印尼留台學生在促進印台關係中的角色 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學亞太研究英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s 治 Thesis. 立. 政. 大. ‧ 國. 學. The Role of Indonesian Students in Enhancing. ‧. Indonesia-Taiwan Relations. io. sit. y. Nat. n. er. Student: Ardila Putri (平亞諦) a v Advisor: Dr.l C Syuan-yuan Chiou n i (邱炫元). hengchi U. 中華民國 107 年 3 月 March 2018.

(2) 印尼留台學生在促進印台關係中的角色 The Role of Indonesian Students in Enhancing Indonesia-Taiwan Relations. Student: Ardila Putri (平亞諦) Advisor: Dr. Syuan-yuan Chiou (邱炫元). 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. A Thesis. y. sit. Nat. Submitted to. er. io. International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies. al. n. v i n C hChengchi University National engchi U. 中華民國 107 年 3 月 March 2018. ii.

(3) Acknowledgement First and foremost, praise is to ALLAH, the Almighty, the greatest of all, on whom ultimately we depend for sustenance and guidance. I would like to thank Almighty Allah for giving me opportunity, determination and strength to do my research. Allah continuous grace and mercy was with me throughout my life and ever more during the tenure of my research. I would like to thank and express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisor Professor Syuan-yuan Chiou for his continuous support, invaluable guidance, inspiration and encouragement. His guidance has been an important part of the writing of this thesis. Without his able guidance, this thesis would not have been possible and I shall eternally be grateful to him for his assistance. Suggestion and inputs from my. 治政大 Weng Chun-Chieh are committee members Professor Sun Tsai-wei and Professor 立 for the generosity of Professor Mei-chuan Wei, the equally important. I am grateful ‧. ‧ 國. 學. IMAS director, for her assistance during my study. Thanks to all of IMAS secretary Amy, Fannie, and Thomas for their assistance. I would also like to express my gratitude to my “tandem diskusi” Mas Itok and Bang Johnny, for sparing their valuable time whenever I approached them and showing me the way ahead. Also for Rohit and Neesha to proof read my thesis. Besides my research activities, I also enjoyed my stay in Taiwan. I thank my fellow colleagues and friends’. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. for spending time with me. Thanks to all of my friends’ in NCCU ISA, PPI Taiwan, IDN Taiwan, my students in UT-Taiwan, and other friends’ whom I cannot mention one by one due to the limited space. Also Thanks to all of my friends in IMAS, IDAS, and IMES, the International student especially who joined voluntary programs with me, and my Taiwanese friends who help me a lot during my stay in Taiwan. I would also like to express my gratitude to my friends’ back home for supporting and encouraging me throughout my study. Thanks for giving me such a joyful time. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my families who endlessly support me during my. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. study. For my beloved Apa, Ama, Sista, Abang, and Ujit. I am forever grateful to have you in my Life. Terimakasih karena selalu percaya dengan semua mimpi-mimpi akak dan selalu memberikan dukungan dalam suka dan duka kehidupan.. i.

(4) Abstract The main objective of this study is to examine the role Indonesian students in Indonesian student organizations in Taiwan have played in enhancing the relationship between Indonesia and Taiwan. This thesis explores and details some of the activities of Indonesian students as they study in Taiwan, and examines how these activities have contributed to bridging and increasing the volume of people-to-people relations between the two countries, as well as how the associations and their activities have indirectly enhanced mutual understanding between Taiwanese and Indonesians. This thesis adopts the new public diplomacy and relational public diplomacy framework. Some data were collected during the researcher’s participation in Indonesian student associations and activities. Other data were gathered via discussion with several prominent Indonesian student association leaders. For the document analysis, this. 政治大 research uses Indonesian student organization document reports, Indonesia and Taiwan 立 government reports, statistical data, newspapers, and websites. This thesis suggests that. ‧ 國. 學. ‧. there are three roles Indonesian students play in bridging the relationship between Indonesia and Taiwan: (1) strengthening people-to-people relations (2) bridging mutual understanding (3) increase visibility and positive image. In addition, this thesis shows that there are three factors leading Indonesian students to establish their associations and conduct their activities: (1) their tradition of communal work (gotong-royong) as social capital (2) the demands of Indonesian migrant workers and students (3) support. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. from various institutions, such as the Indonesian government especially IETO, universities, and the Taiwan government. The three factors are important and they are related to each other. Because of the three factors, Indonesian students can carry out their activities.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Keywords: Indonesia-Taiwan relations, people-to-people relations, public diplomacy, Indonesian student activism, Asian international higher education. ii.

(5) 摘要本研究的主要目的是考察印尼學生在他們的學生組織中如何扮演促進印尼與台灣之間關係的角色。本論文用公共外交的概念與分析框架，以作者在台就學之便親身參與各項印尼學生組織活動的經驗觀察所得，結合相關的文獻分析，最後發現，印尼學生在促進印台關係中扮演三種角色：1. 強化兩國人民的關係；2. 增進彼此的瞭解；3. 提升了兩國彼此在對方民眾與社會中的能見度與形象。而印尼學生之所以可以在台灣非穆斯林社會達到這樣的成果，主要歸功於：1. 印尼社群的互助傳統（gotong-royong）變成他們在台灣推動組織工作的社會資本； 2. 在台灣的印尼移工與學生社群對這些服務的需求；3. 駐台北印尼經濟貿易辦公室、台灣政府以及各個大學學務單位的多方的支持與協助。. 政治大關鍵詞：印尼與台灣的關係，民間關係，公共外交，印尼學生運動，亞洲國際立高等教育 ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i. i n U. v.

(6) Table of Content Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................... i Abstract ..........................................................................................................................ii Table of Content ............................................................................................................ii Figure and Table ........................................................................................................... iv Abbreviation .................................................................................................................. v Chapter I Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1. 政治大. 1.2 Historical Background ................................................................................................. 2. 立. 1.2.1 Relations between Indonesia and Taiwan ..................................................... 2. ‧ 國. 學. 1.2.2 A New Educational Exchange between Indonesia and Taiwan .................... 3 1.3 Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 6. ‧. 1.3.1 New Public Diplomacy.................................................................................. 6. y. Nat. 1.3.2 Indonesian Student Activities Abroad ......................................................... 11. io. sit. 1.3.4 Research Related to Indonesia-Taiwan Relations ....................................... 15. n. al. er. 1.4 Analytical Framework and Research Questions .................................................... 18. Ch. i n U. v. 1.5 Research Method ........................................................................................................ 21. engchi. 1.6 Structure of Thesis ..................................................................................................... 21 Chapter II Overview of Indonesian Students, Indonesia-Taiwan Cooperation and Education Policy .......................................................................................................... 23 2.1 Indonesian Students and Groups in Taiwan and Beyond ..................................... 24 2.2 Indonesia-Taiwan Cooperation on Education ........................................................ 29 2.3 Indonesian Students in Taiwan ................................................................................. 35 Chapter III Indonesian Student Associations and Their Activities ............................. 44 3.1 Various Type of Indonesian Student Associations in Taiwan ............................. 44 3.1.1 Identity-Based Organizations ...................................................................... 44 3.1.2 Religious Based Student Organization (FORMMIT) .................................. 48 ii.

(7) 3.1.3 Function-based Student Institution Established by Students ....................... 49 3.1.4 University-based Organizations .................................................................. 52 3.2 Indonesian Student Activities ................................................................................... 52 3.2.1 Cultural Activities........................................................................................ 53 3.2.2 Educational Activities.................................................................................. 55 3.2.3 Religious Activities (Indonesian Muslim Student Activities) ..................... 57 3.2.4 Networking Initiatives Activities................................................................. 59 3.3 Factors Influencing Indonesian Students Establishing their Associations and Conducting their Activities.............................................................................................. 62 3.3.1 Community Work as Traditional Social Capital ......................................... 62. 政治大. 3.3.2 Demands of the Indonesian Community in Taiwan .................................... 63. 立. 3.3.3 Institutional Support .................................................................................... 63. ‧ 國. 學. 3.4 Concluding Remarks: ................................................................................................ 64 Chapter IV Conclusion ................................................................................................ 66. ‧. 4.1 Review ........................................................................................................................ 66. sit. y. Nat. 4.2 Indonesian Student in Bridging the New Public Diplomacy ................................ 67. io. er. 4.3 Policy Recommendation............................................................................................ 72. al. 4.4 Further Research Directions ..................................................................................... 73. n. v i n Ch Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 75 engchi U. iii.

(8) Figure and Table Figure 1.1 Agents of people-to-people relations between Taiwan and Indonesia. ...... 19 Figure 1.2 Students as one of the agents of public diplomacy..................................... 20 Figure 2.1 The comparison of Southeast Asian students in Taiwan ............................ 39 Figure 2.2 Top six regions sending international students to Taiwan (Degree Program) ...................................................................................................................................... 40 Figure 2.3 Top 5 leading regions of Overseas Chinese Student (Degree Program) .... 41 Figure 2.4 Top six regions sending Mandarin-learning students to Taiwan................ 41 Table 2.1 Statistics of Indonesian students in Taiwan school year 1986-2016...…….37. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. iv. i n U. v.

(9) Abbreviation List AD/ART. : Anggaran Dasar/Anggaran Rumah Tangga. AISC. : Annual Indonesian Scholar Conference. APEC. : Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation. ASEAN. : Association of Southeast Asia Nation. BPI. : Beasiswa Pendidikan Indonesia. CCC. : Chinese Chamber of Commerce. DIKTI. : Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi. DPP. : Democratic Progressive Party. ESIT. : Elite Study in Taiwan. GWO. : Global Worker Organization. ‧ 國. FORMMIT. 學. GPA. 治政 : Forum Mahasiswa Muslim Indonesia di 大Taiwan 立Average : Grade Point. HIMASUTT : Himpunan Mahasiswa Universitas Terbuka Taiwan : Ikatan Citra Alumni Taiwan seIndonesia. ICC. : Indonesia Chamber of Commerce. ICD. : Indonesian Cultural Day. ICDF. : International Cooperation Development Fund. ICE. : Indonesian Cultural Exhibition. IETO. : Indonesia Economic and Trade Office. IMSA. : International Muslim Student Association. ISA. : International Student Association/Indonesian Student Association. KMIT. : Keluarga Muslim Indonesia di Taiwan. KMT. : Kuomintang. LPDP. : Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan. MOE. : Ministry of Education. MOFA. : Ministry of Foreign Affairs. MTYT. : Majelis Taklim Yasin Taipei. NCCU. : National Chengchi University. NCKU. : National Cheng Kung University. NCTU. : National Chiao Tung University. ‧. ICATI. n. Ch. engchi. v. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. i n U. v.

(10) NCU. : National Central University. NSP. : New Southbound Policy. NTOU. : National Taiwan Ocean University. NTUST. : National Taiwan University of Science and Technology. NU. : Nahdlatul Ulama. OECD. : Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. OISAA. : Overseas Indonesian Student Association Alliance. PERPITA. : Perhimpunan Pelajar Indonesia Taiwan. PKBM. : Pusat Kegiatan Belajar Masyarakat. PPI. : Persatuan Pelajar Indonesia. PPSU. : Persatuan Pelajar Sumatra Utara. PRC. : People’s Republic of China. TETO. : Taipei Economic and Trade Office. UNESCO. : United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. UTT. : Universitas Terbuka Taiwan. ‧. ‧ 國. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. ROC. 學. TEC. 政治大 : Republic of China 立 : Taiwan Education Center. Ch. engchi. vi. i n U. v.

(11) Chapter I Introduction 1.1 Introduction The main objective of this study is to examine the role that Indonesian students in Indonesian student organizations in Taiwan play in enhancing the relationship between Indonesia and Taiwan. What makes this case unique is the absence of traditional diplomatic relations between the two countries. The absence of formal diplomatic. 政治大 including the role of students. relations is addressed by Taiwan and Indonesia through other means, one being through. 立. people-to-people relations. as agents of mutual. ‧ 國. 學. understanding. The importance of this study has only grown given Taiwan’s recently unveiled New Southbound Policy (NSP), which emphasizes people-to-people relations. ‧. with those in South and Southeast Asian countries.. sit. y. Nat. The subject of people-to-people relations itself has already been discussed by. al. er. io. scholars, and the study of the importance of the people-to-people relations between. iv n U studies few. n. Taiwanese and Indonesians has also been addressed before (Kabinawa, 2013; Elias,. Ch. engchi. 2013; Paramithaningrum, 2013). However,. have specifically and. comprehensively discussed the role and activities of Indonesian students in Taiwan from the perspective of new public diplomacy. This thesis, therefore, is intended to fill this gap by looking at some of the activities and actions related to the activities that may contribute to the enhancement of relations between Indonesia and Taiwan. The study will help to contribute a better understanding of the role of Indonesian students in complementing the people-to-people relations between Taiwan and Indonesia that has appeared in the literature. This thesis explores in detail some of the activities of Indonesian students as they 1.

(12) study in Taiwan and examines how the activities have contributed to bridging and increasing the volume of people-to-people relations between the two countries, as well as how the associations and their activities have indirectly enhanced the mutual understanding between Taiwanese and Indonesians. 1.2 Historical Background This section will review the status of relations between Indonesia and Taiwan after Indonesian independence especially after 1971. In addition, this section also discusses the background of Indonesia’s education and the opportunities to develop. 政治大 1.2.1 Relations between Indonesia and Taiwan 立. educational cooperation between Indonesia and Taiwan.. ‧ 國. 學. Despite the absence of Indonesia’s political recognition of the Republic of China (Taiwan), Indonesia and Taiwan relations have strengthened (Ku, 2002;. ‧. Kabinawa, 2013; Elias, 2013; Paramitaningrum, 2013, 2016). On May 1, 1971,. sit. y. Nat. Indonesia allowed Taiwan to establish its Chinese Chamber of Commerce (CCC) in. io. er. Jakarta and in return Indonesia established the Indonesia Chamber of Commerce (ICC). al. in Taipei on June 1, 1971. At that time, the Chamber of Commerce was a private. n. v i n international firm which wasCallowed business activities and provide some h e ntogconduct chi U. diplomatic functions such as issuing visas. On October 10, 1989, the Indonesian government allowed the CCC to be renamed the Taipei Economic and Trade Office (TETO). In exchange, on January 1, 1995, ICC was renamed the Indonesia Economic and Trade Office (IETO) in Taipei. Because of the change of name, TETO and IETO were treated as international governmental organizations allowed to conduct more bilateral affairs between the two countries. The close relationship was deepened at the end of 2015 when Taiwan opened a representative office, the Taipei Economic and Trade Office (TETO), in Surabaya. 2.

(13) In terms of policy, there have been fluctuating relations between Taipei and Jakarta. After some periods of distant relations, Taiwan initiated the Southward Policy to promote trade and investment relations with six designated countries in Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, in early 1994. This policy facilitated the close relationship between Taiwan and Indonesia. In February 1994, former president of Taiwan Lee Teng-hui paid a historic visit to Indonesia. Later in the 1990s several ministerial-level officials from Taiwan, including the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Transportation, Economic Affairs and Education, all visited Indonesia. In exchange, many top Indonesian officials. 政治大 Indonesia improved its relations with the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Indonesia立. also paid a visit to Taiwan during the 1990s. Unfortunately, after the 2000s while. Taiwan relations became stagnant, especially after Taiwan endured several domestic. ‧ 國. 學. disputes between the two main political parties (the Chinese Nationalist Party, KMT,. ‧. and the Democratic Progressive Party, DPP) and as Chen Sui-bian of the DPP was. sit. y. Nat. elected president of Taiwan in the year 2000 (Ku, 2002). Under the 2008-20016. io. er. presidency of Ma Ying-jeou of the KMT, Indonesia-Taiwan relations improved as several government agreements – especially regarding economy, education, and. al. n. v i n Csigned migrant worker issues – were countries (Kabinawa, 2013). h e nbygthectwo hi U 1.2.2 A New Educational Exchange between Indonesia and Taiwan. Indonesia and Taiwan relations showed further improvement after President Tsai Ing-wen, elected in 2016, announced her New Southbound Policy (NSP) and promoted cooperation with designated countries including Indonesia. One of the main tasks of this policy has been to conduct talent exchanges with a focus on people, as well as to deepen bilateral exchanges and the cultivation of young scholars, students, and industry professionals. This policy has encouraged cooperation in the education sector between Taiwan and the designated countries. With the goal of increasing the numbers of 3.

(14) students from ASEAN countries and South Asia by 20 percent each year, the Taiwan government aims to attract around 58,000 students by 2019 from 29,000 in the 2015 academic year. One of the main targets has been Indonesia which has developed its capacity in the education sector. The Country Background Report (2015) suggested that “Indonesia was beginning to enjoy a demographic dividend” as the proportion of the population of productive working age is expected to peak in the 2020s. Indonesia is suggested “to rely on more than a demographic bonus and has to deepen the skill base of the workforce to deal with. 政治大 change should free up financial resources which can be used to make the investments 立 the future rather than current labor market requirement. The significant demographic. necessary to improve educational quality and increase access to education. At the same. ‧ 國. 學. time, significant economic growth should help to ensure more funding for the education. ‧. sector” (OECD, 2015).. sit. y. Nat. Realizing the importance of education, the Indonesian government has allocated 20. io. er. percent of its expenditure for education. Indonesia has set the education sector as one of the key sectors for reform during the implementation of a national long-term. al. n. v i n C hto help IndonesiaUbecome self-reliant, advanced and development plan which aims engchi. prosperous through the acceleration of development on the basis of solid economic structures, supported by high-quality and competitive human resources in 2025 (OECD, 2015). The Indonesian government stimulates the capital of the education sector in Indonesia through several policy packages. For Indonesian tertiary education institutions, the government encourages internationalization through international benchmarking, international accreditation, internationalization of the curriculum, joint programs and degrees, twinning arrangements and double degrees, a scholarship 4.

(15) program and the recruitment of foreign staff (OECD, 2015). The government also encourages Indonesians to study abroad through several scholarships provided by the Indonesian government or foreign governments. There are also several education exhibitions held annually by the governmental and non-governmental bodies. At the same time, Indonesian students who study abroad or have finished their study abroad also promote the idea of the importance of studying abroad for Indonesian citizens. It increases the interest of Indonesian youngsters to study abroad. Besides Europe and the United States, some countries in Asia have also become the. 政治大 Taiwan, and South Korea. The consequence of the phenomena is that Taiwan has 立. destination of Indonesian students, such as Singapore, the PRC, Japan, Malaysia,. become one of the study destinations for Indonesian students. The quantity of. ‧ 國. 學. Indonesian students who study in Taiwan has increased gradually every year. This. ‧. growth is driven by the government policy on both sides, encouraging Indonesian. sit. y. Nat. students to study in Taiwan. Currently, Taiwan has several top universities which attract. io. er. Indonesian students, and at the same time, Mandarin has become one of the important languages attracting people, including Indonesians, to study. In addition, as a. al. n. v i n C h infrastructure and democratic country that advances technology, Taiwan has become engchi U one of the top destinations for study. Moreover, there are also several scholarships. offered by both governments that significantly help Indonesian students to get their degree. At the same time, there are job opportunities for students to help them finance their life and study in Taiwan. Furthermore, there are also ample opportunities for further study or seeking a job after graduation. The significant growth of Indonesian students in Taiwan makes a positive contribution to Indonesia-Taiwan relations. Indonesian students who study in Taiwan have established several organizations which aim to accommodate their interests but at 5.

(16) the same time indirectly advance relations between Indonesia and Taiwan by holding cultural events, as well as educational and religious activities. They promote Taiwan in Indonesia through their social media and mass media (television, radio, and online news portals). They also hold sharing session activities when they return. Moreover, they also encourage education cooperation between Indonesia and Taiwan through some partnerships initiated by Indonesians who have studied or graduated in Taiwan. In addition, they help the Indonesia and Taiwan governments to resolve several issues mainly regarding economic cooperation and migrant worker policy through their. 政治大. involvement in research or becoming employees of Indonesian or Taiwanese companies.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 1.3 Literature Review. This section will review research on the concept of new public diplomacy,. ‧. Indonesian student activities, and the relations between Indonesia and Taiwan.. sit. y. Nat. 1.3.1 New Public Diplomacy. io. er. Traditional international relations scholars define diplomacy as “the. al. management of international relations by negotiation; the method by which these. n. v i n C h and envoys; the relations are adjusted by ambassadors e n g c h i U business or art of the diplomatist” (Nicolson, 1963, p. 4-5; Pigman, 2010, p. 4-5). Diplomacy emphasizes the importance of soft power in international relations. In addition, the State is seen as the only actor to carry out the duty of diplomacy under their diplomatic corps (Berridge, 1994, 2010; Feilleux, 2009; Jonsson, 2005; Kurbalija, 1999; Watson, 1982; Pigman, 2010; Sharp, 2009; Melissen, 2005, 2011, 2015; Gilboa, 2008; Snow, 2009; Gollan, 2013; Merickova, 2014). However, non-state actor and media involvement during the Cold War attracted scholar and practitioner attention to the term public diplomacy. Public diplomacy 6.

(17) during the Cold War merely focused on government activities to build direct communication with foreign people, which aimed to affect their thinking and to influence their governments. However, because of the revolution in mass communication, politics and international relations, especially after the 9/11 accident, experts introduced the term new public diplomacy to discuss state and non-state activities to build direct communication with foreign publics (Gilboa, 2000, 2001, 2008; Melissen, 2005, 2011, 2015; Snow, 2009; Gollan, 2013, Merickova, 2014; Lee, 2017). Previous research in public diplomacy had several major drawbacks. Even. 政治大 discussed US experience. In addition, researchers merely focused on state actor 立. though public diplomacy emerged long before the Cold War, most of the studies only. activities while barely discussing non-state actor activities in public diplomacy.. ‧ 國. 學. Moreover, there was a limited contribution to theory and methodology development. ‧. because most of the studies were historical. However, current research tries to resolve. sit. y. Nat. these issues while some other researchers have tried to further develop the concept of. io. er. actors to include such entities as NGOs, companies, students, diaspora, and other nonstate actors in their research (Melissen, 2005, 2011, 2015; Gilboa 2008; Snow 2009).. al. n. v i n C inh the social sciences Several areas of study influence public diplomacy. The engchi U. main majors that influence this concept are international relations, communication studies, and public relations. Public diplomacy itself has been developed from the soft power concept in the international relations approach. However, some experts suggest that researchers must use the smart power concept to understand the practice of public diplomacy. Furthermore, in communication studies, experts apply media and public. opinion concepts to evaluate public diplomacy outcomes. In addition, to analyze public diplomacy goals, experts employ the concept of promoting an image and reputation from public relations study. 7.

(18) Jan Melissen (2005, 2011, 2015) argues that gradually governments have included public diplomacy as part of their diplomatic practice which carries out the core state interests and foreign policy strategy. In addition, there has been a gradual shift from one-way to two-way communication for public diplomacy to increase mutual understanding and interaction. Furthermore, Melissen also described the rise of the nonstate actor in public diplomacy. Meanwhile, Eytan Gilboa (2005, 2008) offers an expanded list of public diplomacy characteristics including “the interactivity between state and non-state actors,. 政治大 framing, information management, PR, nation branding, self-presentation, e-image, 立. utilization of soft power, two-way communication, strategic public diplomacy, media. domestication of foreign policy and addressing both short and long-term issues". ‧ 國. 學. (Gilboa, 2008, p.58).. ‧. To understand the practice of public diplomacy, Gilboa (2000, 2001) introduces. sit. y. Nat. three models of public diplomacy: the Basic Cold War Model, the Non-State. io. er. Transnational Model, and the Domestic PR Model. He used five variables to distinguish among the models: “major actors, initiators, goals, types of media, and means and. al. n. v i n techniques” (Gilboa 2008, p.C59). The Basic ColdU h e n g c h i War Model analyzes state activities that influence and persuade the foreign public to support its goals. The Non-State Transnational model investigates groups, NGOs, and individual activities using public diplomacy across national boundaries. Meanwhile, the Domestic PR model studies domestic PR or lobbyist activities in the targeted country in order to achieve public diplomacy goals. R.S Zaharna (2009) proposed two perspectives of communication in understanding public diplomacy. First, the information framework, which conceptualizes communication as “a linear process of transferring information often 8.

(19) with the goal of persuasion or control”. Second, the relational framework, which conceptualizes communication as “a social process of building relationships and fostering harmony” (Zaharna in Snow, 2009, p. 86). In terms of public diplomacy, the information framework views public diplomacy as “primarily a linear process of transferring information, often with the goal of persuasion or control” (Zaharna in Snow 2009, p. 88). The relational framework, on another hand, sees public diplomacy as initiatives focused on identifying and building relationships, often with the goal of coordination rather than control (Zaharna in Snow, 2009, p. 91). Zaharna encourages. 政治大 Furthermore, Gilles Scott-Smith (in Snow 2009, p. 50) argues that public 立. the cultivation of the relational framework in public diplomacy.. diplomacy consists of different activities. Among these activities, exchange programs. ‧ 國. 學. are an interesting case because exchange programs include the human factor while most. ‧. forms of public diplomacy work concern image and information presentation.. sit. y. Nat. Exchanges engage participants’ personality and psychology. Even though debates have. io. er. arisen related to the effectiveness of exchanges and their role in international relations, the informal networks established from these relations have major political importance.. al. n. v i n C h program, student In an educational exchange role is important. The student is engchi U. seen as a culture carrier who is bridging the gap between home and host countries. “The student functions as a culture carrier in two ways when they visit a foreign country: first, because they carry with them their home culture, which is acquired and. internalized in the home country and passes it to the host country during the exchange period; secondly, the student also experiences and learns about the host country's culture, which will be passed on in the home country” (Eide, 1970, 170; Delima, 2007, p. 240). In addition, a student who participated in an educational exchange program is 9.

(20) considered a citizen diplomat. Citizen diplomats have been defined as being “unoﬃcial ambassadors who participate in exchange programs overseas or host and interact with international exchange program participants” (Mueller in Snow 2009, p. 102). The participant in an exchange program aims to build mutual understanding and support long-lasting relationships with the participant and advance the state relation. For analyzing relations between Taiwan and Indonesia, the public diplomacy approach can be used to understand and improve the relations between Taiwan and Indonesia as participants look for influence foreign government behavior in an indirect. 政治大 engaging in formal diplomatic relations, countries can adopt informal networks as 立. way, exerting influence on citizens’ attitudes. Due to prohibitions against individuals. public diplomacy bases. Public diplomacy guarantees continuous communication. ‧ 國. 學. among countries even when formal diplomatic relations are prohibited (Lizama, 2011;. ‧. Noya, 2007).. sit. y. Nat. For the case of Taiwan and Indonesia, educational exchange programs can. io. er. bridge the relation between the two countries. On the Taiwan side, educational exchanges “will increase Taiwan’s existence, and persuade audiences around the world. al. n. v i n C h sympathize with U to pay more attention to Taiwan, their predicament, and support their engchi. political agenda” (Rawnsley, 2014, p. 162). Meanwhile for Indonesia, which adheres to the one-China policy, maintaining a durable and sustainable relationship with Taiwan through social and cultural sectors is the best option because it will advance Indonesia and Taiwan relations but at the same time will not disturb Indonesia and PRC relations. In addition, educational exchanges contribute to improving the Indonesian education sector especially in terms of human resource development and institutional capacity building. This means educational exchanges will give mutual benefits for both countries. According to Nancy Snow (2009), scholars, especially in the field of public 10.

(21) diplomacy, need to develop research using the new diplomacy perspective and focus not only on US public diplomacy activities but also those of other countries that use a public diplomacy approach to reach the international public. Therefore, this research will contribute to new public diplomacy research by elaborating Taiwan’s public diplomacy activities despite the lack of formal diplomatic recognition. In addition, this thesis will describe the Indonesian approach to maximize public diplomacy advantages which produces mutual benefit for all of the parties involved. In addition, Melissen (2005, 2011, 2015) calls on scholars to study non-state. 政治大 diplomacy and discuss the collaboration between state and non-state actors to enforce 立 actor activities in public diplomacy. Scholars may explain the varieties of public. successful public diplomacy. Therefore, this research will enrich the discussion about. ‧ 國. 學. the non-state actor role in public diplomacy, especially the role of international students. ‧. in enhancing the relations between host and home countries.. sit. y. Nat. Furthermore, the role of international education exchanges in public diplomacy. io. er. discussed by Antonio F de Lima (2007) concluded that exchanges can eliminate stereotypes and misconceptions between nations due to the students’ role as culture. al. n. v i n Cthat carrier. However, Lima notes needs elaboration to see the practice of U h ehisnanalysis i h gc. public diplomacy for developing countries. “Developing country may also benefit from public diplomacy in order to demystify certain image that is attributed to them through public diplomacy” (Delima, 2007, p. 449). Therefore, this research will fill this gap and address the issue about the benefit of public diplomacy for developing countries and the way to maximize it, in this case based on Indonesian student activities to contribute for Indonesia public diplomacy. 1.3.2 Indonesian Student Activities Abroad Indonesian students who study abroad have shown their role and its importance 11.

(22) ever since the period when Indonesia struggled for independence. They established several student organizations to accommodate their interests, discussed the related issues in Indonesia, and conducted several activities that contributed to Indonesia’s development. The oldest Indonesian student association is the Indonesian Student Association in the Netherlands (Indische Vereeniging later changed to Indonesische Vereeniging), established in 1908 to fight for Indonesia’s independence. Indonesische Vereeniging raised the issue of Indonesia’s struggle for independence in the Netherlands and other countries. In addition, organization. 政治大 international meetings, students met other international students who later became 立. members also attended international meetings on anti-imperialism. During the. prominent leaders in their own countries and supported Indonesia’s struggle for. ‧ 國. 學. independence (such as Jawahal Nehru from India). After Indonesian independence,. ‧. many of this organization’s leaders became prominent political leaders in Indonesia. sit. y. Nat. such as Muhammad Hatta (who later became vice president), Sutan Sjahrir (who later. io. er. became prime minister), and Ahmad Soebardjo (who later became foreign minister). The journey of these leaders and their dedication to Indonesia have inspired the young. al. n. v i n C h those who study Indonesian generation – particularly abroad – since independence engchi U (Weiss & Aspinal, 2012; Ginandjar, 2016).. Another organization is Jam'iyyah Khairiyah Li Al-Thalabah Al-Azhariyah AlJawiyyah established in Egypt in 1927. Later, due to member diversity, it changed its name to Persatuan Pelajar Indonesia-Malaya in 1935 and the name has changed several times after that. There is limited research discussing this organization compared to their counterpart in the Netherlands. However, the students who studied in the Middle East, especially in Egypt and Mecca, contributed to Indonesia’s struggle for independence, especially by establishing education institutions for Indonesians who 12.

(23) could not access formal colonial education. In addition, these students were more populist than the students who graduated from the Netherlands or other colonial education systems. They also established several organizations with Islam as the main platform (Alles, 2015). Due to the domestic political conditions in Indonesia after independence and under the Suharto authoritative regime, the activity of Indonesian student associations in foreign countries became stagnant and did not have much development. However, during that time Indonesian students established several organizations, such as in Japan. 政治大 in 1981 (Hasjim, 2014; Ginandjar, 2016). 立. in 1953, in Germany in 1956, in the United States of America in 1961 and in Australia. When the Orde Baru/New Order Regime under Suharto started its. ‧ 國. 學. administration in the 1960s, they invited Indonesian graduate students from the. ‧. University of California - Berkeley to join the government. This group of students. y. Nat. studied in the United States under support from the Ford Foundation during the 1950s.. er. io. sit. They are known as the “Berkeley Mafia” and consist of several prominent figures such as Widjojo Nitisastro, Mohammad Sadli, Emil Salim, Subroto, and Ali Wardhana.. al. n. v i n C h were economists,Uand government expected them to Members of the Berkeley Mafia engchi improve Indonesia’s economic development after the impoverishment of the Soekarno. era. Despite controversies, this group successfully improved the Indonesian economy at that time. However, Indonesians consider this group to be “Suharto cronies” who contributed to the damage that the Asian Financial crisis inflicted on Indonesia in 1997 (Ginandjar, 2016). During the Indonesian reformation era (especially in 1998-2000), the Indonesian students who studied abroad contributed to the reform. Several prominent reformation leaders returned to Indonesia and organized the reformation movement. In 13.

(24) addition, students continued to look for international support to take down Suharto and promote democratization. However, after the democratization era (especially after 2004), the role of Indonesian students who studied abroad changed. Indonesian students tried to stay away from politics and focus more on social activities, especially introducing Indonesia to the international public, encouraging Indonesian youngsters to study abroad and supporting several social and humanitarian activities in Indonesia (Hasjim, 2013; Ginandjar, 2016). Indonesian students made a great contribution to nation and state building.. 政治大 role of Indonesian students who studied in Indonesia in taking down the regime in the 立 However, previous research about Indonesian student activism focused more on the. colonial era, the Soekarno era, Suharto era and the era of Indonesian democratization. ‧ 國. 學. (Douglas, 1970; Fischer, 1971; Cheong, 1974; Aspinal, 2012). Consequently, there is. sit. y. Nat. with the role of their counterparts studying abroad.. ‧. a gap between the research that investigates the role of Indonesian students in Indonesia. io. er. There are two previous studies discussing the role of Indonesian students who study abroad in Indonesia’s nation and state building. They discuss Indonesian students. al. n. v i n in Germany (Hasjim, 2014)C and the Netherlands (Ginandjar, 2016). Hasjim explained hengchi U the trajectory of activism of Indonesian students in the capital of Germany since the. 1960s and described the evolution of specific student organizations, the issues and topics they tackled, and also their media and networking strategies. Ginandjar, on another hand, explained how PPI Belanda (Netherlands) developed during the different regimes in Indonesia from Orde Lama to Post-reformasi and how PPI Belanda reacted to each regime. In addition, he described how the previous and current PPI organized itself in terms of constitution, purpose, membership policy, and medium of information, activities, and source of funding. However, Indonesia student organizations in both 14.

(25) countries have contributed to bilateral relations and nation building for more than 50 years. In addition, both of the countries have a long diplomatic history with Indonesia, and Indonesia has granted formal diplomatic recognition to both countries for more than 50 years. Even though previous research has indicated the important role of Indonesia students, but it is not clear whether these studies and their conclusions apply in the condition where Indonesian students study in a country that does not have formal diplomatic recognition from Indonesia, such as in Taiwan. 1.3.4 Research Related to Indonesia-Taiwan Relations. 政治大 the lack of formal diplomatic recognition and Indonesia’s adherence to the one-China 立. In recent years, relations between Indonesia and Taiwan have improved despite. ‧ 國. 學. principle. Previous research has widely investigated people-to-people relations between Indonesians and Taiwanese and their contributions to enhancing Indonesia-Taiwan. ‧. relations. However, the results are incomplete and consequently, many researchers (Ku,. sit. y. Nat. 2002; Kabinawa, 2013; Paramitha, 2013, 2015; Elias, 2013) have concluded that more. io. er. research is needed in this area.. Samuel C. Y Ku (2002) discusses Indonesia’s relations with Taiwan and China.. al. n. v i n C hrelations with Taiwan Ku argued that Indonesia's early e n g c h i U and China were determined by politics. However, because of recent changes, this has shifted from politics to. economics. Ku believes that the economic factor will continue to determine Indonesia’s relations with Taiwan and China in the near future. Ku’s paper is preliminary research in English that discusses Indonesia and Taiwan relations. However, this research is dated and new research is needed due to significant changes in the relationship between the three parties over the last 15 years. Luh Nyoman R.W Kabinawa (2013) continued Ku’s research on IndonesiaTaiwan relations in her master’s thesis. As Ku mentioned in his conclusion, future 15.

(26) research needs to discuss the economic relations between Indonesia and Taiwan, Kabinawa develops the study to examine the reasons behind how Indonesia maintained its economic and socio-cultural ties with Taiwan even without political diplomatic recognition. According to Kabinawa, Indonesia is able to maintain its sustainable economic and socio-cultural relations with Taiwan because the Indonesian people serve as idea promoters to lead interactions with Taiwan. This master’s thesis provides substantial information about Taiwan and Indonesia relations, and its analysis makes a significant contribution to Indonesia-Taiwan relations research. While Kabinawa’s. 政治大 Indonesia-Taiwan relations; however Kabinawa did not emphasize student activities 立. research elaborates the activities of Indonesians, including students, toward enhancing. nor their contribution toward enhancing the relationship between Indonesia and Taiwan.. ‧ 國. 學. In “Enhancing People to People Cooperation between ASEAN and East Asia. ‧. Countries through Counterparts: The case of Indonesian Students in Taiwan”, Paramita. sit. y. Nat. (2013) discussed the possibility for Indonesian students to build mutual interaction. io. er. between Indonesia and Taiwan, and to eliminate the negative perception that Taiwanese hold about Indonesia. In her second paper, “Economic Diplomacy, Soft Power, and. al. n. v i n with C Indonesia”, Paramitaningrum hengchi U. Taiwan’s Relations. (2016) discussed recent. developments in Taiwan-Indonesia relations. She identifies the diverse effort that Taiwan has made to secure and improve its relationship with Indonesia, amid increasingly cordial relation between Indonesia and China. Among its efforts, Taiwan has used the attractiveness of economic resources to achieve better recognition from Indonesia. The Taiwan government combines “economic diplomacy” practice with soft power, for example in its cooperation in the education sector and via educational exchange programs. Both of these pieces of research show the importance of peopleto-people relations in shaping Indonesia-Taiwan relations. However, both of the papers 16.

(27) discuss the general conditions of Indonesia-Taiwan relation and lack detailed elaboration about the activities conducted by each party. In other research, Rangga Aditya Elias (2013) examines the potential factors influencing Indonesian students who study in Taiwan to support Taiwan interests for bilateral cooperation with Indonesia in his paper entitled “Invisible Agent in IndonesiaTaiwan Cooperation”. His paper explained Indonesian student categories in Taiwan, their organization, and their community patterns. Elias divides Indonesian students into three categories: overseas Chinese, government officers and scholars. In addition, Elias. 政治大 establishment and their activity. Elias’ research merely focuses on the student 立. briefly describes three Indonesian student associations in Taiwan, the reason for the. organization patterns of Indonesian students in Taiwan. Elias noted that his research. ‧ 國. 學. needs more elaboration to broaden the information and analysis to explain Indonesian. ‧. student activities and their contribution to Indonesia-Taiwan relations.. sit. y. Nat. To summarize, Kabinawa (2013) argues that despite the lack of formal. io. er. diplomatic recognition from Indonesia to Taiwan, Indonesia can maintain its durable economic and social relationships with Taiwan because of the existence of people and. al. n. v i n C h the ties between non-state institutions that strengthen Indonesia and Taiwan. This engchi U. argument is supported by Paramitha (2013, 2016) who affirms that people-to-people relations enhance the relations between Indonesia and Taiwan, and both countries must support and improve them to build mutual relations between the two countries. In addition, Elias (2013) concludes that Indonesian students are one of the potential agents to enhance Indonesia-Taiwan cooperation through people-to-people relations. This shows that all of the researchers recognize the importance of the role Indonesian students play in enhancing relations between Indonesia and Taiwan. However, none of the researchers deeply elaborated on Indonesian student activities in Taiwan from a 17.

(28) public diplomacy perspective. Therefore, this research will fill this gap and enhance the research related to this topic. 1.4 Analytical Framework and Research Questions As mentioned in the previous part, this thesis applies the concept of new public diplomacy, employing the relational framework perspective of public diplomacy. According to this framework, public diplomacy initiatives focus on identifying and building relationships. In this respect, building relationships is not a means for enhancing individual national images or policies, but an end in itself that contributes to. 政治大 diplomacy is seen as a process, not merely a product. The public is seen as active 立. a better international environment” (Zaharna in Snow 2009, p. 91). In this regard, public. ‧ 國. 學. participants, stakeholders, and constituencies of public diplomacy. The concept focuses on the questions of what relationships are important and how those relationships can be. ‧. established or strengthened (Zaharna in Snow, 2009). Furthermore, this framework. sit. y. Nat. features coordinators rather than control. There are efforts to establish a strong. io. er. relationship based on mutuality, reciprocity, and trust. It focuses on establishing. al. interactive communication channels, then enhancing or expanding those channels.. n. v i n categorizedC relational into three U h e n g initiatives i h c. Zaharna. tiers based on the. relationship building strategy. First tier relationship-building initiatives are the most elementary level, focusing on the individual level within a limited time frame, such as cultural and educational exchange programs and leadership visits. Second tier relationship-building initiatives expand participation in social groupings such as institutions, communities, or societies. Public diplomacy can be used to establish interpersonal communication channels, coordinating direct, sustained, and positive contact with counterparts and between the participants, as well as developing and expanding the relationship. This second tier includes cultural and language institutes, 18.

(29) development aid projects, “twinning” arrangements, relationship-building campaigns, and non-political networking schemes. The third tier of relationship-building in public diplomacy involves policy networking strategies that incorporate coalition building with other countries and non-state actors to achieve policy objectives. In terms of Indonesia and Taiwan relations, due to the absence of formal diplomatic recognition, both countries rely on people-to-people relations. From the Indonesia side, there are several agents of people-to-people relations such as Indonesian businesspeople, Indonesian migrant workers, and Indonesian students. Figure 1.1 Agents of people-to-people relations between Taiwan and Indonesia.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. i n U. v. Source: Adapted from Economic and Socio-Culture Relations between Indonesia and Taiwan: An Indonesian Perspective 1990-2012 (p.27) by Kabinawa, Luh N. R. W, 2013, Master’s Thesis National Sun Yat-sen University. engchi. The absence of formal diplomatic relations is addressed by Taiwan and Indonesia through other means, one of them being people-to-people relations including the role of students as agents of mutual understanding. As Taiwan includes the internationalization of education as one of its public diplomacy tools, educational exchange is expected to bridge the mutual relationship between Taiwan and Indonesia. In this regard, students as a part of the Indonesian public are also agents of public diplomacy due to their involvement in educational exchange programs. Students 19.

(30) maintain relationships with the Indonesian public, Taiwanese public, Indonesian government and Taiwanese government. Figure 1.2 Students as one of the agents of public diplomacy. 政治大. 立. ‧ 國. 學. This thesis supports that the public are active participants, stakeholders, and constituencies of public diplomacy. In this thesis, the public being discussed is. ‧. Indonesian students. This thesis examines to what extent Indonesian students have. Nat. sit. y. participated in public diplomacy, how their participation has contributed to public. n. al. er. io. diplomacy, and how they establish interactive communication channels and then. i n U. v. enhance or expand those channels. This thesis will also show the transformation of. Ch. engchi. Taiwan’s public diplomacy from the first tier of public diplomacy into the second tier of public diplomacy through the active involvement of Indonesian students in public diplomacy. Therefore, the research questions to be answered in this thesis are: 1. How do Indonesian students establish their organizations and organize their events, contributing to the Indonesian community in Taiwan and bridging IndonesianTaiwan relations as well? 2. Why are Indonesian students able to be successful in conducting their services and being supported by various institutions and communities? 3. How is it possible to extend public diplomacy between Indonesia and Taiwan 20.

(31) through educational exchange and cooperation? 1.5 Research Method This thesis is based on a qualitative method using participant observation. The researcher has joined, been involved with, and participated in several organizations and Indonesian student activities from 2015-2018. In addition, the researcher’s position as the secretary of the Indonesia Student Association in Taiwan (PPI Taiwan) from 2016 to 2017 and as the head of the committee of the Regional Symposium of PPI AsiaOceania and International Symposium of PPI Taiwan in March 2017 provide valuable. 政治大 Indonesian student organization document reports, Indonesia and Taiwan government 立 primary data for this research. For the document analysis, this research will use. ‧ 國. 1.6 Structure of Thesis. 學. reports, statistical data, newspapers, and websites.. ‧. Chapter I Introduction. sit. y. Nat. This part is the introduction chapter to introduce the research objective, historical. io. al. as well as the methodology of the research.. er. background of the topic, literature review, analytic framework and research question,. n. v i n C h Students, Indonesia-Taiwan Chapter II Overview of Indonesian Cooperation and engchi U Education Policy This part will introduce examples of the social capital garnered by Indonesian students, for example in the form of their transnational student organization (OISAA), which has chapters all around the world. The second part of this chapter will describe the education cooperation between Indonesia and Taiwan and provide a brief overview of government efforts to increase Indonesian student numbers in Taiwan. In the last part of this chapter, I will discuss Indonesian student conditions in Taiwan, as well as the efforts and policy packages of the Taiwan government to attract Indonesian students 21.

(32) and how these have increased Indonesian student numbers in Taiwan. Chapter III Indonesian Student Associations and Their Activities This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part explains the four types of Indonesian student associations in Taiwan. The second part highlights their activities in Taiwan that are related to the so-called new public diplomacy. The third part discusses the factors influencing Indonesian students to establish these associations and conduct their activities. Chapter IV Conclusion. 政治大 research questions will be answered in this part. In addition, this part will explain the 立. This part will provide the conclusion and suggestions emerging from the research. The. contribution of the research to the development of the new public diplomacy approach,. ‧ 國. 學. Indonesian student activities, and Indonesia-Taiwan relations. Finally, this part will. ‧. suggest some opportunities that could be seized either by the Indonesia side or Taiwan. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. side to maximize the benefits of their public diplomacy.. Ch. engchi. 22. i n U. v.

(33) Chapter II Overview of Indonesian Students, Indonesia-Taiwan Cooperation and Education Policy This chapter will give a brief introduction to the state of Indonesian international study and demonstrate that it is still in a developing phase. The Indonesian government and citizens are working to improve this condition and one area of focus for the efforts is to improve the quality of education in Indonesia. This has led to an increase in the. 政治大. number of Indonesian students that study abroad. This part will introduce examples of. 立. the social capital garnered by Indonesian students, for example in the form of their. ‧ 國. 學. transnational student organization (OISAA), which has chapters all around the world.. ‧. A brief review of OISAA will provide a portrait of the nature of Indonesian students abroad and set the stage for further discussion in Chapter 3 on Indonesian student. io. sit. y. Nat. activity in Taiwan.. n. al. er. Based on an analytical framework developed from Chapter 1, this thesis. Ch. i n U. v. emphasizes that the internationalization of higher education in Taiwan is a component. engchi. of public diplomacy initiatives envisaged by the Taiwan government (Ma, 2013). At the same time, the Indonesian government and public welcome the initiatives of the Taiwan government. As a result of these conditions, there are several cooperation initiatives between Taiwan and Indonesia, not only cultivating educational exchanges between the two countries but also increasing the number of Indonesian students in Taiwan. Therefore, the second part of this chapter will describe the education cooperation between Indonesia and Taiwan and provide a brief overview of government efforts to increase Indonesian student numbers in Taiwan. In the last part of this chapter, I will discuss Indonesian student conditions in 23.

(34) Taiwan, as well as the efforts and policy packages of the Taiwan government to attract Indonesian students and how these have increased Indonesian student numbers in Taiwan. As a result of these initiatives, Indonesian students have become one of the main sources of international students in Taiwan. The last part of this chapter will also include a statistical comparison of Indonesian student numbers in Taiwan compared to students from other countries. We will also review the distinct conditions between Indonesia and Malaysia in order to explain why the number of Indonesian students still lags the number of Malaysian students. I will also compare the social capital of the two. 政治大 numbers is still far behind Malaysian students. 立. countries. This distinction can be a reference to find the reason why Indonesian student. 2.1 Indonesian Students and Groups in Taiwan and Beyond. ‧ 國. 學. According to UNESCO, the top five destinations for Indonesian students. ‧. studying abroad are Australia, the United States, Malaysia, Japan and Egypt. However, the total number of Indonesian students studying abroad is unclear as neither the. y. Nat. io. sit. Indonesian government nor intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO have. n. al. er. complete statistics. Based on OECD reports, the number of Indonesian students. Ch. i n U. v. studying abroad lags far behind China and India, as well as counterparts in southeast. engchi. Asia such as Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. Reasons for this include lack of information, language barriers and an administrative system which does not encourage Indonesians to study abroad (OECD, 2015). According to the Ministry of Research and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia, the number of Indonesians studying abroad saw a marked increase after 2012 when the Indonesian government established the Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan (LPDP, Education Fund Management Institution) under the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia. This institution manages scholarship funds such as Beasiswa Pendidikan Indonesia (Indonesia Education Scholarship), Beasiswa Presiden 24.

(35) Indonesia (Indonesia Presidential Scholarship), and Beasiswa Afirmasi (Affirmation Scholarship for special regions) for Indonesians to pursue master’s and doctoral degrees in universities either in Indonesia or abroad. In addition, this institution also provides scholarships for theses, dissertations, research and publications. The scholarship has increased the number of Indonesians studying abroad while advancing Indonesian student activities and organizations abroad. However, there are only five Taiwan universities included among the LPDP destination universities because these universities are chosen based on the 250 Best Universities which publish by LPDP. 政治大 Most of the recipients choose the United States, the United Kingdom or Australia as 立 every year. Moreover, Taiwan is not a top destination for these scholarship recipients.. their study destination.. ‧ 國. 學. The Indonesian government under the Directorate General on Higher Education. ‧. (DIKTI/Direktorat Pendidikan Tinggi) provides scholarships for Indonesian lecturers. sit. y. Nat. to advance their education in degree or non-degree programs, some of which may be. io. er. used for study abroad. Furthermore, DIKTI has also developed cooperative initiatives with several countries, including Taiwan, to train Indonesian lecturers. This effort has. n. al. C h who study abroad.U n i increased the number of Indonesians engchi. v. Indonesian students studying abroad have established student organizations.. The oldest Indonesian student association is Indonesian Student Association in the Netherlands (Indische Vereeniging later changed to Indonesische Vereeniging), established in 1908. One of the aims of this organization was to fight for Indonesian independence. Another association, Jam’iyyah Khairiyah Li al-Thalabah al-Azhariyah al-Jawiyyah, was established in Egypt in 1927 as a platform for Javanese students studying in Egypt. As the diversity of members grew, it changed its name to Persatuan Pelajar Indonesia-Malaya in 1935 and has yet again changed its name several times 25.

(36) since then. However, due to domestic political conditions in Indonesia after independence and under the totalitarian regime of Suharto, Indonesian student associations became stagnant and development slowed. However, during the Suharto era, several Indonesian student organizations were established, including in Japan in 1953, Germany (1956), the United States (1961) and Australia (1981). Following the democratization of Indonesia in 1998, Indonesian students embraced the freedom to establish associations and express their ideas in public and established Indonesian student associations in the countries in which they studied.. 政治大 Realizing the importance of connection to make a bigger impact, Indonesian students 立 However, these organizations were quite isolated and did not connect with each other.. established the Overseas Indonesian Student Association Alliance (OISAA) on. ‧ 國. 學. September 9, 2007, in Sydney, Australia. The establishment of OISAA encouraged. ‧. Indonesian students in several countries to establish local chapters, including in Taiwan.. sit. y. Nat. OISAA has become the main student platform for Indonesian students around. io. er. the world. The alliance consists of 52 members worldwide, with each country represented by one organization. The organizations founded after the establishment of. al. n. v i n OISAA are referred to as PPI C (Perhimpunan Pelajar h e n g c h i UIndonesia/Indonesian Student Association), while organizations established before the founding of OISAA use another name that is usually translated as Indonesian Student Association in English. According to its AD/ART (Anggaran Dasar/Anggaran Rumah Tangga, Statutes), OISAA is an independent body that is not affiliated with any political party and does not operate under any government body. However, OISAA members often become partners of the Indonesian representative office in each country. The structure of the OISAA consists of Presiding Board and Autonomous Bodies that is elected during an international symposium. 26.

(37) OISAA holds an international symposium at least once every two years, and as of 2017 it had already been held nine times. The international symposium is the highest deliberation channel of OISAA. The symposium consists of several events such as public lectures, panel discussions and commission meetings. Based on the OISAA constitution, the aim of the international symposium is to discuss the report of the presiding board, to elect and appoint the presidium board and to arrange and plan programs and activities for OISAA over the next year. This symposium is also a place to raise issues related to Indonesian student problems abroad. One of the success stories. 政治大 make a regulation related to converting Grade Point Averages (GPA) for Indonesians 立 of the symposium is that OISAA successfully urged the Indonesian government to. diplomas adjusted to the Indonesian standard.. 學. ‧ 國. who studied abroad, such that when they return home they are able to have their. ‧. Besides the international symposium, there are also other symposiums held in. sit. y. Nat. each region. The regional symposiums aim to discuss issues that will come to the fore. io. er. in the international symposiums such as presidium elections, the venue for the next symposium and issues related to the interests of the member of each region. One of the. al. n. v i n issues that is frequently raised C by PPI Taiwan duringU h e n g c h i the international symposium is. the need for an Indonesian education representative for Taiwan. There is also a session on sharing practices by each association representative. In this session, the association representative presents the current activities of each association and other members can raise questions. This discussion sometimes triggers other associations to adopt similar programs and to cooperate with each other to develop their programs. Regional symposiums have been newly adopted and the first Asia-Oceania regional symposium was conducted by PPI Tiongkok in 2016 in Hong Kong. Taiwan hosted the second Asia-Oceania symposium in March 2017. 27.

(38) In addition, there are international meetings (mostly online) that are conducted at least three times a year and attended by the presidium board and the president of OISAA. The international meeting aims to discuss, supervise and evaluate the implementation of symposium results, to report OISAA activities and plans, and to decide the next OISAA agenda. The international meeting is also the place to discuss new member applications, to accept or reject new members, and to dismiss members. OISAA has two kinds of members, both of which are appointed in the international symposium. Firstly, regular members of worldwide Indonesian student. 政治大 in Indonesia. The OISAA presidium board is the highest structure of OISAA. Presidium 立. associations, and secondly, outstanding members of the Indonesian student association. board members consist of the representatives of Indonesian Student Association from. ‧ 國. 學. each region (North America & Europe, Middle East & Africa, and Asia & Oceania).. ‧. They are also appointed in the international symposium. Their main duty is to. sit. y. Nat. coordinate OISAA members in each region. The presidium board is led by the. io. er. coordinator of the presidium board and serves for one year. She/he represents the country PPI and participates not as an individual but as a representative. The. al. n. v i n coordinator is in charge of allC OISAA activities, both h e n g c h i U internal activities involving OISAA members and its autonomous bodies (described below), and external activities. The PPI Taiwan representative has served on the OISAA presidium board several times. OISAA has two autonomous bodies which are Radio PPI Dunia and Lembaga Sosial PPI Dunia. Radio PPI Dunia is the media arm broadcasting OISAA news and its member activities, while Lembaga Sosial PPI Dunia is a social body to accommodate the social activities of OISAA especially humanitarian activities. PPI Taiwan has been actively involved in both of these autonomous bodies. In addition, there are also two research teams; the West Papua research team and the Nuclear 28.

(39) Research team. Furthermore, OISAA holds a Study Abroad Festival (Festival Luar Negri) at several universities and schools in Indonesia where OISAA members (including PPI Taiwan) participated to promote their country of study. OISAA also has partnerships with several national media outlets such as newspapers, television stations, or radio stations. OISAA is a unique organization, able to serve as a platform for Indonesian students around the world. The activities of the Indonesian student association in each country is dependent on the number of students and alumni support, support from the. 政治大 country. However, there are still issues in the organization that need to be addressed 立 local Indonesian diplomatic office, and support from the local government of the host. such as the lack of coordination among members, the organization of membership and. ‧ 國. 學. time, the lack of strong leadership, as well as the limited power and influence inherent. ‧. to every student. Despite these weaknesses, this transnational student organization is a. sit. y. Nat. form of social capital that opens opportunities for cooperation and partnership. 2.2 Indonesia-Taiwan Cooperation on Education. io. n. al. er. Indonesian students’ presence in Taiwan is inseparable from government policy. Ch. i n U. v. on both the Taiwanese side and Indonesian side. However, the pull factor from the. engchi. Taiwan government has been instrumental in the increase of Indonesian student numbers in Taiwan, with the Taiwan government policy related to international students a key contributor. International students in Taiwan consist of foreign students and overseas Chinese students with these two groups distinguished by the procedure by which they were recruited and their background. The “overseas Chinese student” designation refers to those of Chinese ancestry who was born and raised overseas until the time of school application, or Taiwanese citizens residing overseas for at least six consecutive years and who acquired visas to study abroad. The regulations also limit the definition of “overseas” to countries or regions other than Mainland China, Hong 29.

(40) Kong, and Macau. Meanwhile, the “foreign student” designation refers to those who are students of foreign nationality who have never held Taiwanese nationality and do not possess overseas Chinese student status at the time of application (Ma, 2013). According to Ma (2013), there were three phases of Taiwan government policy toward the internationalization of education. The first phase was between 1950 and 1986 when the Taiwan government only recruited overseas Chinese students who mostly come from Southeast Asia. At that time, the Taiwan government under the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT) attracted overseas Chinese to support. 政治大 communism. The second phase was between 1987 and 1999 when Taiwan was in the 立. their nationalist point of view and their attempt to prevent the infiltration of Chinese. midst of reform process. This reform also affected the education sector and saw. ‧ 國. 學. Taiwanese demand that the government improve education quality. In addition, the. ‧. recruitment policy for overseas Chinese was modified such that the qualification. sit. y. Nat. threshold was raised and the benefits granted to overseas Chinese students was reduced.. io. er. This caused a decrease in overseas Chinese student enrollment in Taiwan educational institutions. The third phase was from 2000 until 2011 when the Taiwan government. al. n. v i n C foreign and institutions aimed to recruit toU study in Taiwan because they h e n students i h gc. believed that growth in the number of foreign students was vital to future education development. This third phase as it pertains to the condition of Indonesian students in Taiwan will be further elaborated in the next part of this chapter (section 2.3). Efforts to develop the cooperation between Indonesia and Taiwan on education through government channels started in 2011 and focused on increasing the number of Indonesian students in Taiwan. On April 2011 Taiwan Ministry of Education (MOE) invited the representative from the Indonesian Ministry of Education to come to Taiwan and discuss several issues such as a memorandum of understanding (MOU) between 30.

(41) Indonesia and Taiwan on Higher Education Cooperation, also Research Cooperation and Teaching Staff training activities with scholarships offered by the Indonesian Ministry of National Education to pursue Masters or PhD degrees in Taiwan. One month after the meeting, on May 21, 2011, the Indonesian and Taiwan governments held the “Indonesia-Taiwan Higher Education Summit” in Bali. At the summit, TETO and IETO signed the MOU on “Cooperation in the Field of Higher Education”. In addition, Indonesia and Taiwan agreed they would: 1. Facilitate exchange programs between related higher education institutions. 政治大 institutions, inter alia the possibilities of credit transfer and the exchange of 立. 2. Support and facilitate cooperation between registered higher education. academic staff and experts. ‧ 國. 學. 3. Facilitate the exchange of students for the purpose of study and research with. sit. y. Nat. 4. Encourage joint research and international publications. ‧. terms and condition to be jointly decided by the relevant institutions. io. er. 5. Enable mutual recognition of degrees and professional qualifications awarded by the competent authorities according to the relevant regulations of related. n. al. institutions. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 6. Provide scholarships to students of related universities, depending on the availability of financial means. In addition, the summit discussed the “Indonesian Professional Training Project between Ministry of National Education of Republic Indonesia and Ministry of Education of Taiwan”. This program aimed to send one thousand university instructors as scholarship student to pursue doctoral degrees at selected universities in Taiwan from 2011 to 2016, with the scholarships coming from the Indonesia and Taiwan governments. The summit also agreed to hold the first Indonesia-Taiwan Higher 31.