行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫 成果報告
國際經驗、文化調適力、與工作回饋相關性之探討
研究成果報告(精簡版)
計 畫 類 別 ： 個別型 計 畫 編 號 ： NSC 98-2410-H-003-013- 執 行 期 間 ： 98 年 08 月 01 日至 99 年 07 月 31 日 執 行 單 位 ： 國立臺灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所 計 畫 主 持 人 ： 張女韋雯 計畫參與人員： 碩士班研究生-兼任助理人員：王芩芳 碩士班研究生-兼任助理人員：吳鎧伶 講師級-兼任助理人員：黃春滿 博士班研究生-兼任助理人員：袁宇熙 報 告 附 件 ： 出席國際會議研究心得報告及發表論文 處 理 方 式 ： 本計畫可公開查詢中 華 民 國 99 年 10 月 19 日
行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫
成果報告(精簡)
國際經驗、文化調適力、與工作回饋相關性之探討
計畫類別：■個別型計畫 □整合型計畫
計畫編號：NSC98-2410-H-003-013
執行期間：2009 年 8 月 1 日至 2010 年 7 月 30 日
執行機構及系所：
國立臺灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所
計畫主持人：張媁雯
計畫參與人員：黃春滿、王芩芳、吳鎧伶
成果報告類型：精簡報告
本計畫除繳交成果報告外，另須繳交以下出國心得報告：
■出席國際學術會議心得報告
處理方式：除列管計畫及下列情形者外，得立即公開查詢
中 華 民 國 99 年 10 月 15 日
國際經驗、文化調適力、與工作回饋相關性之探討 摘 要 在全球化的今日，來自不同文化的人在國際的平台中合作與競爭，如此國際化的發 展已成為一股不可遏止的浪潮，也在全球各地對人力資源發展產生重大影響。面對國際 化的趨勢，即使對於國內的工作人員，組織也逐漸開始要求人員發展多元文化的能力。 多元文化的調適能力不再僅只是派外人員所需具備的條件，它也成為許多專業職場中對 工作人員的能力發展的普遍目標。 由於增加國際經驗往往被視為是提昇國際文化能力的方法之一，因此，本研究探討 兩項議題：國際經驗與文化調適力之特質是否相關、以及國際經驗與文化調適力是否反 映在員工在職場的工作回饋。透過 359 位在職人員之實證資料分析，本研究發現國際經 驗與文化能力及工作回饋等因素具有相關性，其研究結果有助瞭解「國際經驗」在國際 人才培訓中之運用、以及「國際經驗」、「文化調適力」、「工作回饋」之相關性。可作為 未來訓練設計及國際人力發展之參考。 關鍵詞：國際經驗、文化調適力、工作回饋
The Relationship among International Experience, Cultural Adaptability, and Job Reward
Abstract
Faced with the challenges of globalization, many organizations attempt to develop employees’ global abilities by increasing their international experience. This study examines the relationship among international experience, cultural adaptability, and job reward from the perspective of 359 employees in Taiwan. We present and test a model of perceived IE outcomes using structural equation modeling. Results showed positive relation between intercultural experience and cultural adaptability, and also between cultural adaptability and job reward. The result of this study indicates that international experience can serve as a training strategy to enhance individuals’ competence for better adapting to different cultural environment.
The Relationship among International Experience, Cultural Adaptability, and Job Reward
Global issues and intercultural competence has received wide recognition in literature. In this getting flat world, the interdependence among people with different cultures has significantly increased (Friedman, 2006). In a global village, many jobs require individuals to learn to operate effectively in a variety of different countries and with individuals who
possess different values and orientations than themselves (Black, 1990; Noe & Ford, 1992). Workers need to be increasingly adaptable, versatile, and tolerant of uncertainty to operate effectively in these changing and varied environments. The competence for adapting to different cultures play critical role for professionals in various professional areas. For
example, in business, global economy international interaction has become daily activities for multinational organizations. As Bartlett and Ghoshal (2000) noted that, in today's global markets, organizations don't have to go abroad to experience international competition because ―sooner or later the world comes to you.‖ (p.139). Even for employees who may never work overseas, ―it is necessary to constantly sensitize everyone to the fact that they are in a global business‖, a business executive emphasized (cited in Mendenhall & Stahl, 2000, p. 256). Similarly, in non-profit organizations, amounts of international issues such as
environmental problems, food shortage and humanitarian emergency (e.g., Cylcone Nargis Disaster in Myanmar in 2008, earthquake in Si Chuan Province, China) rely on corporations among different countries to alleviate the crises and generate a solution. For international humanitarian workers, the major challenge often does not lie on the professional technique but on their ability to adapt and function in different cultural areas (Chang, 2007). Moreover, in health care field, more immigration flows also increases the need for medical people to communicate inter-culturally with people from different backgrounds (Bazaldua & Sias, 2004; Campinha-Bacote, 2002).
In these professional areas, international ability is becoming requirement not only for expatriate but also for domestic workers who involve intercultural projects. Organizations need both expatriate and domestic workers to handle projects in cross-cultural context. In the past decades, high failure rates of international missions have increased the awareness and attention on intercultural competence in organizations (Hall, 1960; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Beitler & Frady, 2001). The performance quality, no matter in business or non-profit arena, relies on not only professional knowledge, but also intercultural ability. While the attention to intercultural adaptability has become more pervasive, this study examines its association with international experience, a widely-used learning approach for enhance diverse worldview and adaptability.
This study used sample from Taiwan as research participants. The efforts for
internationalization are prominent in Taiwan. In the past a few decades, Taiwan has promoted several important policies to respond the opportunities and challenges in globalization era. For example, in the National Critical Development Plan, the government has conducted the programs of Internationalization of Teaching in Higher Education and Building English Living Environment (Taiwan Institute of Economic Research, 2007). In addition, amounts of universities have plans for exchanging students with various countries, and some school programs set international experience as the requirement for graduation. Taiwan can represent as an example which actively attempts to connect with the international world. Therefore, in this study, we used the sample from Taiwan to examine the relation among international experience, cultural adaptability, and job reward
Our purpose in this study is to contribute to the growing body of literature on intercultural learning in three important ways. First, through collecting employees’
empirically examine the belief that IE can enhance people’s openness and ability for adapting to new environment. Second, past research, although informative, has often discussed the relationship between the training program and work performance rather than learning outcomes from training. This study viewed cultural adaptability as a learning outcome and explored its association with IE. Finally, while many studies focused on expatriate workers’ adaptability in specific cultures, this study took cultural-general perspective and did not limit sample merely on expatriate workers. The unit for data analysis is individual worker instead of organizational outcomes.
Theoretical Background
The success of international missions is highly corrected with cultural adaptability, and it serves as a key factor for expatriate success (Magnini & Avril, 2007; Powers, 1992; Stone, 1991; Tung, 1981). Cultural adaptability concerns adapting to cultural demands within an organization (Chao, O’Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein, & Gardner, 1994) or a new country (Black, 1990). With the globalization of the management environment, the ability to perform
effectively in diverse environments is increasingly being recognized as important.Beyond simply learning about a new culture or environment, however, the key aspect of this ability involves successfully interacting with people from other cultures or integrating into a new cultural context by accepting and adjusting different customs, values, rules, and assumptions. Hall (1960) used frame of references to describe the people existing worldview shaped by their own cultures. Bennett (1998) used this terms and defined an adoption process as with enough understanding regarding different cultures in order to intentionally shift into a different cultural frame of reference.
In literature, researchers have attempted to identify the important attributes that comprise intercultural competence (Barnham & Oates, 1991; Caligiuri & Santo, 2001; Hiltrop & Janssesn, 1990; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Ronen, 1989; Tung, 1981). Studies suggested that global competence includes several dimensions, for example: cultural openness, adaptability, job knowledge and motivation, family support, and relational skills (Arthur & Bennett, 1995). Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney (1997) listed even more various characteristics, such as sensitive to cultural differences, business knowledge, courage to take a stand, brings out the best in people, acts with integrity, flexible, and culturally adventurous.
Based on collected opinions from cross-cultural professionals, Kelley & Meyers (1995) identified four connotations of cultural adaptability, including emotional resilience,
flexibility/openness, perceptual acuity, and personal autonomy. Emotional intelligence has been viewed as an important quality for cultural adaptation because it is an array of
capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to cope with environmental demands (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). In addition, Magnini & Avril (2007) indentified several components in emotional intelligence, such as open-mindedness, self-reliance, and tolerance for ambiguity. Ability to mange stress and emotion, willingness to openly communicate with different people and viewpoints, and capacity to work independently are deemed as critical characteristics that compose cultural adaptability. This study includes these characteristics in the measure for adaptability.
Gaining international experience can be used for cultural-general and cultural-specific purposes. For both expatriates and domestic workers, increasing international experience, such as going or living abroad and contact people internationally, is used as an important method to enhance people’s global competence. Some companies arrange shadowing opportunities in which employees take responsibilities for a country operation prior to moving across to that country (Brewster & Pickard, 1994). Multinational organizations often use expatriate missions to help managers acquire international skills (Collen & Parboteeah, 2005), and some even require that international experience should be a perquisite for higher
level management position (Suutari & Burch, 2001). In other words, international experience often provide opportunities for participants to experience cultural shock in which more cross-cultural ability can be gain. Studies have shown that effective global managers often suffer from the sever culture shock (Ratiu, 1983; Zakaria, 2000). Thus, we expect
international experience is associated with cultural adaptability.
In addition, research supports that proper training has a positive relationship with work performance(Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Magnini & Avril, 2007; Okeefe, 2003), and the tie between training and employee satisfaction is strong (Magnin & Ford, 2004). Competence development and job performance can enhance employees’ satisfaction for the job. Thus, we expect international experience and adaptability are associated with job reward.
Hypothesis 1: Employees’ international experience is associated with their cultural adaptability.
Hypothesis 2: International experience is associated with job reward Hypothesis 3: Cultural adaptability is associated with job reward
Research Methods Data Collection and Participants
For research purpose, this study used the database of Taiwan Social Change Survey (TSCS) and selected total 359 samples as the data source for this study.
The Taiwan Social Change Survey (TSCS) tracks the long-term trends of social changes in Taiwan and provides insight into them through national representative survey data on various topics. This database archives baseline information about Taiwanese society by surveying the general adult population through rigorous sampling designs, which helps researchers understand social change from longitudinal perspectives. With more than 80,000 interviews completed over the past 23 years, the TSCS has become one of the largest survey series among all of the general social surveys in the world (Smith, Kim, Koch, & Park, 2005; cited in Taiwan Social Change Survey Introduction, 2008). The data used for this study was conducted in 2005 in which the survey included questions regarding globalization and work situation which met the need of this study.
As mentioned, in order to understand the relation among the three factors in the
organizational context, organizational type and size were used as criteria for sample selection. First, this study included employees only in private companies or public institutes but
excluded self-owned home office (SOHO). Second, because organizational size often had impact on the implementation of employee development (Werner & Desimone, 2006), this study included only organizations with employees over 100 but excluded small business. In addition, to meet computational requirements for complete data and to maintain a favorable ratio of respondents to the number of estimated parameters in the ensuing analyses, we deleted samples with missing values in the selected variables for this study. Based on these criteria, total 359 samples were selected for statistical analysis (202 male, 157 female). Their age was classified into five groups. The highest proportion is the group of age 31 to 40 years old (36.8%); the second is the group of age 41 to 50 years old (29.8%); the third is the group of age 51 to 60 years old (18.7%); the fourth is the group of age less than 30 years old (12.0%) and the least group is age over 61 years old (2.8%). The details of demographic
characteristics of selected 359 samples were summarized in table 1as following.
The analyzed result shows that the average age of samples were in the prime of life (41.5 years old); 51.3% were more than 41 years old and 46.7% were younger than 40 years old which means that the survey samples were mainly on adult is helpful for reach the research purpose.
The analyzed education level indicated that the samples who received bachelor degree or above (67.6%) more than equal or below senior high school graduates (32.4%) which means
that the most Taiwanese had been well educated and it will increase the reliability of this research.
From the result of the work experience is 16.8 years in average, slight over half samples were worked over 16 years (51.3%); the work experience of others were under 15 years (48.7%). Mainly group were 6 to 15 years (124 cases) and 16 to 25 years (115 cases) work experience in this study which means that the survey samples were ripe worker with stabilized career life can support this research purpose.
Table 1.
The Demographic Variables of selected samples (n=359)
Demographic
variables Content of categories
Number of selected samples Percentage (%) Gender Female 157 43.7 Male 202 56.3 Age
Less then 30 years old 43 12.0 31 to 40 years old 132 36.7 41 to 50 years old 107 29.8 51 to 60 years old 67 18.7 Over 61 years old 10 2.8
Education
Elementary School 3 0.9 High School 113 31.5 College/University 194 54.0 Master/ Doctoral Degree 49 13.6 Responsible for
management
No 239 66.6
Yes 120 33.4
Work Experience
Less than 5 years 51 14.2 6 to 15 years 124 34.5 16 to 25 years 115 32.0 26 to 35 years 61 17.0 Over 36 years 8 2.2
Monthly income
Less then 30 thousand 16 4.5 40 to 80 thousand 277 77.2 90 to 130 thousand 51 14.2 140 to 180 thousand 10 2.8 Over 190 thousand 5 1.4
The average income is NTD. 67,500 per month, 81.7% samples were earned less then NTD. 80,000 in a month.
Measure Constructs
The model built by this study included three latent variable, international experience, cultural adaptability, and job reward. The items selection followed three steps. First,
according to the definition from literature, we selected relevant items. Second, we conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to first sifted items. Third, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was then applied helping for the final selection. After these three steps, total 12 items were included in the measures and belonged to three latent variables.
Data Analysis
The next step in our hypotheses testing was to submit our proposed models into structural equation modeling (SEM). SEM involves the use of a generalized multi-equation framework to specify, estimate, and test hypothesized relations among a set of variables that
comprise a theoretical model. It takes into account the modeling of interactions, nonlinearities, correlated independents, measurement error, and correlated error terms. Advantages also include use of confirmatory factor analysis, the ability to test models with multiple
dependents, the ability to model error terms, and the ability to handle difficult data (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991).
The SEM model consists of two parts — the measurement model and the structural model. The indicators used to measure the theoretical constructs are specified in the measurement model. The hypothesized relationships among the theoretical constructs are specified in the structural model (Hughes et al., 1986). A two-stage SEM approach was adopted for this analysis in order to first assess the quality of the measurement items before proceeding to the second stage where the structural model is estimated (Hulland, Chow, & Lam, 1996; Anderson & Gerbing, 1991; Hair et al., 1995). The alternative single-stage approach is appropriate if the model contains highly reliable measures. Because we selected and rearranged items from the existing database, we followed the two-stage approach.
A matrix containing the covariances among the latent item-indicators was used as input to separately estimate (a) the effects of the individual indicators used to measure each latent construct (i.e., measurement model), and (b) relations among the latent constructs (i.e., structural model). We used maximum-likelihood (ML) estimation. ML is based on
minimizing the discrepancy between the covariance matrix for a set of measured variables and the covariance matrix implied by a theoretically specified model. We assessed model fit, the extent to which an observed covariance matrix is congruent with an implied covariance matrix, using various goodness-of-fit criteria. A model fits well when there is minimal discrepancy between the observed covariances among a set of measured variables and the covariances among those variables as implied by a target (i.e., specified) model.
Measurement Model Evaluation
An advantage of SEM is that it can model the relations between latent constructs as errorfree indices reflecting the variance shared by multiple item-indicators of the latent constructs. In the present application, we modeled the study’s three latent constructs that corresponded to a 3-item international experience factor, a 6-item adaptability factor, and a 3-item job reward.
Table 2
Factor loadings, T values, and composite reliability Factor loading (standardized) T Value Composite Reliability IE1 0.54 7.47* 0.60 IE2 0.45 6.67* IE3 0.73 8.66* ADT1 0.24 --* 0.61 ADT2 0.49 3.42* ADT3 0.61 3.53* ADT4 0.26 2.78* ADT5 0.49 3.43* ADT6 0.58 3.52* JR1 0.52 --* 0.65 JR2 0.69 6.26* JR3 0.62 6.46*
To further determine how well the specified measurement model fit the observed data, we next examined the item reliability and convergent validity of the individual latent constructs through estimates of factor loading and composite reliability (Raykov, 1997). These estimates (see Table 2) are based on standardized parameter estimates from the specified measurement model. Factor loadings range from 0.24 to 0.69. Although five of the factor loadings were small than 0.5, all their t values were over 1.96 (p<0.05), reaching the significant level. All composite reliabilities were equal or above the accepted 0.60
(Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000). Overall Model Fit
In this phase, we examined the structural portion of the specified model. To assess the measurement model’s overall goodness-of-fit, we used the Satorra–Bentler (1994) scaled (mean-adjusted) chi-square test. The results achieved an acceptable fit of the data 2 (df=51, N = 359) =105.65, p <.01; RMSEA= 0.055; GFI = 0.95, AGFI = 0.93, CFI=0.88). Results showed that CFI (0.88) smaller than the recommend value at 0.9, and observed chi-square value reached statistical significant (p<.01), which intimated a difference between the
observed covariance matrix and the covariance matrix implied by the parameters estimated in our specified model. However, chi-square value 2, as a measure of overall fit, was sensitive to sample size relative to more specialized indices (Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger, &Muller, 2003). Therefore, we also examined four other goodness-of-fit statistics. First, we computed Boruchand Wolins’s (1970) adjusted chi-square ratio (2
/df). It was selected because it is sensitive to model parsimony. The2/df for the observed data is 2.07:1. Maruyama (1997) has considered a 3:1 ratio or less to indicate an acceptable fit. Next, we examined the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) because it adjusts for both sample size and degrees of freedom. The RMSEA is a measure of the discrepancy between a model-implied covariance matrix and a covariance matrix based on observed data, with an adjustment for degrees of freedom (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). RMSEA values less than .08 are considered desirable, indicating a reasonable error of approximation. The RMSEA for the observed data is .055, with a 90% confidence interval of 0.04 to 0.07. Finally, we examined the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), and Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index (PGFI). Both GFI and AGFI were higher than 0.9 (GFI=0.95; AGFI=0.93), and PGFI was higher than 0.5 (PGFI=0.62). All three adjusted indices thus suggested that the specified model provides an acceptable representation of the observed data.
Structural Model Evaluation
Test results indicate an acceptable fit of the model to the data. Figure 2 presents the values of the path coefficients that link the model constructs. Each value can be intercepted as a standardized regression coefficient (ranging from -1.0 to +1.0) that is adjusted for all other paths specified in the model. Tests of the standardized path estimates between latent
constructs comprising the model indicate that the both relations between IE and ADT and between ADT and JR were statistically significant (p < .01), with t values at 2 and 2.13. Together, these results provide support for the model and Hypotheses 1 and 3. The relation between IE and ADT was significant (effect size=.19), and the relation between ADT and JR was also significant (effect size=.22).
Discussions
The research findings indicated a significant relationship between IE and ADT
ability development. Empirical data showed that employees can become more open,
independent, and able to manage stress through oversea experience or frequent contact with people abroad. Zakaria (2000) pointed out that those mangers who had high cultural
sensitivity and adaptability often went through critical cultural shocks. Theose interantional experiecne, both positive and negative, often became important learning soruces for them to gain cultural understanding (Chang, 2007). As Beamer (1995) suggested that, affected by one’s own cultural backgound, each indivudal carried an existing cultural schema through which he/she viewed and interpreted the world around. It is a learned framework helping people more quickly and effecively react to the external stimuli. However, because schemas are formed based on experience, they can also become constrains for people to see the reality when they encounter a differnet culture (Beamer & Varner, 2003). To extend the existing schemas to become more inclusive, one needs to engage in continuing interaction with different cultures.
However, the result showed that the association between IE and perceived JR was not obvious (Hypothesis 2 was not supported). In order words, for organizations, providing international opportunities do not guarantee job reward. Rather, the sense of reward is
associated with cultural adaptability (Hypothesis 3 was supported). In other words, only when IE is connected to ability development, can it be related to reward. While many multinational companies used expatriate mission as a training approach for international mangers, such a finding indicated that it is learning outcomes (cultural ability) instead of formats
(international experience) that is directly related to employees’ reward. As McFarland (1996) pointed out expatriate opportunities sometimes did not bring satisfied experience to these jobholders because they felt forgotten or misunderstood. Similarly, Richardson & McKenna (2002) interviewed 30 British academics teaching abroad, and they described expatriate workers are like refugee, outsider, explorer, or tightrope walker. Studies have provided evidences that international experience might bring great difficulties for the jobholders. Fortunately, however, the difficulties also present the opportunities for people to transform and develop their cultural adaptability in some occasions.
Conclusion
An old Chinese saying said ―traveling thousands of miles surpasses studying thousands of books.‖ For many organizations, going and seeing has become a widely accepted way to extend employees’ worldview and develop intercultural ability. This study empirically examined the relationship between international experience, cultural adaptability, and job reward. The findings have suggested a significant association between these variables. Antal & Friedman (2008) has pointed out that, for business, intercultural competencies are more important than even before. Actually, intercultural ability has become critical not only for business areas but for nonprofit and governmental organizations, not only for expatriate who physically to abroad but also for people whose work often involve interactions with partners from multiple cultures. This study explores the relation between the learning approach and intercultural competence development. Through an increasing understanding of this process, this study helped provide a rationale for implementing IE approach, which could served as a base for a continuing discussion in respect to management learning design and
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國科會補助專題研究計畫成果報告自評表
1. 請就研究內容與原計畫相符程度、達成預期目標情況作一綜合評估
■達成目標
□ 未達成目標（請說明，以 100 字為限）
□ 實驗失敗
□ 因故實驗中斷
□ 其他原因
說明：
2. 研究成果在學術期刊發表或申請專利等情形：
論文：□已發表 □未發表之文稿 ■撰寫中 □無
專利：□已獲得 □申請中 □無
技轉：□已技轉 □洽談中 □無
其他：
（以 100 字為限） 部分成果發表於 2010 年國科科技, 教育, 與
發展研討會. 該研討會每年於歐洲舉辦.
3. 請依學術成就、技術創新、社會影響等方面，評估研究成果之學術
或應用價值（簡要敘述成果所代表之意義、價值、影響或進一步發
展之可能性）（以 500 字為限）
由於全球化趨勢的影響，各國家之間的互動已經相當頻繁，不同文化
的人民在國際的平台中合作與競爭，從事商業、醫療、教育、建設、
援助、環保等等的工作。本研究主要探討兩項議題。第一，在全球化
的今日，國際經驗與文化調適力相關的人格特質是否相關。第二，在
許多組織普遍重視國際化能力之時，國際經驗與文化調適力是否反映
在員工在職場的工作回饋。
本研究以社會變遷資料庫中之樣本為基礎，抽取 359 位在職之員工調
查，研究發現變數之間呈現相關。今日國家重視國際人才養成，這樣
的結果顯示國際經験對於國際人才培育方面的影響有值得再深入探
討之處。在未來研究方面，本研究建議對國際人才發展之研究宜更重
視派外訓練之規劃，以及國際互動策略的運用。再者，在訓練成果的
探討方面，除了重視知識技能，也應重視國際經驗與人格特質之影
響，建立更完整之國際人才發展理論架構。
國科會補助專題研究計畫出席國際學術會議心得報告
日期： 99 年 3 月 20 日一、參加會議經過
2010 年 International Technology, Education and Development Conference (INTED)於西班牙 Valencia 舉行，會議時間是從 3 月 8 日早上到 10 日中午結 束，3 月 8 點當天早上 8 點開始報到，9 點閉幕茶會，正式揭開了為期 2 天半 的國際研討會，與會人士約 500 多位，來自 70 幾個不同國家代表參加，主辦 單位為 International Association of Technology, Education and Development，大 會於 3 月 8 日、3 月 9 日二整天，一共安排了 40 場分組報告，一天 20 場， 上下各 10 場，並設有展示空間，規劃 4 個梯次的海報發表區，每一場發表時 間約 1 個小時半，共有 5 個發表人，每人 15 分鐘，最後由引言人代領綜合討 論 15 分鐘，場與場之間有半小時 Coffee Break 進行交流，而海報區也提供座 椅供參觀者與發表者討論交流使用，此外大會也提供網路服務區，供與會者 免費使用，最後特別值得一提是，大會現場設有大型世界地圖，並備有標示 圖釘，供來自世界各地的與會者，找尋自己的國家位置，並標示之，此舉很 有世界一家的意境，讓人印象深刻。 大會於 3 月 9 日晚上閉會茶會中告一段落，並於 3 月 10 日上午安排了一場， 參觀在地文化建設的行程。
計畫編號
NSC
98-2410-H-003-013
計畫名稱
國際經驗、文化調適力、與工作回饋相關性之探討
出國人員
姓名
張媁雯
服務機構
及職稱
國立臺灣師範大學國際
人力資源發展研究所
副教授
會議時間
2010 年 3 月 8 日 至 2010 年 3 月 10 日會議地點
西班牙瓦倫西亞
會議名稱
(中文)國際科技、教育與發展研討會
(英文)
International Technology, Education and Development Conference (INTED2010)發表論文
題目
(中文) 出國經驗與開放性及情緒穩定性之關聯探討
(英文)
Does It Matter? Going Abroad For Social Openness and Emotional Stability二、與會心得
本次參與國際科技教育發展研討會，收獲相當豐富，由於來自世界各地不同 領域，不同的國家學術發表，除了議題廣泛，增進學術的國際視野，更重要 的是，在跨文化的前題下，所有與會者的座談討論，不僅內容多元且開放， 更是一場難得的國際交流，例如：有建築學者，在縱的時間軸上，與橫的世 界觀中，透過獨特的建築觀點，將科技與人文做重新的連結與銓釋，又如現 場示範，如何將視聽媒體科技應用在教育發展上，做為世代溝通的橋樑，海 報區的展示，採分區輪流的方式進行，讓每位發表者都有機會和有興趣該主 題的參觀者，擁有一個充分交流的空間與時間。此外，用餐時間與閉幕茶會， 更是與會人士交流的時機，藉由不同國家的經驗交流，除了在學術上的議題 討論，更豐富此趟行程的跨文化之旅，可惜的是時間有限，與會人士的交流 其實可以再增加。參與這樣國際大型的研討會，整個活動中，有很多活動細 節，是國人舉辦類似活動很好的參考。三、考察參觀活動
3 月 10 日上午安排了一場，除了讓我們感受當地歐洲文化風俗民情，特別是 走在很多上百年歷史傳統建築中，充分感受當年西班牙帝國的煇煌世紀。對 照於現代的城市，由於工業沒落後，再加上之前金融風暴之影響，使城市的 部分區域呈現蕭條的情形，沒就連我們熟悉的家樂福賣場都經營不下去。 但在城市觀建築方面，在第三城瓦倫西亞，見證新一代數位建築，市政府將 親水公園融入 3D 多媒體的博物館中，帶來觀光的商機，在這一趟參觀行程 中，彷彿置身於新世代科技文明，與古帝國世紀對話中。如何在傳統中創新， 與如何在創新中保有傳統，正是全球化的經歷，此是此趟行程深刻印象的體 悟。四、建議
在短短的 3 天 2 夜中，除了學術相關議題討論上，有豐富收獲外，對於國人 未來舉辦類似的大型國際研討會，提供一個很好的參考模式，例如在會場上， 提供個人筆記型電腦，網際網路的服務，使與會者可以與外界聯繫，讓與會 者在討論國際科技的同時，也能親身體會到現代科技的便利性。此外來自世 界 70 幾個不同的國家，500 位與會人士齊聚一堂，這是多麼難得的機會，可 惜在密集發表論文與座談討論外，各國人士可以交流的時間相當有限，這是 筆者覺得整個研討會下來，最美中不足的地方，倘若可以安排更進一步的交 流與活動，對於與會的各國代表而言，將來回到自己的國家，比較容易保持 更多的互動與交流，延伸國際研討會後續的影響與效益。五、攜回資料名稱及內容
1. 論文摘要光碟:ICERI2010 Abstracts CD。ISBN: 978-84-614-2438-2 2. 研討會資料全文光碟：
ICERI2010 Proceedings CD。ISBN: 978-84-614-2439-9
六、其他：以下茲附上研討會論文全文
DOES IT MATTER? GOING ABROAD FOR SOCIAL OPENNESS
AND EMOTIONAL STABILITY
Wei-Wen Chang Yu-Hsi Yuan Samuel S. Peng National Taiwan Normal University
Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract
While today’s globalization increases the interaction of people from different cultures, many organizations attempt to develop employees’ intercultural competence by increasing their international experience. The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship between international experience and the two critical components of cultural ability, namely, openness to social interaction and emotional stability from the perspective of 359 employees in Taiwan. The results show that international experiences had no significant effect on openness and emotional stability. Openness and emotional stability were, however, significantly associated. This study’s findings suggest that overseas experience may not directly lead to cultural ability development. A more careful design is necessary to strengthen such a connection.
Keywords - international experience, cultural ability, cultural competence development 1. INTRODUCTION
Today, as our world ―flattens,‖ interdependence among people belonging to different cultures has increased significantly (Beitler & Frady, 2001; Friedman, 2006). An increasing need to equip workers with intercultural competence has led to the identification of many learning strategies as potential ways to enhance cultural competence (Mendenhall & Stahl, 2000; Salas, Priest, Wilson, & Burke, 2006). Among these varied strategies, international experience has been viewed as an appropriate choice. For example, many companies include overseas experiences in their cross-cultural training (Bennet, Aston & Colquhoun, 2000). Some managers believed that sending people to an international arena will lead to their development in intercultural ability. A business executive suggested the following: (Liu, 2002) ―If you throw people into a swimming pool, they would learn to swim. Therefore, if you send them to international environments, they would fight to survive and really become international talents.‖ Based on a similar belief, increasing numbers of universities have also initiated international exchange programs that encourage/require students to go abroad or study with international participants (Weigl, 2009). Such international experience is perceived as an effective way to broaden people’s worldview and to develop better adaptability, which includes openness for social interaction and emotional stability (Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, & Plamandon, 2000).
While international experience is assumed to be an effective way to help develop openness and emotional intelligence, empirical studies for examining such a relationship are rare. Selmer’s work (2002) is one of the few
to review this issue. She used western business expatriates as samples and examined the relationship between international experience and expatriate adjustment. Unexpectedly, results showed that their experience from other Asian assignments had no effect on sericulture adjustment in Hong Kong. However, the samples of this study focused on expatriate workers, which had limited implications for general types of employees who hope to develop cultural ability. Although previous research has supported a positive relationship between cross-cultural training programs and the development of general global competence (Suutari & Burch, 2001), the influence of international experience on skills related to cultural ability has not been clearly reviewed and confirmed. Organization managers responsible for the design of such training programs need more information regarding the effectiveness of international experience to appropriately allocate resources for training programs and to manage learning outcomes. Recognizing the limitation of previous studies, the primary objective of this study was to understand the relationship between international experience (IE) and the two critical components of cultural adaptability, namely, openness (OPE) and emotional stability (EMS).
Therefore, the goal of the present study is the use of empirical analysis to clarify two important questions that are relevant to international human resource development in organizations, as follows:
1. Does international experience facilitate development of openness and emotional stability, which are important components of cultural adaptability?
2. What are the relationships among international experiences, openness, and emotional stability? 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. Globalization and Cultural Ability
The success of international missions correlates highly with cultural ability, which is also a key factor required for expatriate success (Magnini & Avril, 2007). Cultural ability is the ability to adapt to the cultural demands of an organization (Chao, O’Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein, & Gardner, 1994) or a new country (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). With globalization of the management environment, the ability to perform effectively in diverse environments is increasingly being recognized as important (Richardson & McKenna,2002; Ilgen & Pulakos, 1999). Beyond simply learning about a new culture or environment, however, the key element of cultural ability is successful interaction with people from other cultures, and it is integration into a new cultural context by acceptance and adjustment to different customs, values, rules, and assumptions.
In the literature, researchers have attempted to identify the important attributes that comprise intercultural competence (Caligiuri & Santo, 2001). Kelley and Meyers (1995) focused on the concept of cultural adaptability and identified four correlates, including emotional resilience, flexibility/openness, perceptual acuity, and personal autonomy. Also emphasizing the importance of emotional attributes, Shay and Tracey (1997) suggested that emotional intelligence is an important determinant of cultural adaptation because it encompasses an array of capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to cope with environmental demands (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). In addition, Magnini and Avril (2007) identified several components of emotional intelligence, such as open-mindedness, self-reliance, and tolerance of ambiguity as important.
Based on the findings derived from the previous studies, this study used openness for social interaction and emotional stability as two major dimensions and discusses their relationship with international experience. 2.2. A Learning Strategy: Increasing International Experience
International experience can be distinguished as work-related or non-work-related living length in a foreign country (Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun & Lepak, 2005). For both expatriates and domestic workers, international experience, including going abroad, living abroad for a period of time, and having international contact, has been viewed as an important method to enhance global competence. Some companies arrange shadowing opportunities in which employees take responsibility for operations within a foreign country prior to moving to that country (Brewster & Pickard, 1994). Multinational organizations often use expatriate missions to help managers acquire international skills (Cullen & Parboteeah, 2005), and some even require international experience as a perquisite for higher-level management positions (Suutari & Burch, 2001).
2.3. Openness and International Experience
Openness reflects how much an individual is open to new experience, to try new things, and to interact with people (Costa & McCrae, 1985; Gustavsson, Jönsson, Linder & Weinryb, 2003; John & Srivastava, 1999).
Some research emphasizes that openness is positively related to experience, especially in expatriate adjustment (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Kets de Vries & Mead, 1991; Teagarden & Gordon, 1995). Likewise, Huang, Chi and Lawler’s (2005) study shows the positive relations between openness and cross-cultural adjustment, and it is report that higher extroversion and openness to experience will effect adjustment and cultural adaptation. Therefore, openness has been viewed as an important component for cultural competence.
Research has showed a positive relationship between cross-cultural training programs and development of general global competence (Suutari & Burch, 2001). People’s international work experience for multinational organizations is highly valued and is treated as a potential source of competitive advantage (McCall and Hollenbeck, 2002; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997; Suutari & Brewster, 2000; Takeuchi et al., 2005). Based on these studies, we hypothesize that employees’ international experience is associated with their openness.
Hypothesis 1: Employees’ international experience is associated with their openness.
2.4. Emotional Stability, Openness, and International Experience
Emotional stability indicates one’s tendency to remain calm in unfamiliar or stressful situations versus a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, or depression (Judge & Bono, 2001; Van Oudenhoven & Van der Zee, 2002). Emotional stability is identified as an important dimension for overseas success encompassing different functions, because the ability to deal with psychological stress is key for intercultural effectiveness (Selmer, 2002). Judge and Bono (2001) found that emotional stability (low
neuroticism) is positively related to an employees’ general job performance satisfaction. In addition, Caligiuri (2006) found that emotional stability is negatively related to whether expatriates decide to terminate their assignment.
As to the relationship between emotional stability and international experience, studies have shown that international experience often provides opportunities for participants to experience cultural shock, thereby enhancing cross-cultural ability (Zakaria, 2000). Regarding the relationship between emotional stability and openness, according to the AUM theory of Gudykunst (2005), when facing unfamiliar environments, an increase in the quantity and quality of personal contact with strangers and members of their groups produces a decrease in anxiety. Moreover, an increase in the networks people share with strangers will produce a decrease in anxiety and an increase in the ability to accurately predict strangers’ behavior. Based on the results of these studies, we hypothesize that international experience is associated with emotional stability, whereas openness is associated with emotional adaptability.
Hypothesis 2: Employees’ international experience is associated with their emotional stability. Hypothesis 3: Employees’ openness is associated with their emotional stability
3. Research Methods
3.1 Sample Selection
A total of 359 Taiwanese samples were used from the database of the Taiwan Social Change Survey (2008), which included questions regarding globalization that met the needs of this study. The Taiwan Social Change Survey (TSCS) tracks long-term social changes in Taiwan and provides insight into these changes via a
collection of nationally representative survey data on various topics. This database archives baseline information about Taiwanese society by surveying the general adult population using rigorous sampling designs (Taiwan Social Change Survey Introduction, 2008). The 359 samples were selected from 2,171 people, basing on two major criteria regarding the type and size of their work organization. First, regarding organizational type, this study included only employees of private companies or public institutions, and excluded self-owned home office (SOHO) employees. Second, because organization size often impacts implementation of employee development (Werner & Desimone, 2006), this study included only organizations with more than 100 employees, and excluded small businesses. In addition, to meet computational requirements for complete data and to maintain a favorable ratio of respondents to the number of estimated parameters in the ensuing analyses, we deleted samples with missing values for the variables selected for this study. Based on these criteria, a total of 359 individuals were selected for statistical analysis (202 male, 157 female). Participants were classified into five groups by age. The greatest proportion was in the 31-to-40-year-old age group (36.8%); the second largest group was the 41-to-50-year-old group (29.8%).
The average age of the sample indicates that the participants were in the prime of life (41.5 years of age); 51.3% were older than 41 years and 46.7% were younger than 40 years of age. Therefore, the survey sample was comprised mostly of adults. The majority of participants had received a bachelor’s degree or higher (67.6%), which was significantly greater than the number of subjects who achieved a senior high school degree or less (32.4%). In addition, the average duration of work experience was 16.8 years. Among the 359 participants, 124 people had 6-15 years of work experience and 115 people had 16-25 years of work experience. Thus, the background of the sample facilitated examination of relationships among the factors of interest from the perspective of experienced employees.
3.2 Measure Constructs
The model tested in this study included three constructs: international experience, openness to social interaction and emotional stability. Each construct included 2-3 key questions. Items-selection was performed using a two-step procedure. First, based on the literature, we selected relevant items from the existing questionnaire. Second, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to make the final item selection. Using this procedure, a total of 10 questions were included in this model (7 items for the three constructs; 3 items served as control variables).
International experience (IE) was composed of three items: (a) IE1, experience of living abroad (living at the same place more than three months); (b) IE2, experience of being abroad; and, (c) IE3, frequency of contacting people overseas. Among the 359 participants, most had traveled abroad (72.1%); only 27.9% had never been to another country. Forty-four percent contacted people living overseas at least once per year (12.8% made contact at least once in the past 3 months, and 13.9% at least once per week).
The second construct was openness (OPE) which combined 2 items: (a) OPE1, I am less open (reverse scored); (b) OPE2, I am outgoing and capable in interacting with people. All the answers were coded using the following 5-point scale: 1 ―Strongly disagree,‖ 2 “Disagree,” 3 ―No opinions,” 4 “Agree,” and, 5 “Strongly agree.” All variables were coded and summed such that a high score would indicate a positive level of agreement. In regard to OPE question one, 47.3% indicated that they were open, which was slightly higher than the percentage in disagreement (36.4%). OPE2 showed that 41.1% agreed that they were outgoing and capable in interacting with people, which was similar to results for the opposite response (39.5%).
The third construct was emotional stability (EMS), which was also composed of 2 items: (a) EMS1, I know how to relax and handle stress; (b) EMS2, I become nervous easily (reverse scored). For item from EMS1 concerning relaxing and handling stress, more than half of the sample (67.6%) agreed (including strongly agreed) with the statement. For EMS2, 40.1% of the participants felt they did not become nervously easily, in contrast with the opposite response at 37.6%.
3.3 Control Variables
Previous research has shown that individual differences may affect the extent to which someone learns cultural ability. For example, it was thought that length of total work experience and length of education experience might have a potential impact on cultural adaptability (Zakaria, 2000). In addition, gender is included as a control variable based on speculation that men may have been provided more opportunities to accumulate international experience and develop cultural ability (Cullen & Parboteeah, 2005). The length of one’s work experience, and number of years of school education were assessed with open-ended questions (e.g. How many years have you studied in schools?). Gender was coded as 1 ―male‖ and 2 ―female.‖ These three variables were controlled for their impact on openness and emotional stability.
3.4 Data Analysis and Results
We examined the intercorrelations among the 10 study variables (including 3 control variables). The table shows that the three items of IE had significant correlation with one another, and the third item (frequency of contacting foreign people) significantly correlated with one item in OPE and one item in EMS. In addition, the items of OPE significantly correlated with items of EMS. (p<.01).
A two-stage SEM approach was adopted for this analysis to first assess the quality of the measurement items before proceeding to the second stage, which estimates the structural model (Hulland, Chow, & Lam, 1996; Anderson & Gerbing, 1991; Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995; Byrne, 1998).
An advantage of SEM is that it can model the relations between constructs as error-free indices that reflect the variance shared by multiple item-indicators of the constructs. In the present application, we modeled the study’s three constructs: international experience, openness, and emotional stability.
To further determine how well the specified measurement model fits the observed data, we next examined item reliability and convergent validity of the individual constructs through estimates of factor loading (Raykov, 1997). These estimates are based on standardized parameter estimates from the specified measurement model. Factor loadings (standardized) ranged from .45 to .76, so that all passed the minimum number (0.45) for acceptable factors (Comrey, 1973). To ensure validity, we further examined the indictor loadings for statistical significance suggested by Hair et al. (1995). The results showed that all factors’ t values were greater than 1.96 (p<.05), reaching statistical significance. The results indicated that the measurement model can represent the observed data.
B. Overall Model Fit
In this phase, we examined the structural portion of the specified model. To assess the measurement model’s overall goodness-of-fit, we used the Satorra and Bentler (1994) scaled (mean-adjusted) chi-square test. The results achieved an acceptable fit of the data 2 (df=11, N = 359) =16.66, p =.118; RMSEA= .038; GFI = .99,
CFI=.98, IFI=.98, AGFI = .97, CFI=.98, NFI=.94, NNFI=.96, 2/df=1.51). The observed chi-square value did not reach statistical significance (p=.118>.01), suggesting that the observed covariance matrix, in some degree, can represent the covariance matrix implied by the parameters estimated in our specified model
(Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger, & Muller, 2003). In addition, other indices (e.g. RMSEA, GFI, CFI) also suggested that the specified model provides an acceptable representation of the observed data (Maruyama, 1997).
C. Structural Model Evaluation
Test results indicate an acceptable fit of the model to the data. Tests of the standardized path estimates between constructs comprising the model indicate that IE did not show any significant relationships with either OPE or EMS. On the other hand, however, the relationships between OPE and EMS were statistically significant (p < .01). We first examined the effect from OPE to EMS and found the effect size was .66, with a t value of 4.69. Then, we examined the effect from OPE to EMS and found the effect size was also .66 with a t value of 4.18. Therefore, these results support only Hypothesis 3.
4. DISCUSSION
Although the experience of being abroad has been viewed as an important factor to enhance cultural ability in cross-cultural literature, the results of this study indicate that there is no significant relationship between IE and OPE, and between IE and EMS (Hypothesis 1 & 2). This suggests that these formats, including traveling overseas, living abroad, or contact with people abroad, were not guaranteed to enhance openness to social interaction and emotional ability. These finings were similar to Selmer’s unexpected results showing that expatriates’ previous international experience in Asia had no effect on their later cross-cultural adjustment. As mentioned earlier in this report, some managers believed in the swimming-pool philosophy, which is also referred to as the self-survival approach for cultural learning. However, the results of this study indicate a contradiction with such a viewpoint. Simply sending people overseas did not necessarily lead to an increase in cultural competency factors such as openness and emotional ability. In other words, physically being abroad (IE1 & IE2) may not be the key determinant for desired international competence. Rather, there might be other factors, such as personalities, people perceptions, interpretation, and people’s reflection on their experiences that affect how much people learn and change. For example, among expatriate mangers with similar overseas experiences, Zakaria (2000) observed that those who had high cultural sensitivity and adaptability often went through significant culture shock. Through re-examining and reflecting those international shock incidents, whether positive or negative, these experiences then served as important learning opportunities by which cultural understanding was gained (Chang, 2007). Weigl (2009) also presented the narrative self-study method which was designed to help young adults’ learning during their visits overseas.
Although many multinational companies use field trips as a training program for international mangers, our findings indicate that the format might not directly bring the desired learning outcomes. In other words, provision of international opportunities does not guarantee openness or emotional stability. Therefore, a more sophisticated examination should be conducted to review the commonly agreed statement that international experience helps develop cultural ability.
On the other hand, this study found that openness to social interaction was associated with emotional stability (Hypothesis 3 was supported). The result indicated that openness intertwines with emotional stability. Openness helps emotional stability, and vice versa. This finding agreed with Gudykunst’s (2005) AUM theory, which suggested that the openness that people gained from cross-cultural encounters may help increase employees’ emotional competence. On the other hand, a better management of personal emotions (anxiety and uncertainty) helps enhance a person’s adaptability, so they will be more willing to open up to a new environment.
While many organizations provided their workers or students with opportunities for being overseas or international contact in the hope of enhancing their openness and adaptability, the findings of this study indicated that these formats may not be directly related to those expected outcomes.
Traveling or living abroad provided people with an international context, within which intercultural learning may occur more easily. As Gundling (1999) noted, ―if you send an email from your desk or walk around the corner to a video conference room, you haven’t moved at all off of your cultural space,‖ and such ―simple and instantaneous long-distance communication can increase the potential for misunderstanding by making the need for cultural adjustment less obvious.‖ In contrast, if people were to travel hundreds of miles away and, as a result, experience dramatic differences in weather and scenery, they would easily recognize the need to adjust. (p.30) In other words, international context does matter if it is combined with an individuals’ awareness and reflection on their experience.
5. IMPLICATIONS
5.1 To Practice: Go Beyond the Superficial Training Format
While a fair amount of literature suggests that international experiences help develop a person’s intercultural competence, many organizations have employed related training strategies in the hopes of developing their workers’ global mindsets. These training strategies include sending their workers abroad for short-term visits, assigning them international missions, or having them responsible for international client contact. While some managers believe that such an arrangement will lead to some learning and change, the results of this study should remind HR practitioners that merely relying on the superficial training format is not enough to insure that learning will happen. A better design is necessary to facilitate change; for example, encouraging people to review and reflect their experiences in international settings. To encourage such review and discussion,
organizations can utilize experienced intercultural workers as resources. For example, BOSCH, the global home appliance provider, invited managers from foreign subsidiaries to corporate headquarters to share their overseas experiences for global leadership development (Mendenhall & Stahl, 2000).
5.2. To Future Study: Clarifying the Layers of International Experiences
Some literature suggests that international experiences are beneficial for cultural ability development. However, the term, international experience, has broad implications. This study defined international experiences as having experiences of being/living abroad or contact with international people and found that these experiences did not have significant relationships with the two characteristics that were related to cultural ability. Such a result from the model in this study should not be used to reject the benefits of international experiences identified in the number of previous studies. However, this calls for a more careful re-examination regarding how we define international experiences, and how learning really occurs based on those experiences as they happen in an international context. While some practitioners believed that learning would naturally and automatically happen when people tried to survive in a different and difficult environment, more studies should continue to uncork this perceived automatic learning process and explore its critical factors.
6. REFERENCES
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Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance: A Meta Analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44(1), 1–26.
Beitler, M. A., & Frady, D. A. (2001). E-learning and E-support for expatriate managers. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.: ED452 391.)
