ‧ 國. 學. the basis of many studies in the literature, they further labeled digital technologies, such. ‧. as computers, handheld devices, and software applications, as "protean (usable in many. sit. y. Nat. different ways; Papert, 1980); unstable (rapidly changing); and opaque (the inner. io. er. workings are hidden from users; Turkle, 1995)"(p.13). The characteristics of these digital technologies make it harder for teachers to apply them to teaching. Thankfully, according. al. n. v i n to Ertmer (2005), "If we truly hope C to increase teachers' uses h e n g c h i U of technology, especially. uses that increase student learning, we must consider how teachers' current classroom. practices are rooted in, and mediated by, existing pedagogical beliefs" (p. 36). In other words, since teachers’ teaching practices are closely related to their pedagogical beliefs, it is necessary to take a closer look at the interplay between technology and pedagogy. To further examine the interaction between technology and pedagogy, Mishra and Koehler (2006) pointed out that a lack of a coherent theoretical framework to guide the integration of new practices and information and communication technology (ICT). To fill the gap, a so-called "Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge" (TPCK) framework was introduced for understanding what knowledge is required to ensure 12.

(25) effective technology integration (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). TPCK is used in literature until 2008 when TPCK was renamed TPACK (pronounced “tee-pack”) with a view to making it easier to pronounce (Thompson & Mishra, 2007). This TPACK framework is originally developed from Shulman’s (1986, 1987) explanation of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which showed how teachers’ understanding of educational technologies and PCK interact with one another to produce effective teaching with technology. TPACK has now been understood as "a useful frame for describing and understanding the goals for technology use in pre-service teacher. 政治大 framework introduces the complex relationships among three main components of 立. education" (Schmidt, Baran, Thompson, Mishra, Koehler, & Shin, 2009, p.123). The. teachers’ knowledge: content, pedagogy and technology.. ‧ 國. 學. There are in total seven components in TPACK framework (shown in Figure 2), and. "Technological knowledge (TK): Technological knowledge refers to the knowledge. sit. y. Nat. •. ‧. each of them is defined and discussed below:. io. er. about various technologies" (Schmidt et al., 2009, p. 125). TK is the most basic and lowest requirement for teachers to confidently apply technologies to teaching.. al. n. v i n C h Pedagogical knowledge "Pedagogical knowledge (PK): refers to the methods and engchi U. •. processes of teaching and includes knowledge in classroom management, assessment, lesson plan development, and student learning" (Schmidt et al., 2009, p. 125). PK is the knowledge related to teaching and learning, which has a critical influence on students' learning. Without PK, teachers can hardly promote students' learning with. TK alone. •. "Content knowledge (CK): Content knowledge is the “knowledge about actual subject matter that is to be learned or taught” (Mishra & Koehler, 2009, p. 63). CK is critical for teachers, for teachers' insufficient knowledge of content may lead to students' misconceptions about a particular subject matter. 13.

(26) •. "Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK): Technological pedagogical knowledge refers to the knowledge of how various technologies can be used in teaching, and to understanding that using technology may change the way teachers teach" (Schmidt et al., 2009, p. 125). Teachers' familiarity with TPK will open up new possibilities in teaching and may result in new learning outcome.. •. "Technological content knowledge (TCK): Technological content knowledge refers to the knowledge of how technology can create new representations for specific content" (Schmidt et al., 2009, p. 125). With TCK, teachers are able to use a. 政治大. specific technology to change how learners acquire concepts in a certain content area.. 立. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): "Pedagogical content knowledge is a type. 學. ‧ 國. •. of knowledge that is unique to teachers, and in fact is what teaching is about. It. ‧. concerns the manner in which teachers relate their pedagogical knowledge (what. sit. y. Nat. they know about teaching) to their subject matter knowledge (what they know about. io. er. what they teach), in the school context, for the teaching of specific students" (Cochran, K. F., 1991, p. 5). PCK enables teachers to teach the subject matter with. n. al. Ch. teaching methods and students' learning in mind. •. engchi. i n U. v. "Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): Technological pedagogical content knowledge refers to the knowledge required by teachers for integrating technology into their teaching in any content area" (Schmidt et al., 2009, p. 125). The integration of three kinds of knowledge enables teachers to choose suitable technologies catering to students' needs in specific content area. In the present study, TPACK is regarded as the equivalent of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and is discussed interchangeably. As for the dotted circle labeled "contexts", two kinds of elaboration have been found. in literature. The first kind of "contexts" refers to "the realization that technology, 14.

(27) pedagogy, and content do not exist in a vacuum, but rather, are instantiated in specific learning and teaching contexts" (Koehler et al., 2013, p. 16). In other words, "contexts" is a similar concept to the one Borg provided in his language teacher cognition framework: "around and inside the classroom"(Borg, 2006, p. 283). The second type of "contexts", when the implication of TPACK was discussed in another study, refers to a kind of knowledge: "By better describing the types of knowledge teachers need (in the form of content, pedagogy, technology, contexts and their interactions), educators are in a better position to understand the variance in levels of technology integration occurring". 政治大 defined clearly enough in TPACK and it may need further exploration and explicit 立. (Koehler and Mishra, 2009, p. 67). It is thus reasonable to argue that "contexts" was not. definition.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 2: The components of the TPACK framework (Schmidt et al., 2009, P. 124) According to a study conducted by Liang, Chai, Koh, Yang, & Tsai (2013), the framework can be utilized in various kinds of research, such as the design of pre-and in-service courses for technology integration or the evaluation of online courses. Despite 15.

(28) the versatility of the framework, TPACK does not cover teachers' self-instruction or corresponding knowledge which is emphasized in CALL teacher education. After the exploration of teacher cognition and CALL teacher education, the following section will focus on one of the language learning methods to engage learners – Game-based language instruction, which can be considered a kind of implementation of TPACK. Game-Based Language Learning According to Kinzie and Joseph (2008), “a game is an immersive, voluntary and. 政治大 The game provides a safe environment for taking chances and the opportunity to develop 立. enjoyable activity in which a challenging goal is pursued according to agreed-upon rules.. the knowledge and refine the skills required to succeed.” (p. 644) This definition suggests. ‧ 國. 學. that games can engage learners in pursuing a challenging goal enjoyably and in a. ‧. relatively safe environment which, in some ways, may encourage learners to take risks.. sit. y. Nat. Plenty of studies mentioned in Hwang and Wu's (2012) review on advancements and. io. er. trends in digital game-based learning (DGBL) research also agreed that games are able to improve learners' learning performance and increase their motivation to learn. Despite. al. n. v i n C h Chiu, Kao & Reynolds games' characteristics to motivate learners, (2012) further pointed engchi U. out how various game types might influence learners' learning effect (Kiili, 2005; Yip &. Kwan, 2006). Since there are few general rules for teaching, it is worthwhile for teachers and educators to explore what kind of game design can best facilitate learners' learning in different contexts. Among various games types, scavenger hunt is especially brought up and discussed in this current case study and will be discussed in more detail below. Scavenger Hunt Dictionary.com, the online dictionary defined a scavenger hunt as "a game in which players are required to collect an assortment of miscellaneous items: usually played outdoors, the winner being the person or team returning first with all the items." McCain 16.

(29) (2007) gave a definition for a scavenger hunt specific to the purpose of his study concerning the academic library context: "a more sophisticated scavenger hunt might consist of questions that are accompanied by instructions to help students find the answers, or it might be designed to lead students to course-related materials that they will be required to use at some point" (p. 21). This kind of library scavenger hunt aimed to orient students to the resources provided by libraries but it still requires more research to reach the consensus of the effectiveness of library scavenger hunts. Gerrish (2010), on the other hand, applied scavenger hunt to engage preschool children to explore their. 政治大 teachers can plan and lead scavenger hunts that deepen children's understanding of the 立 surroundings and concluded that "with some preparation, creativity, and reflection,. world around them" (p. 21).. ‧ 國. 學. Although scavenger hunts have been applied to education, they are mostly used in. ‧. learners' exploration of the surroundings or familiarization with the resources available to. sit. y. Nat. learners (McCain 2007; Gerrish, 2010; Garber‐Miller, 2006). Little research has been. io. er. conducted on how teachers use scavenger hunts to enhance language learning, as what the present study aims to probe into.. al. n. v i n C h from LiteratureUReview Conclusion engchi. Based on the above literature review, it is clear that both teacher cognition frameworks forwarded by Borg (2006) and the TPACK framework proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), despite being influential, have not joined forces to investigate CALL teacher learning. The present study, thus, aims to explore possible integration of the two frameworks by replacing language teacher cognition with more specific sets of knowledge that CALL teachers need (Figure 3). This exploratory attempt to integrate two frameworks might not be perfect considering that TPACK can only suffice "what teachers know" (Borg, 2003, p. 81) in teacher cognition in Borg's framework without entailing teacher's belief and thinking. However, the exploration of the two frameworks might have 17.

(30) greater contribution to how teachers' experiences interact with their knowledge. Additionally, there is little discussion on how and why language teachers engage learners in game-based language learning using mobile technology as the mediation and how such practice is related to the development of teachers' cognition. As a result, the present study is also aimed at examining a CALL teacher's practices and experiences through these frameworks. The following are the research questions investigated in the study: 1. Based on TPACK, how does one high school teacher integrate mobile technology into. 政治大 How does the activity reflect her teacher's cognition on the basis of Borg's 立. her game-based language teaching, i.e., the design of a scavenger hunt activity?. framework?. 學 Professional. Schooling. Coursework. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 2.. Ch. engchi. Contextual. i n U. v. Factors. Classroom Practice Including practice teaching. Figure 3: The possible integration of the two frameworks 18.

(31) CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY This study employs a qualitative case study approach, following Nunan's (1992) "exploratory-interpretive" research paradigm, which "utilizes a non-experimental method, yields qualitative data, and provides an interpretive analysis of that data" (p.4). This. 政治大 holistic perspectives of the立 participant's experiences. Though there can hardly be. research paradigm is chosen in order to probe into the research questions and explore the. ‧ 國. 學. experiences strongly resembling each other, readers are encouraged to dive into experiences resonating with them, bring their experiences to the level of conscious. ‧. awareness and re-examine their teaching in a meta-cognitive way, which thus spurs them. y. Participant and Context. n. al. er. io. sit. Nat. to take the initiative to facilitate students' learning.. Criteria for Choosing the Participant. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Since this study is designed to scrutinize an in-service language teacher's cognition behind her game-based language teaching activity, the participant, Jane (pseudonym) was selected based on the following criteria. First, Jane's background in language teacher education, i.e., holding a bachelor's degree in English and a master's degree in English Teaching, makes it possible to trace the influence of professional coursework on her cognition and practice. Second, Jane's rare and unique experiences of going to (the) Czech Republic to teach Mandarin for a year opens up distinct possibilities of the influence of personal history. Third, Jane already had three years' teaching experiences in different high schools, which sensitizes her awareness to subtle differences in various 19.

(32) contexts. Lastly, Jane carried out an innovative scavenger hunt in her fourth school with a colleague on the Christmas Eve in 2014, which demonstrates her belief to implement CALL in school. Besides the above reasons, Jane's openness and willingness to reflect on and share her own teaching with the researcher makes her the top choice of the participant for this study. In addition, when being told about the need to invite some students to have an informal talk about their experiences in the scavenger hunt activity, Jane recommended one class out of her three classes, for "students in that class were mostly responsive and. 政治大 asked for three student participants, three hands held up in the air in no time. These three 立. supportive of teachers' new ways of teaching." When the researcher went to the class and. volunteers were then included in this present study.. ‧ 國. 學. The Participant. ‧. Besides three volunteering students, whose views serving as triangulation, the main. sit. y. Nat. participant was Jane. Jane received her bachelor's and master's degrees in Taipei. She had. io. er. already had three years' of teaching experiences in three different high schools in Taipei before she came to her fourth school, where the researcher worked as a teacher. I met Jane. al. n. v i n C h she came to the school at the beginning of the school year when to report for work for the engchi U first time. Her amiable personality and beaming smile revealed her positive personality and excitement to begin working in a new school. At the time of data collection, she worked as English teacher to three classes of eleventh-graders. Though a newcomer to the school, Jane worked closely with colleagues teaching the same grade since all teachers of eleventh-graders happened to have the habit of sharing worksheets and ideas related to teaching. Jane was soon involved in that community and was often seen or heard exchanging thoughts about teaching with co-workers. Although I did not teach the same grade as Jane did, our shared duties in one of the administrative sections at school familiarized us and we began exchanging views and ideas on teaching 20.

(33) as well. In addition to frequent interaction with colleagues, Jane also often stayed late in the office, grading assignments or preparing lessons before heading back to her rented apartment near the school. I remembered one time, before Christmas Eve, days were hectic for Jane because she was preparing her teaching materials for students. I later learned that Jane had designed an outdoor scavenger hunt activity for Christmas with another teacher teaching the same grade. Their idea was to provide a special, technology-integrated and culture-rich learning experience for students as a way to celebrate Christmas. The amount of time and energy. 政治大 about Jane's stories behind her action. To know more about the scavenger hunt activity 立 put into this innovative activity was beyond imagination, which aroused my curiosity. to the CALL course I signed up for in my graduate school.. ‧. The Context. 學. ‧ 國. itself and its detailed implementation, I recommended to invite Jane as the guest speaker. sit. y. Nat. The school where Jane and I worked in is a girls' high school located in the suburban. io. er. area of Taipei. Jane was assigned to be the English teacher to three eleventh-graders' classes, all of which were science majors. Students in those classes were known to be. al. n. v i n C h in terms of U more inclined to sciences than humanities their academic abilities and engchi. interests. There were about 45 students in each class, which was the average number of students in one class at this school. However, when the numbers added up, they became heavy burdens to teachers, particularly when it comes to grading assignments. On top of teaching, Jane was also appointed to carry out some duties at the Students Affair Office from time to time. Since it was not a full-time administrative position, Jane only needed to fulfill her duties at the Students Affair Office in a project-based fashion. Most of the time, when there was no class, Jane stayed in the office shared with all the other English teachers. During her free working hours, Jane also participated in a school's art club where both retired and practicing teachers enjoy drawing or painting under the guidance 21.

(34) of an art teacher at school. This school promotes all kinds of interaction and thus develops a culture of learning and sharing among teachers. Data Collection Four main data collection methods were adopted, including Jane's presentation of the scavenger hunt activity, two semi-structured interviews, documentation and informal talks with students who had been through the scavenger hunt activity. Through the adoption of various instruments, it is expected that not only can Jane's cognitions as a language teacher be reconstructed but how those elements in Borg's framework triggered Jane to. 政治大. put her cognition into action could also be revealed. Presentation. 立. Jane was invited to give a presentation on her scavenger hunt activity in the. ‧ 國. 學. researcher's graduate school CALL course in 2015 as her activity utilized QR codes and. ‧. portable devices as the main means of presenting the missions to students. During this. sit. y. Nat. one-hour presentation, Jane explained how the activity was planned, rehearsed and. io. er. carried out by her and her colleague. To simulate what her students would see when they were in the activity, Jane provided QR codes in one of the missions so that the audience. al. n. v i n could scan the QR code and see theC instructions of the mission h e n g c h i U on the spot. At the end of. the presentation, Jane even shared the application of QR codes and the way she integrated QR codes with Google form in this activity. This non-traditional activity truly aroused the audience's interest, not only for how much meticulous preparation that she had done but also for how devoted and determined Jane was to make this activity a reality. Although presentations were not commonly used as a data collection method, this presentation was useful and contained rich data which not only allowed the participant, Jane, to articulate and explain her activity in full but also revealed her beliefs, thoughts and knowledge related to CALL as she reacted to the audience's feedback and questions. Since such information could not have been collected 22.

(35) in other methods, the presentation along with the question and answer section was thus recorded onto a digital recorder as a data set for later analysis. Semi-Structured Interviews After the presentation, two semi-structured interviews were conducted with pre-designed questions derived mainly from Borg's framework (2006). Though having some questions in mind, the researcher also probed into certain unexpected information arising in the interviewee's response. To capture what mattered to the interviewee, the interviewee was given plenty of freedom and space to elaborate on the details of certain. 政治大 what part of her story should be paid more attention to within the scope designed by the 立. response if she found it necessary to do so. The interviewee thus had some control over. researcher in advance.. ‧ 國. 學. The first interview (see the Appendix A) aimed to tap into the interviewee's. ‧. motivation of carrying out the scavenger hunt activity, her experiences with CALL, the. sit. y. Nat. kind of teacher she thought she was and her own reflections on past schooling. The. io. er. second interview (see the Appendix B) intended to further scrutinize the detailed procedures and implementation of the scavenger hunt activity, the rationale behind it,. al. n. v i n C hpractices in differentUcontexts, the motivation of previous experiences of classroom engchi. becoming a teacher, and her professional coursework in the teacher education. Since the questions were brought up depending on the interviewee's response, the question domains in these two semi-structured interviews were intended to be loosely organized. However, the researcher marked and asked further questions that were missing from the first interview and included them in the second one. The interviews were carried out in the participant's mother tongue, Mandarin Chinese, since using mother tongue is a more natural way for both the researcher and the participant. Each interview lasted for about an hour and was recorded with a digital recorder for later analysis. 23.

(36) Documentation In addition to Jane's PowerPoint file used in the presentation, some of the worksheets students used during the scavenger hunt activity were collected. Some of the Google forms which students were provided with after they scanned QR codes were also included for data analysis. These documents were helpful in reconstructing the activity as faithfully as possible. Informal Talks with Students There were in total three students volunteering to share their impressions and. 政治大 was held near Christmas in 2014. Each of the talks (see Appendix C) lasted for forty to 立. perceptions of the scavenger hunt activity individually 14 to 18 months after the activity. fifty minutes, in which students recalled their perceptions of the activity, the way they. ‧ 國. 學. interacted with teammates, how the activity differed from usual classroom practices and. ‧. how this activity led to their English learning. Each talk was recorded with a digital. io. er. Procedure. sit. y. Nat. recorder for triangulation.. The data collection of the study was estimated to last for four months. In March. al. n. v i n Cscavenger 2015, Jane was invited to discuss her activity in the researcher's graduate U h e n ghunt i h c class. The presentation aimed to give the audience a general understanding of how the activity was carried out at the end of 2014 in the high school context and how Jane incorporated QR codes into her teaching. The audio recording of the whole presentation and the PowerPoint file, which included some photos taken during the activity, were collected for this study. After the presentation, the first interview, conducted in April 2015, served as an extension of the presentation to further probe into the trigger for the activity and CALL-related teaching experiences. After the transcription of the first interview was completed, the researcher asked more questions and collected more information that were worthy of exploration in the second interview. The second interview, held in May, 2015, 24.

(37) explored more details and rationale of the activity, Jane's experiences about classroom practices, her learning in graduate school and motivation of being a teacher. Member checking was conducted in June 2015 and June 2016 respectively to ensure the faithful reconstruction of the activity and whether the participant approved the researcher's interpretations of some possible links. In the first member checking, the participant read the printed description of the activity written by the researcher, revised the description directly and explained orally to the researcher why those revisions were necessary. In the second member checking, the researcher told the participant some of the interpretations. 政治大 the researcher's ideas. The second one was recorded with a digital recorder for later use. 立. and inferences made in the research and invited the participant to state her thoughts about. Documentation, including worksheets and Google forms used in the activity, was also. ‧ 國. 學. collected from the first interview to the first member checking for the researcher to. ‧. understand and reconstruct the activity in detail. The researcher also had informal. sit. y. Nat. conversations with three students who participated in the activity; their views were treated. io. al. n. listed in Table 1.. er. as triangulation. An overall picture of the procedures of data collection in the study is. Ch. i n U. Table 1: The timeline for the procedure of data collection Time. Activity. engchi. v. Focus. What the scavenger hunt activity March, 2015. Presentation was like and students' feedback 1. About the activity (Participant's motivation of carrying out the scavenger hunt activity). April, 2015. First interview 2. About her teaching (Her experiences with CALL, what kind of teacher she thinks she is) 25.

(38) 3. About her experiences as a learner (Her own reflections on past schooling) 1. About the activity (More detailed procedures and implementation of the scavenger hunt activity, the rationale behind it) 2. About her teaching (Previous experiences of classroom 治政 Second interview 大 in different contexts, the practices 立. May, 2015. motivation of becoming a teacher). ‧ 國. 學. 3. About her experiences as a. ‧. learner. teacher education). n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. (Her professional coursework in. Data analysis. Ch. v. e n g c hToi ensure that the description of the. First member checking June, 2015. i n U. Collection of. activity was faithfully reconstructed. documentation Their perception and impression on the activity itself, their learning February and March,. Informal talks with. from the activity, their interaction. 2016. students. with classmates in the activity, their possible meta-cognition about the activity 26.

(39) To check participant's views on the June, 2016. Second member checking. interpretations the researcher made in the present study. Data Analysis To reconstruct the participant's personal experiences and the formation of her teacher cognition, the two semi-structured interviews were first transcribed word by word. The resulting transcriptions were then read through back and forth to recreate the scavenger hunt activity and to extract key issues related to language teacher cognition. 政治大 professional coursework and contexts might lead to her cognitions behind this activity. In 立 based on Borg's framework. The researcher then explored how Jane's past schooling,. addition to the interview transcriptions, Jane's presentation on the scavenger hunt activity. ‧ 國. 學. was also transcribed. The activity and her presentation were analyzed with the TPACK. ‧. framework and they later served as triangulation of her interview data. In addition,. sit. y. Nat. students' perceptions and experiences in the scavenger hunt activity were also transcribed. io. er. and read through repeatedly so as to extract themes related to Jane's cognitions behind the activity. That is, informal talks with students were taken into consideration as another. al. n. v i n source of triangulation of Jane'sC interview As language teacher cognition and the U h e n data. i h gc. scavenger hunt activity are critical focuses in this study, the above process was repeated. to look for recurrent teacher cognition themes reflected in the activity, which could in turn be reconstructed to figure out how the participant's experiences shaped or facilitated the decision she made in teaching practices. Trustworthiness Since reconstruction requires interpretation of information, the participant was invited to engage in member checking. That is, she was provided with the reconstructed experiences written by the researcher to ensure the correctness of the data presented in 27.

(40) this study. The introduction of the scavenger hunt activity was also revised recursively till the work actually reflects the participant's thoughts and experiences. Furthermore, the data of the participant's presentation on the activity and the students' perceptions of the activity were all included in the present study to triangulate the participant's words and thoughts presented in her interview data.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 28. i n U. v.

(41) CHAPTER 4 RESULTS This section intends to present how the mobile device-mediated scavenger hunt activity was carried out and explore how the participant's cognition and experiences connected to the implementation of the activity. The result was presented in four main parts: the scavenger hunt activity, Jane's presentation, the TPACK analysis and Jane's life. 政治大. experiences related to CALL teacher cognition.. 立. Following a chronological order, this section started with the scavenger hunt activity. ‧ 國. 學. and was succeeded by the recreation of Jane's presentation. Then, Jane's knowledge of implementing the activity was presented with TPACK analysis. Finally, the research. ‧. probed into Jane's teacher cognitions behind the activity. Bit by bit Jane's experiences. y. Nat. io. sit. were reconstructed in four aspects: past schooling, professional coursework, contexts, and. er. everyday life experiences related to CALL.. n. a l The Scavenger Hunt Activityi v n Ch U e n g cbig-scaled h i activity designed for students to The scavenger hunt activity was a rather. celebrate Christmas by Jane and her colleague. It required students to solve problems in collaboration with their teammates by making the most of their listening, speaking, reading and writing in English. To give a more thorough introduction to the activity, this part would be divided into three parts: preparation, implementation and reflection. The data were extracted both from Jane's presentation and her interview data. Furthermore, for convenience, the following discussion would only address Jane despite the fact that the scavenger hunt activity was formed due to the collaboration between Jane and her colleague. 29.

(42) Preparation Before Jane began to design the activity, she started with the aims "What do I want my students to learn or to experience? It would be a pity if students only sing Christmas carols to celebrate Christmas since they might sing similar songs every year. I want them to learn something different and dig deeper into it." In order to provide new learning experiences for students, she joined hands with a colleague to design and conduct the scavenger hunt activity. Jane said, "Teaching in non-traditional ways takes much time in preparation. For this activity, it definitely requires at least two teachers to work together.". 政治大 integrated not only the use of varied language skills but also various forms of responses, 立 With her aims in mind, Jane and her colleague designed the missions which. such as answering questions, writing stories, or naming objects from a picture. Despite. ‧ 國. 學. the wide variety, according to Jane, every mission was based either on the theme,. ‧. Christmas, or on lessons from the textbook. It was obvious that the tight schedule was. sit. y. Nat. still a major concern for Jane since teachers are expected to cover a certain number of. io. er. lessons from the textbook during one semester. "Considering the limited time, we hoped the students could also pay some attention to what is included in their textbook since the. al. n. v i n C hhaving fun in thisUactivity," Jane admitted. students would spend up to two periods engchi. Jane also talked about some behind-the-scenes thoughts concerning how she and her. colleague prepared for one of the missions, Know more about Christmas facts. "I needed to read tons of articles and use materials from different websites for some missions; otherwise, students might have easy access to all the answers once they link to one website." Another example that Jane gave was how she picked up the Christmas carols in one of the missions for students. "Choosing right songs took me lots of time since I wanted rhythmic songs, but, at the same time, they needed to be neither too familiar to the students, nor too difficult." When asked about preparation time for the activity, Jane replied, "A month, yes, an entire month for us two teachers to prepare for this two-hour 30.

(43) activity." No matter how time consuming it was, Jane seemed to regard all the hard work as a matter of necessity and believed that every detail in the activity would be added up to its ultimate success. Implementation There were nine stations in the activity, and 41 students, divided into groups of five or six, were asked to accomplish the missions at each station. All groups were expected to head for different stations at the same time and then follow the assigned routes respectively until they accomplished all of the nine missions. In other words, every group. 政治大 orders. To be more practical and time-saving, the teacher had set a performance criteria 立. was supposed to go through the same nine stations with the same mission but in different. for each mission in the stations in advance, which allowed students to move on to the next. ‧ 國. 學. station as long as they met the criteria.. ‧. The typical procedure of the activity was as follows: First, students received a small. sit. y. Nat. card with the printed hint from the teacher. Next, they would follow the hints to go to the. io. er. place where they could find the instructions of the mission. When the students arrived at the specific spot, they would find a sheet containing instructions or a QR code and they. al. n. v i n Cphones needed to scan it with their smart in U order to know what the mission was h e norgtablets i h c about. Then, the students had to accomplish the mission by working with their group or. searching for the answers on the Internet. Finally, they went back to their classroom and the teacher would be waiting to inspect their performance. Given that students met the criteria, they would be able to continue to the next mission until all nine missions were all completed. In the following part, the nine missions along with the design rationale behind them are elaborated. Sing a Christmas carol. This activity aimed to test the students' listening and speaking ability. Upon scanning the QR codes, the students were provided with URLs to 31.