台籍外派人員跨文化溝通面臨的挑戰與因應之道

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(1)Intercultural Communication Challenges and Responses of Taiwanese Expatriates. by Pei-Wen Kao. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Chih-Chien Lai, Ph. D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2014.

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(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all the people who contributed in some way to the work described in this thesis. First and foremost, I thank my academic advisor, Dr. ChihChien Steven Lai. Additionally, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Chun-Wei Yeh and Dr. Wei-Wen Vera Chang, who have been so enthusiastic about my research and your feedback and suggestions have brought greater depth to my work. Thank you to all my participants, Daniel, David, Pan, Sandra, Red, Eddie, Dawei, and Amanda. Each of you have been so gracious in opening up your experience to me by sharing your amazing stories. Special thanks goes to Yangwu, Ryan, Sunny, Louis, Milton, and Koko for helping me contact participants from the field. My research would not have been possible without their helps. I am grateful for my classmates Edward, Christina, and Pei. They provided a friendly and cooperative atmosphere at work and also useful feedback and insightful comments on my work. Finally, I am deeply and forever indebted to my family for their love, support, and encouragement throughout my entire life..

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(5) ABSTRACT. Within the globalization workplace, the growth of expatriates are sent to foreign subsidiaries to administrate regular operations or provide technical services. Expatriates have often confront situations of traveling across cultural and linguistic boundaries, interacting with fully diverse people has become a daily task for them. As a result, the ability of managing intercultural communication has gained importance and regarded as an advantage for competitiveness in the internationalized business environment. This research seeks to investigate intercultural communication challenges of Taiwanese expatriates and their responses to challenges. An in-depth interview was used for data collection and data were collected from 8 interviewees. Research reveals Taiwanese expatriates’ challenges in intercultural communication, factors of resulting intercultural communication challenges are discussed and built connections with expatriates’ experience, and further, findings comprise expatriates’ responses to intercultural communication challenges.. Keywords: Taiwanese expatriate, intercultural communication challenges, intercultural communication responses. I.

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(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ I TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... III LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. V LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... VII CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................. 3 Research Purposes ....................................................................................................... 4 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 4 Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 7 Intercultural Communication ....................................................................................... 7 Culture and Intercultural Communication ................................................................... 8 Multinational Language Policies and Intercultural Communication ........................... 9 Intercultural Communication Barriers ....................................................................... 13 Approaches to Communication Conflict ................................................................... 15 CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION .............................. 21 Research Method ....................................................................................................... 21 Research Framework ................................................................................................. 23 Research Procedures .................................................................................................. 25 Participants ................................................................................................................ 27 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 31 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 32 Research Quality........................................................................................................ 35 CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ......................................................... 39 Intercultural Communication Challenges .................................................................. 39 Intercultural Communication Responses ................................................................... 49 CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................... 60 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 60 Limitations ................................................................................................................. 61 Recommendations...................................................................................................... 62 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 65 APPENDIX A: INVITATION LETTER ........................................................................... 69 APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORM ................................................................................... 71 APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ..................................................................... 73 APPENDIX D: THE EXAMPLE OF OPEN CODING .................................................... 75 APPENDIX E: THE EXAMPLE OF DATA CATEGORIZING ....................................... 79 III.

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(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1.. Information of interviewees……………………………………………….. 30. Table 3.2. The example of open coding process……………………………………… 33 Table 4.1. Summary of research findings……………………………………………... 59. V.

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(11) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. Research framework……………………………………………………… 24 Figure 3.2. Research procedures……………………………………………………… 26 Figure 3.3.. Process of data categorizing……………………………………………… 34. VII.

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(13) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. The contents of this chapter included five sections to give an overview of this research. Section one presented background information of the research and related studies have been done before. Section two describd the significance of the study which derived from the research background. Section three and four proposed research purpose and respondent research questions. Finally, section five provided definition of key terms.. Background of the Study In a globalized world, the ongoing expansion of business activities has been taking place. The international marketplace has made people from different cultural and linguistic background come into contact in a greater varied settings and more frequently (Poncini, 2003). Businesses, as a result, encounter bringing professionals together from several cultures and that becomes a reality in enterprises. Accordingly, dealing with employee diversity has become a daily task for a substantial part of the business community (Lauring, 2011). The rise of the internationalized business environment and the intensification of global competition have led to an increasing number of people traveling across cultural and linguistic boundaries (Griffith, 2002; Lauring, 2011). The literature on international business and management showed the success of multinational corporations is frequently linked to the work of expatriates sent by headquarters to ensure the communication to subsidiaries (Harris & Kumra, 2000; Harzing, 2002). Ideally, expatriation has often been viewed as an effective way to bridge communication and maintain knowledge sharing between the different parties in a multinational corporation (Cheng & Lin, 2009; Holopainen & Bjorkman, 2005; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999a). 1.

(14) Due to the development of internationalization, the understanding of intercultural communication has gained importance in doing business internationally (Lauring, 2011; Jameson, 2007). The dependence on efficient dissemination has become increasingly critical for secure the competitive advantage (Dhir, 2005; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999b; Van den Born & Peltokorpi, 2010). The ability to coordinate people, activities, and resources on a global scale involves the management of communication across national boundaries (Tange & Lauring, 2009). In fact, future successful international managers may be the ones that are able to manage communication in culturally and linguistically diverse contexts (Henderson, 2005; Varner & Beamer, 2005). Scholars (Barner‐Rasmussen & Björkman, 2005; Du-Babcock & Babcock, 1996; Fredriksson, Barner-Rasmussen, & Piekkari, 2006; Lauring, 2011; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999a; 1999b; Welch, Welch, & Piekkari, 2005) described expatriates face cultural and language barriers in communicating with local staff. Hofstede (1983) proposed the notion of cultural differences was a barrier to doing business abroad. Similarly, Peltokorpi (2007) stated how differences in cultural values created barriers between Nordic expatriates and local employees in Japan. On the other, Selmer (2006) proved the proficiency in the Chinese language may promote the adjustment of foreign business expatriates in China. Björkman and Piekkari (2009) also found the language barriers may prevent the headquarters from understanding the local subsidiary context. Such empirical studies attributed differences in cultural and language are important obstacles to manage expatriate communication. However, compared to cultural and language have been widely studied within international communication field, the response of communication strategies for expatriates has received relatively little specific attention in the literature. There was a noticeable absence of research in seeking expatriates’ responses in encountering intercultural communication challenges. Furthermore, practitioners especially in the area 2.

(15) of multinational management, also eager to know what challenges remain in intercultural communication in the business community.. Significance of the Study This research focuses on Taiwanese expatriates in intercultural communication context. Previous studies focused on expatriates who were native English speakers (Selmer, 2006), Nordic (Andersen & Rasmussen, 2004; Peltokorpi, 2007; Tange, 2009), or a combination of native English speakers, European and Nordic (Barner-Rasmussen & Aarnio, 2011; de Groot, 2012; Fredriksson, Barner-Rasmussen & Piekkari, 2006; Tang & Lauring, 2009). Recently, more and more recent researches have focused on Asia and Asian expatriates (Harzing & Pudelko, 2013; Sriussadaporn, 2006). This study plays an essential part of understanding intercultural communication challenges of Asian expatriates, especially Taiwanese expatriates. This study gives recommendations for managers who are in charge of making the policy and expatriate affairs in Taiwanese multinational corporations. For multinational corporations, communication among units is necessary in daily operations, but challenges occur because of geographic distance, cultural difference, and language diversity (Barner‐ Rasmussen & Björkman, 2005; Lauring, 2011; Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999b). Recommendations may prevent Taiwanese multinational corporations from getting into inefficient or even counterproductive intercultural communication situations. Recommendations for practitioners, especially in the area of intercultural communications, gives common practices for future Taiwanese expatriates. Future expatriates are suggested to refer to the systematically analyzing findings and recommendations of this study for information. Results of expatriates’ challenges and responses in intercultural communication will be divided into several dimensions which are leaded by interview questions. Still, the design of interview questions respond to 3.

(16) research questions and purposes.. Research Purposes The purpose of the study is to investigate Taiwanese expatriates’ communication challenges with local employees. In order to get richer communication contexts, interview questions were designed to collect expatriates’ reflections on intercultural communication. By analyzing communication contexts which expatriates interact with local employees, expatriates’ answers to interview questions help providing insight knowledge of challenges that Taiwanese expatriates meet and responses to intercultural communication situations. The specific aims in this study are to identify 1. Communication challenges between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees 2. Taiwanese expatriates’ responses for communication challenges. Research Questions In view of filling research purposes which already outlined, findings of this study are structured according to the following research questions: 1. What communication challenges between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees? 2. How Taiwanese expatriates responded to communication challenges? In accordance with research questions, interview questions are organized for collecting Taiwanese expatriates’ intercultural communicative reflections through the interviews.. 4.

(17) Definition of Terms Intercultural Communication Intercultural communication is defined as communication among people with dissimilar cultural backgrounds (Bennett, 1998; Jandt, 2012). In this research, adopted Bennett’s (1998) and Jandt’s (2012) definition, intercultural communication is identified as communication between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees.. Expatriate An expatriate is a person temporarily or permanently residing in a country other than the person's upbringing country. In the present research, an expatriate refers to an individual moves to other countries temporarily for business. When he accomplishes his overseas assignments, he moves back to the original place where he was brought up.. Challenge The situation being faced with needs great mental or physical effort in order to be done successfully. Challenges imply Taiwanese expatriates met difficult situations in communicating with local employees in the existing research.. Response A reaction to the situation that has happened. Within the research, the response is usually the reaction Taiwanese expatriates reply to communication with local employees.. 5.

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(19) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW. This chapter reviews the relevant literature on intercultural communication. The literature comprises culture factors of probed more into high versus low context culture and individualism versus collectivism. Especially, Multinational language policies relativity with intercultural communication in multinational corporations are included. In addition, approaches to intercultural conflict are covered in the last part.. Intercultural Communication As interactions across national borders have pervaded the daily activities of companies worldwide, multinational corporations kept greater attention on conducting their business (Cheng & Lin, 2009). Doing business in an international environment requires the ability to interact with individuals of different backgrounds (Jonasson & Lauring, 2012). Consequently, intercultural communication has gained importance in doing business internationally (Lauring, 2011; Tange and Lauring, 2009). Furthermore, the importance of deploying competent expatriates who have diverse cultural experience to establish global competitive advantages has been emphasized (Cheng & Lin, 2009; Holopainen & Bjorkman, 2005). Intercultural communication was communication between people of different cultural (Jandt, 2012). By definition of Bennett (1998), cultures were varied in language, behavior patterns, and values. When communicating in intercultural situations, people encountered assumption of dissimilar and consideration of different. Intercultural communication focused on face-to-face interaction among human beings. For this kind of communication to occur, each participant must perceived himself or herself being perceived by others (Bennett, 1998).. 7.

(20) Culture and Intercultural Communication High and Low Context Communication Hall (1976) proposed the concept of high versus low context as a way of understanding different cultural orientations. It helps people to understand the differences among cultures and implications of managing cultural differences more easily (Kim, Pan & Park, 1998). In high-context culture, communication relies more on simple information with deep meaning. In contrast, communication relies on a large amount of explicit information with specify meaning in low-context culture (Gudykunst, 1997; Kim, Pan & Park, 1998; Korac-Kakabadse, Kouzmin, Korac-Kakabadse, & Savery, 2001). For this reason, communication problems especially take place in the interaction between individuals belong to high-context culture and low-context culture. For example, Hall (1976) viewed people in low-context cultures, such as the Swiss and German, as speaking explicitly and directly. They are quick to get to the point. On the contrary, persons in high-context cultures like China and Japan are viewed as rather slow in getting to the point and not expect to have to be very specific. The result of a person in high-context cultures will talk around and around and put all the pieces in place except the crucial one (Jonasson & Lauring, 2012). Being specific about unpleasantness is particularly embarrassing in a relationship and easily involves losing face to people in high-context cultures (Jonasson & Lauring, 2012).. Individualism and Collectivism Hofstede’s (1983) description of individualism and collectivism is another cultural dimension that is closely related and much cited in communication studies (Gudykunst, 1997; Korac-Kakabadse et al., 2001; Lauring, 2011). Individualism, can be defined as individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Its opposite, collectivism, represents individuals can expect their relatives or members of a 8.

(21) particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.” Selmer (2006) indicated that because of dissimilar language and cultural backgrounds, western expatriates often regard as out-group in China. People in individualistic cultures have many specific in-groups such as family, religion, social clubs, or profession (Gudykunst, 1997). Kinship and other particularistic ties exist between members of the ingroup (Selmer, 2006). Since the Western business expatriates are not family members or share other common experience with their Chinese colleagues, it may not be easy to create any meaningful relationship with them. This further emphasized western expatriates’ distinction and obstructed the development of a harmonious and supportive relationship between the Western and Chinese peers.. Summary Scholars in culture and communication (Gudykunst, 1997; Hall, 1976; Jonasson & Lauring, 2012; Kim, Pan & Park, 1998; Korac-Kakabadse, Kouzmin, Korac-Kakabadse, & Savery, 2001; Lauring, 2011) indicated culture determines how individuals encode messages, what mediums they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages are interpreted. This implies when transmitting a message in an international setting, culture might create differences in the way messages are sent and received.. Multinational Language Policies and Intercultural Communication Situated in the global context, multinational corporations comprise diverse employees and geographically dispersed subsidiaries and hence need to facilitate inter-unit information and communication (Harzing & Pudelko, 2013; Luo & Shenkar, 2006; Van den Born & Peltokorpi, 2010; Welch, Welch, & Piekkari, 1997). The need to coordinate a growing multiple forces has been an ongoing concern for multinational corporations (Dhir, 9.

(22) 2005; Luo & Shenkar, 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Tange & Lauring, 2009). Expatriates added more experience of confronting colleagues who may have distinct language or cultural backgrounds. The everyday spoken and written languages employed for interpersonal, inter-unit, and intra-unit communication have gradually changed and the size of the problem increases with a number of languages exist within a multinational.. Corporate Language and Intercultural Communication Faced with the language issue in internal information and communication flows, multinationals tend to move toward the use of corporate language (Feely & Harzing, 2003; Fredriksson et al., 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Tange & Lauring, 2009) to manage the tension between global integration and local adaptation and make expatriates control and coordinate international activities easily (Feely & Harzing, 2003; Fredriksson et al., 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Tange & Lauring, 2009; Van den Born & Peltokorpi, 2010; Welch & Welch, 2008). Corporate language is the language formally designated for verbal and written use by headquarters and overseas subunits and with the rest of the multinational corporation network (Luo & Shenkar, 2006). This is the language be used in in major events (e.g., board meetings), organizational documents (e.g., research reports, manuals), and required from managerial personnel as a prerequisite for hire (Luo & Shenkar, 2006; Thomas, 2008). According to Tange and Lauring (2009), the introduction of a corporate language has proved helpful to internal communication since it provides a common medium for all members of the organization and offers easy access to official information channels such as company reports or employee magazines. The competence of a corporate language for and expatriates can be considered to have a number of important benefits from a management perspective (Fredriksson, Barner-Rasmussen & Piekkari, 2006; Feely & Harzing, 2003; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Thomas, 2008). Expatriates with high corporate language competence help formal reporting such as the maintenance of policies, 10.

(23) documents, and information systems between headquarters and subsidiaries. Also, their high corporate language competence make them play a decisive character in subsidiaries’ control (Björkman & Piekkari, 2009). Although advantages of implementing corporate language exist, the multilingual character of the MNC has been highlighted by several scholars (e.g., Fredriksson et al., 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999b). Notably, introducing corporate language will not render the firm monolingual, as language diversity within a global firm is likely to persist (Feely & Harzing, 2003; Fredriksson et al., 2006; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999b). Some MNCs have more than one corporate language, or use multiple languages for designated communication purposes in internal exchanges. Fredriksson et al. (2006) remarked that corporate language is likely not the mother language of the particular firm. Non-English-speaking local or subsidiaries tend to use their own languages in spite of following corporate language policies while interacting with suppliers, customers, and employees. Surely, the usage of local languages in foreign subsidiaries can also be important, for example, to improve customer relations and recruit functionally competent employees (Van den Born & Peltokorpi, 2010).. Local Language and Intercultural Communication For a large proportion of staff within many multinationals, information exchanges needed to be conducted with a second language. This aspect was reflected within case of Kone Elevators (Marschan-Piekkari, Welch, & Welch, 1999b), where the proportion of foreign employees out of total employment had risen to 92% in 1996. Difficulties of operating corporate language in multiple-language environments were evident. From that interview data, an Austrian operative commented “The great barrier in communication is the language. If you have to explain some technical problem it isn’t easy by phone” (Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999b, p.426). Similarly, a Mexican middle manager said “The 11.

(24) major problem in inter-unit communication is the language skills. At organizational levels below me, people don’t speak any other language except for Spanish” Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999b, p.426). These implies that subsidiary staff at middle or low operating level had less opportunities to meet with headquartered staff, and the use of English appeared to distort communication between colleagues in subsidiaries. Social identity theory (Tajfel, 1982) helps explain why expatriates are required adequate local language competence when they are in subsidiaries. Van den Born and Peltokorpi (2010) stated “social identities are derived from in-group membership. In-group bias may occur through the emphasis of positive self-images in reference to out-groups” (p.103). In other words, expatriates speak corporate language make their appearance differ from local employees, and thus expatriates are viewed as out-groups justly. Consequently, in-group members may enjoy high levels of trust, interaction, support, and rewards amongst each other, whereas out-group members are met with negative attitudes and negative emotions (Lauring, 2008). Welch and Welch (2008) characterized employee perceptions and expectations may generate a situation of hostility and mistrust such as expatriates from headquarters being regarded as spies from headquarters. Expatriates interaction with local staff is important in creating an environment of trust, and competence in the local language is often seen as one of aspects (Thomas, 2008). The importance of language for the development of trust has been confirmed in a recent study (Barner‐Rasmussen & Björkman, 2007). Results of that study show that language fluency of local language related significantly to a shared vision and perceived trustworthiness in both the Chinese and Finnish subsidiaries. Empirical research on language in MNCs indicates that limited language comprehension and fluency may create a sense of remoteness and disconnectedness, which can exclude individuals, units and regions from each other’s view (Marschan et al., 1997; Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999a,b). Exactly, language competence of the local language may thus provide a shared 12.

(25) social identity and promote the emergence of in-groups with colleagues in subsidiaries.. Summary Previous studies have indicated that language is related to social identity and thus contributes to the categorization of in-groups and out-groups. Harzing (2002) indicated that language is a cultural symbol, it is a visible expression of a particular cultural group. This suggests that “individuals who share a common language are likely to share the same perceptions of rules and collective norms, roles and values” (Barner ‐ Rasmussen & Björkman, 2007, p. 108). Accordingly, competence in and familiar with a particular language may therefore generate a positive self-identity, while limited language competence and affiliation will cause “difficulties in exchanging information and building trust” (Barner‐Rasmussen & Björkman, 2007, p.109).. Intercultural Communication Barriers Chances of encountering intercultural communication situations gets more and more for people around the world. There is probably no way to learn all the rules governing appropriate and inappropriate behavior for every culture and subgroup with who you came into contact. A better approach is to examine on a general level the barriers to intercultural communication. Barna (1998) and Jandt (2012) specified a number of barriers which would be encountered when discussing problems of intercultural communication.. Assumption of Similarities People often natively assume there are sufficient similarities among people of the world. However, the common biological and social needs and the values, beliefs, and attitudes surrounding are vastly different from culture to culture. The common nonverbal behavior, the smile, is an example which can be test whether it is actually the universal people assume it to be. An Arab international student newly arrived in the United States shared his experience: 13.

(26) When I walked around the campus on my first day, many people smiled at me. I was very embarrassed and rushed to the men’s room to see if I had made a mistake with my cloths. But I could find nothing for them to smile at. Now I am used to all the smiles.. Language Differences Vocabulary, syntax, idioms and so on all cause difficulty, not to mention when the person is struggling with a different language. It is troublesome when someone clings to just one meaning of a word or phrase in the new language regard connotation or context, for the variations in possible meaning, inflection and tone are varied. Moreover, there are other language problems, including the different styles of using language such as direct, indirect; expansive, succinct; argumentative, conciliatory; and so on. These different styles can lead to wrong interpretations of intent.. Nonverbal Misinterpretations People from different cultures inhabit different sensory realities. They see, hear, feel, and smell only that has some meaning or important for them. It is not easy to understand the less obvious unspoken codes of the other cultures, like the handling of time and spatial relationships. In addition, the misinterpretation of observable nonverbal signs and symbols, such as gestures, postures, and other body movements, is a definite communication barrier as well.. Stereotypes Stereotypes are stumbling blocks for communicators because they are overgeneralized, secondhand beliefs from we make sense out what goes on around us, whether or not they are accurate or fit the circumstances. The sensitive search for cues guides the imagination toward the other person’s reality. For example, a visitor who is accustomed to privation and the values of self-denial and self-help may fail to experience American culture as materialistic and wasteful. 14.

(27) Tendency to Evaluate The tendency to evaluate is we assume our own culture or way of life is the most natural, rather than try to comprehend thoughts and feelings from the worldview of the other. This bias prevents the open-mindedness to examine attitudes and behaviors from the other’s point of view. There is an international illustrations of the tendency to evaluate. An U.S. student said: A Persian friend got offended because when we got in an argument with a third party, I didn’t take his side. He says you are never supposed to go against a relative or friend to a stranger. This I found strange because even if it is my mother and I think she is wrong, I say so. There comes a conflict in communication when you think in your way which may not be the same as others.. High Anxiety High anxiety or tension, also known as stress, is common in cross cultural experience due to the number of uncertainties present. Too much anxiety or tension requires some form of relief, which too often comes in the form of defenses, such as the skewing of perceptions or hostility. That is why it is considered a stumbling block.. Summary The communicator cannot stop knowing that the people he is interacting have different customs and thought patterns from his own. He must be able to know and contact with others’ values, attitudes, and feelings, neither losing his own values.. Approaches to Communication Conflict Approaches to communication conflict refer to ways individuals manage the actual conflict. Those ways show how people manage communication during conflict differs considerably across cultures. 15.

(28) Neuliep (2009) demonstrated the conflict interaction style is based on two communication dimensions. The first is the degree to which a person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests during conflict, called self-face need. The second is the degree to which a person is cooperative and seeks to incorporate the interests of the other, called other-face need. The combination of self-face need and other-face need defines five primary communication styles of managing conflict and three secondary styles (see Figure 2.1). The five primary styles are dominating, integrating, obliging, avoiding, and compromising. The three secondary styles include emotional expression, third-party help, and neglect.. (Assertiveness). Self-Face Concern. High. Low. Dominating. Neglect. Integrating. Emotional Expression Third-Party Help. Compromising. Avoiding. Obliging. High Other-Face Concern (Cooperativeness). Figure 2.1. Self-Face Concern, Other-Face Concern, and Communication Styles of Managing Conflict. Reprinted from Intercultural communication: A contextual approach (p.332), by J. W. Neuliep, 2009, Los Angeles: Sage. Copyright 2009 by SAGE Publications, Inc.. 16.

(29) The dominating communication style is an approach a person might use his or her authority, expertise, or rank to try to win the conflict. Second, a person who takes the integrating approach collaborates with the opponent or to find an agreeable solution that satisfies both parties. If the person seeks to balance both self-face and other-face needs, this kind of approach is the compromising style. Fourthly, when the person puts the needs of the other ahead of his or her own needs, this shows the obliging interaction style. At last, the avoiding style is a communication way person keeps the conflict and not discuss it. Emotional expression refers to how one might use his or her emotions to guide the conflict, this reflects the person’s feelings and proceeds accordingly. The third-party help is the extent to which a person would engage an out sider to act as a mediator in the conflict. And neglect is the use of a passive-aggressive approach which one might ignore the conflict but attempt to elicit a response from the other via aggressive acts. In general, research (Ting-Toomey et al., 2000; Ting-Toomey et al., 1991) in this area has shown that individualists tend to use more dominating styles during conflict than collectivists. Collectivists tend to use more integrating, obliging, and avoiding styles during conflict. The study of conflict in intercultural by Hall (2005) identified five approaches to conflict that individuals appear to choose. These five approaches are avoiding, accommodating, competing, compromising, and collaborating. One way people choose to respond to a conflict is to avoid it as much as possible. Avoidance may be accomplished by bringing up other issues that change the focus of attention or by simply being silent and refusing to participate in the conflict. For instance, Spain is a country in which conflict is avoided when possible. Japan is another community in which avoidance is a culturally preferred way of approaching conflict. The Japanese have a reputation of avoiding direct conflict. In many cultures the ability to avoid conflict is seen as a sign of maturity, not weakness. 17.

(30) The accommodating approach is finding out what the other person wants and then trying to match. Usually people find it easier to reduce conflict by trying to get what others’ would like without concerning for their own wants or needs. In Zimbabwe, it is common for people to find out what the other want to hear before telling you their opinion. They can, therefore, avoid open disagreement and can adapt their wants to fit with the other person’s wants. The competing approach is the way to accomplish what a person wants regardless of the needs of the other. Like Greeks love to argue and public debate, conflicts are typically met with enthusiasm and are natural parts of Greek life. Also, the conflict is a natural part of the workplace in Israel. One American manager in Israel noted that his subordinates challenged whatever he asked them to do, but that was common throughout the organization. The compromising approach to conflict is the people involved reduce their demands to win the others’ agree and achieve their purpose to some degree from the negotiation. This approach allows people to gain a middle ground in conflict. For example, Americans likes to stress the idea of equality and are often great believers in a good compromise. American businesspersons are great compromisers, always making deals. Compared to American, the notion of compromise is alien to the Russian values and is seen as a sign of weakness. Collaborating refers to the process of reaching an agreement through the conflict. In this approach, people try their best to speak out their wants and also listen to others’ as well. In the last, each person’s goal and needs are respected and met.. Summary Each approach mentioned above may be the best choice depend on different circumstances. It is easy when reading information about other cultures to generalize it in static ways to the whole community. Just as people in their own culture choose various 18.

(31) approaches to conflict based on situation and personality, so do people within every culture. Certain cultural tendencies do exist that can help us deal with conflict. However, it is important to remind ourselves to be open to various within every culture and to use our general knowledge in helpful, not limiting, ways.. 19.

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(33) CHAPTER III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND. IMPLEMENTATION This chapter explained research design of the research. Firstly, the research method was presented, followed by research framework, research procedure, participants, data collection, data analysis, and validity and reliability in the last part.. Research Method This study employs the qualitative inquiry for the purpose of getting a more comprehensive and multifaceted understanding about the topic of the research. The researcher wants to know what communicative challenges expatriates confront, why those challenges appear, and how they react to those communicative challenges. A qualitative inquiry is suited to this research on account of “Qualitative methods typically produce a wealth of detailed information about a much smaller number of people and cases. This increases the depth of understanding of the cases and situations studied.” (Patton, 2002, p.14). The study relies on expatriates’ participation in sharing their experience and stories through interviews. The interview allows the researcher enter into participants’ mind to find out their feeling, thought, and intention and can capture direct quotations of participants’ stories and experience (Patton, 2002). By focusing on Taiwanese expatriates difficulties in intercultural communication, the researcher is able to identify major challenges they confront when communicating with local employees who are in dissimilar cultural backgrounds. Throughout the process of examining communicative challenges among Taiwanese expatriates and local employees, reasons of why challenges exist can be discussed and analyzed methodically. After examining factors affect intercultural communication, Taiwanese expatriates’ respond to challenges then be uncovered. 21.

(34) The research was proceeded from an interpretive perspective rather than testing hypotheses as in positive research. Merriam (2009) described “Qualitative researchers undertake a qualitative study because there is a lack of theory or an existing theory fails to adequately explain a phenomenon” (p.15). While gathering data and getting intuitive understandings within Taiwanese expatriates’ intercultural communicative experience, the researcher then be able to build concepts, hypotheses, or theories with an inductive process. A qualitative inquiry is richly descriptive. Words and pictures are used to reveal what the researcher has learned about a phenomenon, for example, descriptions of the context, the data from documents, and quotes from participant interviews are always in support of the findings of the study (Merriam, 2009). Specifically, this research is a purposive sampling study commonly referred to the researcher “decide the purpose of informants or communities and go out to find some” (Patton, 2002, p.230). According to Patton (2002) “The logic and power of purposive sampling lie in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth. Information-rich cases are those from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the inquiry” (p.230). This study intends to investigate intercultural communication challenges of Taiwanese expatriates. Therefore, cases such as Taiwanese expatriates who have experience of intercultural communication will be selected for the specific type reply to the study purpose to get knowledge of challenges that they met. By categorizing communication challenges that expatriates confronted, the findings and solution that they put into practice within intercultural communication situations of the research can be proved as members of a group or examples of a phenomenon (Stake, 2006).. 22.

(35) Research Framework A qualitative approach was chosen to gain an in-depth understanding of Taiwanese expatriates’ intercultural communication challenges in foreign subsidiaries. This research aimed to responded to research questions of this study by describing expatriates’ experience of intercultural communication so that the researcher could find out challenges expatriates met and their responses to challenges. The researcher reviewed intercultural communication relevant literature in chapter II examined that there are six main barriers might be encountered when discussing problems of intercultural communication were specified by Barna (1998) and Jandt (2012). As for approaches to conflict that individuals appear to choose, previous research Neuliep (2009) demonstrated five primary styles and three secondary styles. Another research Hall (2005) also identified five approaches that people manage communication conflicts. Findings which were derived from data presented Taiwanese expatriates’ intercultural communication challenges and responses. Figure 3.1. is the illustration of the research framework according to earlier elaboration.. 23.

(36) Intercultural Communication Challenges. Intercultural Communication Responses. Barna (1998) and Jandt (2012). Neuliep (2009). Six barriers 1. Assumption of similarities 2. Language differences 3. Nonverbal misinterpretations. Five primary styles 1. Dominating 2. Integrating 3. Obliging 4. Avoiding. 4. Stereotypes 5. Tendency to evaluate 6. High anxiety. 5. Compromising Three secondary styles 1. Emotional expression 2. Third-party help 3. Neglect Hall (2005) Five approaches 1. Avoiding 2. Accommodating 3. Competing 4. Compromising 5. Collaborating. Figure 3.1. Research framework. 24.

(37) Research Procedures The research procedure included nine phases, some of phases developed persistently or repeatedly throughout the research. To be explicit, nine phases were illustrated as a stepby-step procedure in Figure 3.2. First of all, the researcher discussed the interested research field with the advisor in the opening phase. Through the discussion, the topic was narrow down and identified by consulting with related practical experts, considering the availability of population, and confirming the significance of the research. As the research topic was established, the review of literature focused on intercultural communication, intercultural communication competence, cultural relativity of intercultural communication, and multinational language policies and intercultural communication. Through the process of litersture review, the researcher discovered theories and research results had already been presented on the subject. Those existent knowledge helped to clearify the research gap and then generate the research purpose and questions of the research. The research method was selected based on the research purpose and questions which were intent to get inner thought and understanding of expatriates’ experience. Futher, the research framework was builded up with the linkage between concepts of literature review and research purpose and questions. Initial interview questions were developed from research questions, questions were reviewed and revised after discussing with the advisor and piloting with practical experts who in Taiwanese MNCs. When the final version of questions was determined, the interview should be practiced. Data collection will be conducted through interviews and document analysis, follewed by the procedure of data analysis. Findings and results of the research were consolidated 25.

(38) and written up in the closing phase.. Identify Research Topic. Review Literature. Determine Research Purpose and Questions. Select Research Method. Set Research Framework. Design Interview Questions. Conduct Interview. Collect and Analyze Data. Conclude Research Findings. Figure 3.2. Research procedures. 26.

(39) Participants Sampling The participants of the study were chosen through snowball sampling which is one of purposive sampling approaches for locating information-rich informants or critical cases (Patton, 2002). The process of snowball sampling begins by asking well-situated people who know a lot about research topic then the snowball gets bigger and bigger as the researcher accumulate new information-rich cases. Basically, the chain of recommended informants would typically diverge initially as many possible sources are recommended. For avoiding arguments of lending credibility to the study, reasons for site selections or individual case sampling need to be carefully articulated and made explicit. Criteria for participants. Participants in this research study were expatriates who had or have been an expatriate in the universe. They were targeted through a number of participation criteria: 1.. Who is Taiwanese and was brought up and educated in Taiwan until his or her senior high school.. 2.. Participant’s is working for Taiwanese company and the company headquarter is in Taiwan.. 3.. Who had or has overseas experience in global subsidiaries which not cover Chinese speaking countries over than three months.. Although participants were not randomly selected but rather on the basis of above criteria and their willingness, the sampling strategy helped to find appropriate informants who could provide a greater possibility of intercultural communication experience to achieve the purpose of the study.. 27.

(40) Processes of reaching participants. Processes of contacting the research participants was divided into three steps. The first step started at listing out Taiwanese companies which have overseas subsidiaries in nonChinese speaking countries. To find out participants from the population, the researcher asked a broad group of knowledgeable people to identify a number of well-run Taiwanese multinational corporations. Afterward the researcher reached information-rich participants from differ companies with the help of informants or friends who has known participants in those companies. Second, information-rich participants answered they were willing to accept the interview through informants and friends first requested. Within this step, many possible participants may be excluded from the interview process, for many Taiwanese expatriates now were in certain Chinese-speaking countries, such as china, and was not qualified to be included as participants. Also, some appropriate participants may politely decline the invitation because they were too busy to be interviewed. At last, the researcher hardly got participants’ contact information which was provided by informants and friends. Next the researcher could have contacting channels to communicate with the approval participants. Nonetheless, the process of checking the interview schedule was not easy, it was still cost time contacting participants. Reasons of difficult to contact them was they worked in different continents and their working hours were usually approximately ten hours which were longer than they worked in Taiwan. And thence the researcher had to check the interview time with participants repeatedly and separately.. 28.

(41) Interviewees Eight expatriates were interviewed, five were men and three were women. Half of participants were expatriated in Southeast Asia countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia, the others were in India, Saudi Arabia, Czech Republic, and Mexico respectively. Based on principles of research confidential, all interviewees’ names are pseudonyms. The length of expatriate time of each participant was more than half of a year. Among the participants, the least expatriate time was six months and the longest was last to three years. On average, the length of expatriate assignment was one year and a half. Most of participants first experienced their first expatriate over five continents worldwide. It's worth mentioning that three of them have overseas experience before. One participants had traveled for business purposes and two had been expatriated when they were in the former company. The eight participants in the interview group work in different fields, the industries they work range from construction, shoes manufacturing, textile manufacturing, manufacturing, and electronic manufacturing. Based on information provided, the positions which they were assigned were all manager as they were expatriated. See Table 3.1 for a list of participants and a summary of their background information and relevant experience.. 29.

(42) Table 3.1. Information of Interviewees Name. Gender. Daniel. M. Expatriate. Length of. Overseas. country. expatriate. experience. India. 18 months. 1 time. Job title. Industry. Accounting Construction Manager Accounting David. M. Saudi Arabia. 12 months. 1 time. Construction Manager. Pan. M. Vietnam. 6 months. Chemical Factory. Shoes. Manager. Manufacturing. 1 time Textile. Sandra. F. Vietnam. 16 months. 1 time. Sales Manager Manufacturing Textile. Red. F. Vietnam. 15 months. 2 times. Sales Manager Manufacturing Accounting. Eddie. M. Cambodia. 8 months. 2 times. Manufacturing Manager. Czech Dawei. M. Electronic 36 months. 1 time. Finance Manager. Republic. Manufacturing Electronic. Amanda. F. Mexico. 12 months. 3 times. Account Manager Manufacturing. 30.

(43) Data Collection Instrument Within this qualitative research, the researcher was the main instrument utilized in data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The researcher grasped related concepts from the collection of empirical materials, mirrored main concepts in her consciousness, and converted them into phenomenological representations to be interpreted (Pezalla, Pettigrew, & Miller-Day, 2012).. Interview Commonly, some and occasionally all the data are collected through interviews in qualitative research (Merriam, 2009). An interview can be perceived as a process in which a researcher and a participant engage in a conservation focused on questions related to a research study. Hence, the purpose of interviewing is to allow the researcher to enter into the other person’s perspective (Patton, 2002). It is also necessary when the researcher is interested in past events that are impossible to replicate. Surely, this study need interview to discover intercultural communication challenges and responses which the researcher cannot directly observe beside Taiwanese expatriates. The semi-structured interview was chosen as the strategy for data collection. An interview guide (See Appendix C) was provided to ensure the same basic questions were pursued with each interviewee, the interviewee was free to explore or ask questions to illuminate topics and questions within the interview guide (Patton, 2002). Thus, the researcher was also able to ask questions corresponsive to establish a conversation with the focus on a particular subject that might be predetermined. This strategy facilitated the researcher to obtain the needed information as rich and detailed.. 31.

(44) To ensure the quality of interview questions, questions were reviewed by experts. With the help of experts review, the researcher altered the order of questions and level of detail depending on experts’ suggestions. After the expert review, the revised interview questions were sent to colleagues who have experience with designing interview questions and good at wording to do peer review. Feedback of the peer review such as wording are examined to accurately deliver the intended meanings. Interviewees were identiﬁed through HR people who could reach informative expatriates in Taiwanese multinational corporations and also from experts. By HR people and experts’ connecting, the researcher got contact information about interview candidates. The researcher then contacted those candidates and illustrated the research purposes to them and got their permission to be interviewed. Before the interviews were conducted, an invitation letter (See Appendix A) and a consent letter (See Appendix B) were emailed to interviewees to make them knowledgeable of the background of the research and procedures within the interview processes.. Data Analysis Merriam (2009) pointed out data analysis is the process used to answer research questions. Inductive analysis was implemented to discover important patterns, themes, and interrelationships in the details and specifics of the data. Based on Patton (2002), the researcher is able to explore and confirm the frequent, dominant, or significant themes emerging in raw data by taking advantage of inductive analysis. Generally, answers to research questions are called categories or themes or findings (Merriam, 2009). The main sources of data were the audio-taped and notes of the interviews. The researcher then transcribed all the recording into verbatim and the transcripts were sent back to each participant for corrections and verification.. 32.

(45) The Step-By-Step Process of Analysis Processes of organizing and managing data often involves coding, coding is assigning some sort of shorthand designation to various aspects of the data (Merriam, 2009). It is important for the researcher to code data as they are collected. During the coding process, the researcher is required to keep tracking thoughts, speculations, and hunches when preparing data for analysis (Patton, 2002). Category construction. The process began with reading the first interview transcript and the first note collected in the interview. The researcher jotted down notes, comments, or queries in the margins, identified as many as possible segments that might be useful. Because the researcher is being open to anything possible at this point, this form of coding is often called open coding (Merriam, 2009; Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2008). Table 3.2. showed the open coding process (see also Appendix D).. Table 3.2. The Example of Open Coding Process Original Data. Open Coding. I would like to described Vietnamese. Vietnamese employees works slowly,. employees as working slowly, romantic. romantic and not very actively. 5-054. and not very actively.. After working through the entire transcript, the researcher went back over the marginal notes and comments (codes) and tried to group those comments and notes that seem to go together. Assigning codes to pieces of data was the way the researcher commenced to construct categories. This process of grouping open codes is sometimes called axial coding (Merriam, 2009; Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2008).. 33.

(46) Sorting data and categories. Dozens of tentative categories generated at the former of the analysis. Later the researcher was able to rename categories to more precisely as scanning data many times and retaining those seem to hold across interviews and notes, at this situation some original categories will probably become subcategories. This process of integrated and refined categories in order is usually called selective coding (Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2008). Once the researcher have derived a tentative scheme of categories, the evidence of each category will be found out and sorted. Each unit of data is placed in a category should include original identifying codes such as respondents’ name and line numbers of the excerpt, this enable the researcher to return to the original transcript or notes easily and efficiently (Merriam, 2009). Figure 3.3. presented the process of data categorizing into categories then concepts, and ultimately dimension (see Appendix E).. Transcript. Code. Category. People here would like to say words. 1-004. Communication Intercultural. which was good for them and to keep reservation about something. They were used to say this was “probably” right, this “should” be right, but they won’t say this was “absolutely” right.. style. Czech thought directly, their thinking manner was like A equal to B. They would just follow the instruction I gave and accomplish it.. 7-081. Vietnamese employees works slowly,. 5-054. romantic and not very actively. Mexican used to leave the workplace and go back to enjoy their life after they got off work.. Values of work and life. 8-105. Figure 3.3. Process of Data Categorizing. 34. Dimension. communication challenges.

(47) Naming categories. Devising categories was relatively an intuitive process, but it was also systematic by the study’s purpose and the investigator’s orientation and knowledge. Since every study is suited in some body of literature to come up with a purpose statement and research questions, the categories are responsive to these research questions, the name of these categories will be congruent with the orientation of the study (Merriam, 2009). Becoming more theoretical. In this level of analysis, the researcher thought and speculated how categories and subcategories might be interrelated to develop a model. As Merriam (2009) described, information which was contained should transcend the formation of categories, for a theory seeks to explain a large number of phenomena and tell how they are related.. Research Quality The trustworthiness of a qualitative research represents the worth of the research. Guba and Lincoln (1989) proposed four concepts that researchers can use to enhance the worth of their qualitative researches. Concepts included credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.. Credibility Credibility is parallel to the conventional notion of internal validity, in which the researcher should ensure the study measuring what it is actually intended (Shenton, 2004). Qualitative researchers (Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Merriam, 1998) commented that credibility is one of the most important factors in establishing trustworthiness. This study included peer examination to enable recurrent patterns, themes, and values were identified and verified. Peer examination involves the researcher discusses research processes and findings with colleagues who have experience with qualitative methods (Krefting, 1991). The 35.

(48) researcher first invited a peer who conducted his research in communication field to have understanding of the research. Later the researcher presented working hypotheses and explained the evolving process of the findings. During the peer examination processes, the informants’ verbatim (tape recordings or transcripts of interviews) was provided to help the peer critically assess the interpretations from direct quotes.. Transferability The conventional term of transferability is external validity, it lies in demonstrating the result of the research have applicability in other contexts (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). Since the qualitative research is situational uniqueness, the study nay not relate to others and hence conclusions may not be transferable (Shenton, 2004). To claim the data is transferable, a key factor is informants of that particular group is the representativeness (Krefting, 1991). Dense description was used to address transferability of sample selection was consisted in this study. Dense description refers to the researcher should provide dense background information about informants, the research context, and settings allow others to assess how to transfer the findings (Krefting, 1991). The researcher added information of how to contact with interviewees and interviewees’ information in the inside of participants part. Also, the content of findings gave explanation of interviewees experience, why the communication challenges happened, challenges happened in what situations, and how interviewees responded to those challenges. As Guba and Lincoln (1989) noted, it is the researcher’s responsibility to present an adequate sample to allow transferability judgments to be made by others.. Dependability Dependability is corresponded to the conventional term, reliability. The dependability criterion relates to the consistency of findings and is sensitive to alterations in methodology and shifts in hypothesis or constructs (Halldorsson & Aastrup, 2003; Krefting, 1991). 36.

(49) Within this study, dense description and peer examination were two methods to describe and examine data gathering, analysis, and interpretation. The method of dense description and peer examination which as just mentioned provided information on clarifying how the study might be or how unique the situation was, the use of peer examination to check the research plan and how the research was implemented. After the researcher had given thick description of the research processes and findings and secured it with the help of the peer, dependability was enhanced (Krefting, 1991).. Confirmability The final concept of confirmability, is being parallel to the conventional view on objectivity. Confirmability is be taken to help ensure as much as possible that findings are results of experience and ideas of informants, rather than the characteristics and preferences of the researcher (Shenton, 2004). Method of audit was involved for establishing confirmability. The method of audit helped recorded and followed through the evolving process of the findings to make the research be understood. Each step of the research process was elaborately described and identified. There were six categories of records that be composed of to be the audit. They were raw data (field notes and audio recordings), data reduction and analysis, data reconstruction and synthesis (thematic categories, interpretations, inferences), process notes (procedures and design strategies), materials related to intentions and dispositions (study proposal, field journal), and instrument development information (pilot forms, survey format, schedules). Guba and Lincoln (1989) noted that inspection and verification often are not considered until the completion of the project. Ideally, the audit should be ongoing throughout the research process.. 37.

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(51) CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS. This chapter presented the main research findings of the study. Research findings were explicated in detail and correlated to research questions which were categorized into intercultural communication challenges and intercultural communication responses two dimensions. Discussions summarized research findings and connected to relevant literature were put in the last part of each dimension. Table 4.1. Showed a summary of research findings in the end.. Intercultural Communication Challenges This section addressed the first research question of what communication challenges occurred between Taiwanese expatriates and local employees in the overseas subsidiaries. Reasons of expatriates had not good communication with a local employee owing to the country that expatriates came from was dissimilar to the local employee’s. Differences resulted in the communication challenges of differ cultural people were found below.. Communication Style Several participants mentioned the way local people speak was so different from Taiwanese that they had spent a period of time getting used to it. They pointed out the communication style was a common intercultural communication challenge. Daniel, who has been an expatriate accounting manager in India for eighteen months, expressed Indian were used to speak in an exaggerated way. Within the first three months of expatriate, every time he felt be cheated when he talked to the Indian employees. “At the beginning, when I asked them to do something, they often answered “Yes”, “No Problem”, thing A might be correct. But later I found thing A was not correct and things they promised me were almost not be achieved. Then I found out people here would like to say words which was good for them and to keep 39.

(52) reservation about something. They were used to say this was “probably” right, this “should” be right, but they won’t say this was “absolutely” right.” (1-004). Eddie who has been assigned to be an accounting manager in Cambodia for eight months characterized Cambodian were citizens who were shy to speak their feelings. “Cambodian. employees tented to be quiet and were afraid to ask questions when. they had any difficulty on the job or talked with me. They would just nod their heads to show they were able to do it, even though there were many doubts in their minds.” (6-070). Still another participant, Dawei, was an expatriate financial manager in Czech Republic last for three years marked Czech as a group of people who spoke what they thought. He commented the way Czech speak was more directly than Taiwanese. “Czech thought directly, their thinking manner was like A equal to B. They would just do the way you told them, for example, Czech divers would stop the car once pedestrians walked on the zebra crossing. Thus if I assigned them a task, they would just follow the instruction I gave and accomplish it.” (7-081). Participants told that they did not expect the communication style had such a big influence on the intercultural communication. Few participants even not knew speaking manner of local people. They said the communication really got better after they knew and familiar the way in which local employees talks.. Values of Work and Life People around the world had distinct values of work and life and this became a critical challenge in intercultural communication. Participants mentioned local employees’ values were various because the country they lived in disparate countries. Certain job requirements 40.

(53) which participants asked were not really accepted by local employees. David, who was an expatriate accounting manager stayed in Saudi Arabia for twelve months claimed that Saudi Arabian employees’ working attitude was careless. They neither completed the task nor reached the job objective over David’s expectation. “Saudi Arabian employees’ believed that once they finished a task then they had to start the next one. They won’t put on a spurt to fulfill the task as I first requested. Careless was their attitude towards work and that never be changed from the time I arrived to the end I left there.” (2-022). Sandra who has been an expatriate sales manager in Vietnam for sixteen months described Vietnamese employees’ freely working attitude. “Vietnamese employees worked not very actively, they did the job followed their willingness. They said they worked because they wanted to do it, but they could also quit the job when they did not want to do it. They didn’t think what lesson they could learn from the job and they won’t strove for the job to get something more, either.” (4-040). Sandra depicted the Vietnamese employees whom she supervised did not work on their own initiative, they could even quit as they did not want to do the job. “Generally, the basic level of Vietnamese employees had problems would reported to me and waited for my answers, but themselves would not try to have any thinking or action to solve problems. If I did not give instructions or answers to them, problems would just stuck at there.” (4-040). Sandra felt the worker level of Vietnamese employees did the job only when she asked. 41.

(54) them to do it. “Their working attitude was passive, they accepted things that happen to them or things that people say to them, without taking any action.” (4-044). Participants had expatriate experience in Vietnam, Czech Republic, and Mexico portrayed that people there fairly separate the work and life. Local employees did not have the habit of working in their personal time, they preferred pursuing the good quality of life. Red detailed described Vietnamese employees: “They disliked working overtime, they were reluctant to do the job after they got off work (five o’clock). Even I asked them a question at five two, they declined to answer me. They thought the time I ask question was not in their working time.” (5-055). Dawei presented Czech employees as: “…they valued the quality of life, they liked to get on and off work punctually, disliked working overtime, and planned annual leaves for traveling beforehand.” (7-080). Amanda who was an account manager in Mexico for a year said Mexican employees: “…they used to leave the workplace and go back to enjoy their life after they got off work.” (8-105). Amanda sketched to require Mexican employees to be independent thinking or voluntarily follow-up the work was tough. Considering they thought working was one of their duties so they could enjoy their life without concerning about the cost.. 42.

(55) “When the problems occurred during the flow of production and caused the job objective could not be achieved successfully, the local employees would just said they had no idea, either. That is to said, Mexican employees were kind of one push one move. As far as they’re concerned, effort be put in and the completion of the job were far from Taiwanese.” (8-104). Due to differences in values, participants needed to put much more effort in paying attention on working progresses and they often felt angry or frustrated. They said to understand the local employees’ thinking was a decisive step before communicating, conveying, and further requiring local employees to achieve the job objective.. English Is the Second Language The main communication language between participants and local employees was English, but both parties were not English native speakers. Language, therefore, was one of the most common disturbing factors in intercultural communication. Participants stayed in Vietnam expressed that even many Vietnamese could speak Chinese or English, the communication between them still had difficulties. Red who has her expatriate in Vietnam as being a sales manager for fifteen months said: “In Vietnam, Chinese, English, and Vietnamese were three languages which be used in the communication. But challenges occurred when local employees’ Chinese and English were not fluently and I was not good in Vietnamese.” (5-058). 43.

(56) Red added: “When Vietnamese employees and I talked in English, messages received and explained by Vietnamese employees could not one hundred percent the same as I originally delivered. That is, if we could not fully understand each other’s meaning, we might not have a real talk, let alone reach an agreement.” (5-059). Pan, a chemical factory manager, has been an expatriate in Vietnam for six months commented Vietnamese: “To my surprise, many Vietnamese could speak both Chinese and English. But sometimes I still needed employees who were able to speak Chinese help translating. In the future, I would like to learn their language so that I could communicate with them directly.” (3-028). Eddie disclosed his observations on his talking with Cambodians employees. “Although local employees and I were able to speak English, we could not go deep into sharing detail work experience if our English ability was not good enough.” (6-079). Likewise, Dawei provided his experience of using English as the communication language in Czech Republic. “The time I told to the local employee (Czech) and gave him an assignment, he might nod his head to show he understood. When he put his words into action, I could find some outcomes which did not reach my expectation had to be corrected.” (7-098). 44.

(57) Dawei reflected his thoughts: “This example showed there was a gap between the message sender and receiver, the meaning of the message might be changed in the communication process.” (7-092). Considering English was not the first language of participants and local employees, there were some messages could not be well transferred from local employees’ mother language to English and then accepted by participants. Participants should reconfirm the messages local employees delivered and make sure local employees received the correct information they gave. Communication in English though brought participants convenience in interacting with local employees, however, it indeed required participants to be patient with detail things, such as the assurance of messages and local employees truly thoughts.. Preparations cannot prevent challenges Depend on the timing and differ tasks company assigned, participants had about six to twelve months for the preparation. Though participants did have plans for expatriate, they indicated that local employees’ communication patterns, values, or their English language ability could hardly be knew beforehand or be shared with their senior expatriates. Had been an expatriate, participants felt their self-experience was more vivid and closed to the reality. Daniel described the processes of being an expatriate: “I was originally assigned to Saudi Arabia, yet company later did some changes so I was reassigned to India. The preparation before expatriate was nearly six months, my TOEIC score was about six hundred, and my expectation before the expatriate was I might not be able to understand Indian employees’ English speaking. Nevertheless, when I arrived India, I found people there like magnifying their 45.