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變易居所﹕美加華裔詩人的離散詩學 (III)Changing Places: Reconstructing an Asian/American/Canadian Poetics of Diaspora [III]

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行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫 成果報告

變易居所﹕美加華裔詩人的離散詩學 (3/3)

計畫類別: 個別型計畫 計畫編號: NSC93-2411-H-110-003- 執行期間: 93 年 08 月 01 日至 94 年 07 月 31 日 執行單位: 國立中山大學外國語文學系(所) 計畫主持人: 張錦忠 報告類型: 完整報告 處理方式: 本計畫可公開查詢

中 華 民 國 94 年 11 月 4 日

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行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫成果報告

《變易居所:美加華裔詩人的離散詩學》(3/3)

計畫類別:■個別型計畫

計畫編號:NSC 93-2411-H-110-003

執行期間:2004 年 8 月 1 日至 2005 年 7 月 31 日

計畫主持人:張錦忠

成果報告類型(依經費核定清單規定繳交):■完整報告

本成果報告包括以下應繳交之附件:

■赴國外出差或研習心得報告一份

處理方式:除產學合作研究計畫、提升產業技術及人才培育研究計畫、

列管計畫及下列情形者外,得立即公開查詢

執行單位:國立中山大學外文系

中華民國 94 年 10 月 31 日

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壹、中文摘要

本計畫探討美國與加拿大亞裔/華裔詩人的詩作表現。國內近年來研究亞裔美洲 文學的學者日增,成果甚彰,然而這些研究多半著眼於亞美小說,其次則是亞美 戲劇,亞美詩文本的討論可謂鳳毛麟角,造成文類失衡的現象。美加地區的華裔 詩人有的土生土長,有的則是來自亞洲的新移民。不過,不管是新生代華裔詩人, 還是第一代亞裔公民,他們都屬華人離散族群的一份于。他們或他們的先輩,基 於不同的政治與經濟因素,在不同的時代跨過大陸洲與島嶼群,變易居所,到美 國與加拿大定居。但是他們的原鄉及原鄉文化、語言,總是或隱或現地在他們筆 下,以各種記,隱與慾望的符號或意象冒顯,彰顯了這些詩人無居所游離的特質, 同時形成了強烈跨國色彩與跨文化互動的離散詩學。本計畫以原鄉在馬來西亞的 林玉玲(Shirley Geok-lin Lim)與陳文平(Chin Woon Ping)、生於印尼的李立揚 (Li-Young Lee 譯音)、及由香港移居加拿大的梁秉鈞(Leung Ping-Kwan)與生於香 港的華裔美國詩人陳美玲(Marilyn Chin)的詩作為研究對象。三位美籍亞細安華裔 詩人以英文書寫,陳美玲以英文書寫,梁秉鈞則原為香港著名中文詩人,今以雙 語創作,此亦為離散詩學現象之一。

關鍵詞: 離散詩學、林玉玲、陳文平、李立揚、梁秉鈞、陳美玲

貳、英文摘要

The aim of this project is to reconstruct an Asian/ American/ Canadian poetics of diaspora. While some of the North American poets of Chinese descendants are from the new generation of Asian/American/Canadian community, others are themselves new immigrants from Asian countries. They are, however, members of the Chinese diaspora: their ancestors or they themselves left their homelands and traveled to North America to seek a better fortune and second homeland. Their poetical works, while expressing the poets' new life-experience, are inscribed with traces of their homelands, mother tongue and native culture. A strong sense of changing places, or being out of place, illuminates the transnational and transcultural nature of such a poetics. In this project the objects of study are the poetical texts of Shirley Geok-lin Lim and Chin Woon Ping from Malaysia, Li-Young Lee from Indonesia, Leung Ping-Kwan from Hong Kong, and Marilyn Chin, who was born in Hong Kong and raised in the United States of America.

Keywords: Poetics of diaspora, Shirley Gcok-lin Lim, Chin Woon Ping, Li-Young

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參、報告內容

(甲)前言 離散文學的流動現象,不僅凸顯了離散族裔在各地理疆界間游離,也是打破語文 界限的契機。林玉玲、陳文平與柯溫愛(Lydia Kwa)固然是北美華裔詩人作家, 其作品也可視為馬華或新華文學。香港詩人梁秉鈞移居加拿大之後又回流香港。 林玉玲、陳文平更是經常往返美國與原鄉之間。林玉玲、陳文平、柯溫愛、陳美 玲、梁秉鈞與李立揚的例子描述的是亞洲國家中的華裔詩人基於各種生活與政治 因素離散家國,在天涯海角棲身,有的自我放逐,一去不復回,有的像候鳥一般 歸返故園,時間一到,復再離去。有的在美加出生,以旅人身分到祖先原鄉的亞 洲尋根。無論如何,探討其作品裡頭的語言問題、文化認同、故鄉記憶、原鄉想 像、身分屬性,自能彰顯其中的離散意識。 (乙)研究方法 此計畫首先重建詩人流動的社會脈絡,描繪離散詩人居所(原居地與移居地)的 社會、政治、文化現象或問題。其次為文本分析:閱讀與分析詩人作品,藉離散 論述探討作品所呈現的新舊語言、文化認同、故鄉記憶、居所變易、身分屬性等 諸種課題。此外,在提出設論時,也嘗試納入晚近諸種理論(如後殖民論述、旅 行理論、移民論述、流動理論、原鄉想像),以理論化這些課題的性質,同時驗 證這些理論的應用性。 (丙)研究目的 本計畫旨在將移居北美的華裔離散詩人擺在離散跨國的脈絡,透過文本分析與詩 人行蹤的追尋,探討種種新舊語言、文化認同、故鄉記憶、原鄉想像、身分屬性 問題,彰顯其中的離散意識,以建構一個「離散詩學」。 (丁)相關研究成果與發表: 本人過去已發表以林玉玲為研究對象的論文多篇,討論陳文平者亦有一篇。去 年開始進行的是統整的工作,即將林玉玲、陳文平、李立揚與陳美玲納入一「離 散詩學」的理論架構,以準備專書的寫作。目前的構思是以(Ex)changing Places:

Diaspora, Trans-Nationnalism, and Literature 為書題,內容分六章:(一)導論、(二)

林玉玲論、(三)陳文平論、(四)陳美玲論、(五)李立揚論、(六)結論。(四)和 (五)部份目前進行撰述“Diasporic Identity and Cultural Memory: On Marilyn Chin’s Poetry” 與“Li-Young Lee’sFurious Versions ofDiasporicMemory”二初稿,將於明年陸 續修訂完稿後尋求發表園地。

計畫中所列加拿大詩人部份,梁秉鈞已返港多年,為旅行跨國性的例子,打算另行討論。 另外,由於加拿大華裔詩人在加國多元文化脈絡中已自成風景,本人今年申請計畫專研

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Fred Wah 詩中的混雜性質,將來再進一步和其他 Lydia Kwa, Rita Wong, Paul Yee 等加 國華裔詩人合論。故此專書內容調整為以華裔美國詩人為主。 此外,由於這三年來閱讀與思考範圍不離離散論述,去年亦以此理論架構撰述相關論文 二篇,唯探討的離散對象不同,分別為旅港馬華詩人林辛謙與旅台馬華小說家李永平, 前者已在新加坡某研討會發表,會後修定稿已蒙編者收入專集,正在洽詢出版當中。後 者已在《淡江評論》刊出。發表與出版資料如下:

(1)“Fragmented (Post-)Identities: Lin Xing- qian’sPoeticsofDiaspora.”Overcoming Passions: Race, Religion and the Coming Community in Malaysian Literature. 11-12 October 2004. Singapore: Asia Research Institute, National Singapore University.

(2)“Looking for Zhu Ling: Self-Identity in Li Yongping's Yuxue feifei.”Tamkang Review 35.2(2004):97-111.

(戊)相關課程與論文指導

本人過去兩年來在離散論述的架構下在本校外文研究所開設有「離散詩學」課程 二學期。第一學期除了離散論述文獻外,並以林玉玲詩文為研讀對象,修課學生 中後有人以林玉玲為研究課題撰述碩士論文 “Narrating a Diasporic Identity: Language, Migrancy, and Ethnicity in Shirley Geok-lin Lim’sMonsoon History”(李 宜峰撰) 探討林詩中的遷移、族裔與語言問題。 上學期本人之「離散詩學」課則以小說為主,研讀柯溫愛、等美國、加拿大、新 加坡華裔英文小說家的作品。本學期亦指導學生張凱瑩以加華詩人兼小說家柯溫 愛為研究對象撰述碩士論文。張同學的論文將於下學期完成。 (己)移地研究 由於林玉玲、陳文平與柯溫愛皆具有新馬土生華人(峇峇[Baba])背景,實地參 訪對了解族群統合先例的峇峇文化誠然有其必要。今日新馬的峇峇文化可以在馬 六甲、檳城、與新加坡三地看到。本人於今年四月間蒙國科會補助前往新加坡考 察,對增進本人的峇峇文化知識十分有幫助。詳情另見「出國研究報告」部份。

肆、參考文獻

Ang, Ien (2001) On Not Speaking Chinese: Living Between Asia and the West. London and New York: Routledge.

Baudrillard, Jean (2001) [1999] Impossible Exchange. Trans. Chris Turner. London and New York: Verso.

Brewster, Anne (1995) Literary Formations: Post-colonialism, Nationalism, Globalism. Victoria: Melbourne UP.

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Chin, Marilyn (1987) Dwarf Bamboo. New York: Greenfield Review.

Chin, Marilyn (1994) The Phoenix Gone, the Terrace Empty. Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions.

Chin, Marilyn (2002) Rhapsody in Plain Yellow. New York: W. W. Norton.

Chin Woon Ping (1993) The Naturalization of Camellia Song. Singapore; Times Books.

Chin Woon Ping (1999) In My Mother’s Dream. Singapore: Landmark Books.

Clammer, John (2002) Diaspora and Identity: The Sociology of Culture in Southeast Asia. Subang Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk.

Clifford, James (1997) [1994] “Diasporas.”Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Harvard UP. 244-77.

Ee Tiang Hong (1997) Responsibility and Commitment: The Poetry of Edwin Thumboo. Ed, Leong Liew Geok. Singapore: Singapore UP.

Gurr, Andrew (1981) Writers in Exile: The Creative Use of Home in Modern Literature. New Jersey: Humanities.

Hall, Stuart (1990) “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” J. Rutherford (ed.). Identity. London: Lawrence and Wishart.

Hall,Stuart(1993)“Cultural Identity in Question.”S.Hall,D.Held,and T. McGrew (eds.) Modernity and its Futures. Cambridge: Polity.

Hall, Stuart, and Paul du Gay (eds.) (1996) Questions of Cultural Identity. London: Sage.

Khoo Joo Ee (1996) The Straits Chinese: A Cultural History. Amsterdam and Kuala Lumpur: Pepin Press.

Lee, Li-Young (1986) Rose. Rochester: BOA Editions.

Lee, Li-Young (1990) The City in Which I Love You. Rochester: BOA Editions.

Lee, Li-Young (1995) The Winged Seed: A Remembrance. Saint Paul: Hungry Mind Press.

Lee, Li-Young (2001) Book of My Nights. Rochester: BOA Editions. 梁秉鈞(1995)《游離的詩》。香港:Oxford UP。

梁秉鈞(2000)《東西》。香港:Oxford UP。

Lim, Shirley Geok-lin (1994) Monsoon History: Selected Poems. London: Skoob. Lim, Shirley Geok-lin (1994a) [1988] "Tongue and Root: Language in Exile." Lim

1994:167-73.

Lim, Shirley Geok-lin (1994b)[1992] "Who Do We Name When We Say 'Diaspora'?: Race, national Identity, and the Subject of the Subject in Timothy Mo's Novels." Writing South East/Asia in English: Against the Grain, Focus on Asian English-Language Literature. London: Skoob. 91-104.

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Lim, Shirley Geok-lin (1996) Among the White Moonfaces: Memoirs of a Nyonya Feminist. Singapore: Times Books International.

Lim, Shirley Geok-lin (1998) What the Fortune Teller Didn't Say. Albuquerque, NM: West End.

Lim, Shirley Geok-lin and M. L. Liebler (2002) A Gathering of Poems from Pok Fu Lam / A Moment of Understanding. Gambier, OH: Xoxox.

麥留芳(1985)《方言群認同:早期星馬華人的分類法則》。台北:中央研究院民 族學研究所。

Moyers, Bill (2001)[1999] “Shirley Geok-lin Lim.” Fooling with Words: A Celebration of Poets and Their Craft. New York: Perennial. 131-52.

Ng Kim Chew [Huang Jinshu] (2004) “Meiyou jiayuan”[Without homeland]. Yinke wenxue shenghuozhi [Ink literary monthly]12:158-62.

Pan, Lynn (1990) Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora. Boston: Little, Brown.

潘翎(主編)(1998)《海外華人百科全書》。崔貴強(譯)。香港:三聯書店。 Purcell, Victor (1948) The Chinese in Malaya. London: Oxford UP.

Quan, Andy, and Jim Wong-Chu, eds. (1999) Swallowing Cloud: An Anthology of Chinese-Canadian Poetry. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press.

Quayum, Mohammad A. (2003) "Nation, Gender, Identity: Shirley Geok-lin Lim's Joss and Gold." 《中山人文學報》/Sun Yat-sen Journal of Humanities 16(2003):15-32.

Quayum, Mohammad A., and and Nor Faridah Abdul Manaf. Colonial To Global: Malaysian Women's Writing in English 1940s-1990s. Kuala Lumpur: IIUM, 2001.

Quayum, Mohammad A., and Peter Wicks, eds. Malaysian Literature in English: A Critical Reader. Petaling Jaya: Pearson, 2001.

Quayum, Mohammad A., and Peter Wicks, eds. Singaporean Literature in English: A Critical Reader. Serdang: UPM, 2002.

Ismail S. Talib (1998) [1994] “Responses to the Language of Singaporean Literature in English.”S. Gopinnathan et al (eds.) Language, Society and Education in Singapore: Issues and Trends. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press. 203-18. Kwa, Lydia (1994) The Colours of Heroines. Toronto: Women’s Press.

Radhakrishnan, Rajagopalan (1996) Diasporic Mediations: Between Home and Location. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P.

Said, Edward (1990) “Reflectionson Exile.”RussellFerguson etal.(eds.) Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary Cultures. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 357-66.

Seyhan, Azade (2001) Writing Outside the Nation. Princeton: Princeton UP.

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Hong.”BruceBennett(ed.) A Sense of Exile: Essays in the Literature of the Asia-Pacific Region. Nedlands: Centre for Studies in Australian Literature, U of Western Australia. 33-42.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (1989) “Reading The Satanic Verses.”Public Culture 2.1: 79-99.

張木欽[Teo Bak Kim](2000)《荷蘭街口夕陽斜──峇峇文化:一次文化統合的奇 異經驗》/Heeren Street in Setting Sun: The Babas’ Unique Experience in Cultural Assimilation. Trans. Katherine Yip。吉隆坡:大將事業社。[漢英對 照本]

伍、成果自評

本計畫前兩年執行大致尚稱順利。已完成中英文論文若干篇。計畫第三年則在前 兩年的基礎上繼續以離散論述閱讀北美華裔詩人李立揚與陳美玲的詩作以作為 建構「離散詩學」的材料,並將三年的思考方向統整在專書的架構下進行撰寫計 畫。 近年來本人從後殖民論述與新興英文文學埋論的角度出發,思考馬華文學乃至世 界華文文學的離散性質與研究發展前景,並提出「新興華文文學」(new Chinese literatures)與「亞洲比較文學」 (inter-Asia literary comparatistics)的整體性看法, 同時也將離散論述的概念和華文文學連結。這並非旨在為自己定位,而是本人對 亞太地區各語離散文學以及亞洲現代主義文學運動的一貫關注與興趣的迴響/ 回應。同時也在開拓議題,以免論述框架陳陳相因。 在上述理論脈絡思考後,深覺以跨國旅行與離散雙鄉或多鄉的概念探討林玉玲、 陳文平、陳美玲、李立揚等華裔離散詩人,既能描述其身體的流動,也適用於呈 現詩文裡頭的原鄉想像與地方感性,故兩者皆為離散詩學的要素。

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附件一:

此篇為最早以會議論文及期刊論文方式呈現的計畫成果,日後將修訂並改議程英 文稿。

流動與游離,或,交換與改變(之必要)

林玉玲的離散詩學

摘 要 亞洲作家移居美加,自有其歷史因素。值得注意的是,許多 當代的移民現象,並非單純的移民行為,而是「再移民」。再移 民增加了移民行為流動性的複雜。而由於居所的一再變易,家變 得不可能,或相當游離。亞裔流動與游離的原因因人而異,但華 裔的流動與游離歷史,和近代西方殖民亞洲史、中國近代史、東 南亞洲國家與民族主義興起息息相關。本論文試圖探討的華裔亞 美詩人林玉玲(Shirley Geok-lin Lim),即其中一個流動與游離 的例子。林玉玲原為馬六甲的「土生華人」,六十年代末在吉隆 坡經歷種族衝突事件,留學美國之後即外流美國文壇,日後詩文 卻在不同地方(美國、英國、新加坡、馬來西亞、香港)出現, 身分屬性也因詩文發表地或刊物屬性不同而有所變易,而詩人自 己也多番以作家與學者的身分往返於亞洲與美國之間,正代表了 一個華裔亞洲詩人在全球各畛域的流動與游離。本論文即從離散 的概念出發,指出她對散居華人的(後殖民/後現代)認同與屬 性的關注,同時彰顯語言與身分認同之間的變換與交易關係。*

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關鍵詞:林玉玲(Shirley Geok-lin Lim),土生華人(Peranakan), 離散(diaspora),變換與交易(translation and exchange)

一切皆從交換之不可能開始。這世界的不確定性在於他處沒 有一個相當於它的世界;它無法和任何東西交換。

Jean Baudrillard, Impossible Exchange

儘管潘翎(Lynn Pan)在她主編的《海外華人百科全書》(The Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas)裡指出,「把『海外華人』稱為『散居國外的人』是不 明智的」(16),她自己稍早的書《炎黃子孫:散居華人史》(Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora)卻用了「散居華人」一詞指稱這些祖 先為華人,口操家鄉話,保留舊習俗的「海外華人」。林玉玲(Shirley Geok-lin Lim) 認為對潘翎而言,「海外華人」即等同「散居華人」(Lim 1992, 102n8),1根據的 就是《炎黃子孫》一書。林玉玲自己即海外(東南亞)華人出身,母親是當地土 生華人(娘惹〔Nyonya〕),父親則是生於馬六甲的福建人;她不會講「華語」, 會說一點點福建話,也會講流利的峇峇馬來話(Baba Malay),六歲上學以後則 多說英語。這樣的身世背景點出的正是身分與語言這兩個晚近各種文學與文化論 述中相當重要的議題。就身分而言,林玉玲是中國境外(馬來西亞/美國)的華 人,可說是不折不扣的海外/散居華人,但是她不會講華語,乃是「不會說中國 話」的海外華人。 不過,會不會說中國話,是否構成「離散中國性」或「離散中華屬性」的 特徵,宜進一步討論。離散是一種漸進變態,故東南亞華人早有「三代成峇」的 說法。「成峇」意味著「異化」、「夷化」或「胡化」:習性與文化的離中散華,例 1 以「散居華人」或「華人散居者」指稱東南亞或海外華人及其後裔的用法,已漸漸通行,

參閱諸如 John Clammer, Diaspora and Identity: The Sociology of Culture in Southeast Asia (Subang Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk, 2002), Wang Gungwu and Wang Ling-chi, eds., The Chinese Diaspora: Selected Essays (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1998) 與 Wang Gungwu and Annette Shun Wah, Imagining the Chinese Diaspora: Two Australian Perspectives (Canberra: Centre for the Study of the Chinese Southern Diaspora, 1999)及 Ien Ang, On Not Speaking Chinese: Living Between Asia and the West (London and New York: Routledge, 2001)等相關論著。

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如不會說中國話,只通曉(聽說讀寫)馬來文或英文的新馬峇峇或印尼土生華人。 2論述散居華人其實有一散(聚焦於散居華人的「離中散華」或去中國性)一居 (側重散居華人保留中華屬性的面向)的兩種方向不同思考:(一)散居華人究 竟是「離中散華」,例如不會說中國話、沒有奉行華人宗教儀式;還是(二)散 居華人保留了哪些中華屬性(語言、宗教信仰、家庭價值觀等)。不管從哪個方 向思考,「散居華人」都是指那些已不在中國境內的華人,故「散居華人」一詞, 其實已涵蓋了「海外華人」的概念。 即使是不在中國境內的華人也有不同的情況與樣態。林玉玲曾以〈我們所 謂「散居華人」指的是哪些人?〉(“Who Do WeNameWhen WeSay ‘Diaspora’?”) 為論毛翔青(Timothy Mo)小說的文章主要題目。對她而言,湯亭亭(Maxine Hong Kingston)與毛翔青都屬離散華人作家,雖然湯亭亭是在美國加州出生的第二代 華裔美國人,而毛翔青則是少年時代即移居英國的香港華人。嚴格說來,湯亭亭 是離散華人的後代,毛翔青才是移居他鄉的離散華人。 身為散居華人,林玉玲可以說結合了湯亭亭與毛翔青的身分與經驗:她既 是離散華人的後代(父母親生於南洋),也是移居他鄉的離散華人(自己再從南 洋移居美國)。不過,更值得注意的是,林玉玲是海峽華人。海峽華人(Straits Chinese)為十五、六世紀離散華人的後裔,可以說是典型的散居華人,或散居 華人的原型樣態,然而如今研究散居華人的學者多半不知或不提這個離散社群。 海峽華人又稱海峽殖民地僑生華人(Straits-born Chinese)、僑生華人、「峇峇」 (Baba),或土生華人(Peranakan)。3僑生或峇峇基本上是三聲帶,講「峇峇馬 2 為菲律賓、泰國、越南本土文化所同化的當地僑生華人並不通用「峇峇」一詞。例如,泰 國的同化華人稱為 Luchin。 3 「峇峇」泛指海峽華人社群,也指男性,女性則稱為「娘惹」(Nyonya)。早期下南洋的中 國作家喜歡渲染南洋地方色彩、異國情調或民族文化,不少作品以「峇峇與娘惹」為題目或題材, 例如丘士珍與方北方。「僑生」一詞在中國或台灣的用法,等同「華僑」、「僑民」或「僑胞」,指 移居海外或僑居國外的中國人民,仍然屬「國人」;此用法雖不太符合國籍法,今天仍然通行。 海峽華人社會也用「僑生」一詞,但意思不同,指的是土生華人(Peranakan)。「新客」(Sinkhek) 非土生土長,或剛從中國南下,他們才是中國僑民。由此可見,「峇峇」即「僑生」(馬六甲荷蘭 街有「僑生客棧」、「僑生餐館」,其「僑生」即“Baba”的中譯)。不過,「僑生」或「土生華人」 還包括吉蘭丹與丁加奴鄉下的土生華人,因此並非所有「僑生」都是「峇峇」。(印尼爪哇與蘇門

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來語」、英語、與福建話(也有講潮州話甚至廣東話的峇峇)。「峇峇馬來語」是

混合福建話與馬來話的方言現象(patois),今天「星洲英語」(Singlish)的混合英

語、馬來語與福建話情形庶幾近之。4《馬來亞的華人》(The Chinese in Malaya)

一書作者巴素(Victor Purcell)曾指出,峇峇馬來話乃「海峽殖民地大部分土生

華人婦孺的母語」(Purcell 293)。這現象似乎吻合「峇峇來自早期中國移民與馬

來女性通婚」的說法,也就解釋了何以娘惹穿戴馬來服飾及善炒馬來風味的菜 餚。此外,峇峇保留了華人宗教與傳統結婚禮儀,成為他們的禮俗特色。

林玉玲迄今出版個人詩集五部:《跨越半島及其他》(Crossing the Peninsula and Other Poems, 1980)、《無人林》(No Man’sGrove, 1985)、《摩登秘密》(Modern Secrets, 1989)、《季風史》(Monsoon History, 1994)、與《算命先生沒說的》(What theFortuneTellerDidn’tSay, 1998),其中《季風史》選自前三部詩集,近作《薄 扶林詩選》(A Gathering of Poems from Pok Fu Lam, 2002)則是與利伯樂(M. L.

Liebler)合著的集子。5身為散居華裔詩人,林玉玲在其詩作中多涉及身分、語 言、家國、居所等課題;而身為女性,性別與女性的主題更常在她詩中出現。藉 由書寫這幾個當代文化論述的重要課題,她的離散詩學彰顯了她對散居華人的 (後殖民/後現代)認同與屬性的關注。本文即旨在閱讀林玉玲詩作中若干相關 文本,並陳述這些文本之後/外的歷史脈絡,同時指出詩人所選擇的語言6── 英語──的流動與游離:從英國殖民地時期的當道與官方地位,到國家獨立後滑 落成邊陲語文,而她移居美國之後,又進入另一個英文強勢的時空。詩人選擇了 她的語言,也選擇了身分──其實並沒有太多選擇的餘地,因為只有非此則彼: 選擇了英文,就等於選擇邊陲與失根,失去馬來西亞的根源。這樣的選擇其實是 答臘的土生華人也叫 Peranakan;嚴格說來,“Peranakan”一詞甚至不一定要指華人,土生印度人、 歐亞混血兒也都可以是 Peranakan。)關於「海峽華人」的簡略定義,可參見 Khoo Joo Ee 1996, 23-24。此外,「海峽華人」的較廣定義,則泛指三州府(海峽殖民地)不講峇峇馬來語的華人, 包括被峇峇同化的「新客」。本文使用的「海峽華人」,除非另行說明,概指僑生華人或峇峇。

4 印尼土生華人講的「華人馬來語」(Bahasa Melayu Tionghoa)則混合印尼(馬來)語、福

建話、與荷蘭話。

5 利伯樂的部分題為《領會剎那》(A Moment of Understanding)。

6 林玉玲曾引述某菲律賓英文作家的話說:「我沒選擇英文,是英文選上我」(Lim 1994b,

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交換與改變。失根之後,離散之後,南洋的季風遂成為歷史,只存在書寫與記憶

裡,一如林玉玲詩〈源〉(“TheSource”)中散居海峽殖民地的土生華人說話者所

說,「中國是我未曾細察的根源/雖然她、他恆定不變/一如記憶中的母親、父

親」(Lim 2002: 4)。難怪離散書寫充滿父親母親的記憶。

林玉玲在《季風史》中以〈學英文〉(“Learning English”)一詩代替前言, 另有後記〈舌與根:流放的語言〉(“Tongueand Root:Languagein Exile”),可見 她在寫作過程中念茲在茲的正是語言問題。她六歲入學,開始學英文,講英語, 學習以英文理解周遭環境。英文成為她的新工具。但她如何理解這個語言呢?例 如英文「變心」一詞,顯然以孩童的認知,並無法掌握其意: 變心。 英文片語,西方想法。 我無法了解 詞義。小孩子 我知道心不會變── 長大,不忠 善忘,但依然是 爸爸,媽媽。 不忠實 善忘,但還是爸爸媽媽。 在孩童心目中,父母對子女,或子女對父母的愛心不會變,因此無法單純地將英 文片語“achangeofheart”依字面意思轉譯為「變心」。這是英文辭彙與現實指涉 之間的落差,說明了語言(英文)無法代現,也無法轉譯為另一語言。但是小孩 長大之後,懂得更多英文辭彙,學會掌握英文,嘗試了解世間無常,甚至居所也 常變動,經過許多取捨,終於了解變與不變的(交換)關係與樣態: 就像哭泣, 摯愛的國家,以及

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望著,遠行的人,在山坡上 在城牆下,交換 必須永久 改變的,別了,再見 不同的用字遣詞, 用來表達

永不變心。例如,爸爸媽媽。(Lim 1994a: xxiii)

林玉玲生於馬來亞的殖民時期。在這個英屬殖民地,除了日據時代那三年 零八個月,英語是新加坡與馬來亞具宰制地位的主流語文,政府機關的通用語。 馬來亞在一九五七年獨立之後,立馬來文為國語,英文與馬來文並存至一九六七 年,才因國語法令而失去優勢,而且漸漸被邊緣化。換句話說,林玉玲在馬來(西) 亞時期的主要受教育階段,目睹了英語由盛而衰,而英語造詣甚佳的她卻對這個 殖民主的語言情有獨鍾。政府對英語的取捨屬於國家的語言政策問題,而林玉玲 獨鍾何種語言則是社會個體的私人(經濟、文化)抉擇。馬來政黨居宰制地位的 政府理所當然選擇去殖民化,以馬來語替代英語,並以國家資源(學校、考試、 廣播電視、官方刊物、官方語文發展機構等)貫徹政令,確保國語的擴散與使用。 這樣的語言政策對馬來族群而言,語言、民族、國家的認同三合一,為民族與文 化復興的基石,自沒有屬性分裂的問題。7對海峽華人族裔的公民來說,馬來語 與「峇峇馬來語」之間的交流溝通問題不大,但立馬來語為唯一國語卻非利多, 因為海峽華人及其子女多受英語教育,在殖民時期英語既為政府部門與商界的強 勢語言,通曉英語的海峽華人自然受重用,社會地位高,如今潮退船低,英語在 這個新興國家的經濟價值與地位已大不如前。英文與現實行情之間的落差到了七 零年代更大,英文在西馬來西亞成為單一科目,而非各級學校的教學媒介語文。 8不過當時林玉玲已帶著流放的語言跨越半島,去國留美了。 7 除了以他種語文(例如英文)創作的馬來作家。 8 近年英文在教育領域的地位有回升的趨勢,不僅可以作為高等教育的媒語,教育部也明令

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事實上,誠如歷史學者巴芭拉與李納.安達亞(Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya)二人所指出,在英國殖民時期,馬來亞的教育發展模式就已 反映了殖民政府的政治與經濟分配/分治政策。依照殖民政府的政經架構,各族 群適得其所:華人在錫礦工作、印度人為橡膠園丘工人、馬來人種稻,而英國人 則為經理或高階管理人員,統籌各族勞動成果(Andaya and Andaya 217, 222)。 政府的統治與官僚體系除了馬來統治階級的參與外,也吸收各族受英文教育的菁 英份子。殖民政府也按此模式辦教育,將馬來小學、華文與淡米爾文(Tamil) 小學皆視為各族群的方言小學,但是資助興辦馬來學校,而中、高等學校則實施 英文教育,旨在培養以馬來人為主的各族菁英以為政府行政部門所用。換句話 說,教育為政治管理與經濟效益服務。馬來亞獨立之後,英文與馬來文主客易位。 新政府基本上還是蕭規曹隨,以分配/分治模式治國,只是以馬來文取代英文的 地位罷了。 馬來文的國語地位,如前所述,早在一九五七年的獨立憲法中即已明訂, 而且和馬來人特權一樣,同為交換的結果。代表馬來人協商的巫統以同意給予非 馬來人公民權為條件,換取馬來語為國語及馬來人的特權地位。就像林玉玲詩中 所說:「交換/必須永久/改變的……」。交換之後,一個新興國家誕生,新的國 族出現,改變了這些散居星馬的中國(以及印度)移民及其後裔的身分。對生於 斯土的華裔公民而言,他們再也不是中國人,除非他們日後改變效忠與認同對 象,移居中國。這裡的「華裔公民」,其實宜以其語言群認同進一步區分。在中 華民國成立之前,僑生華人之外的南洋新客華人口操各種漢語方言(主要是福 建、廣東、潮州、客家、廣西、海南、福州等華南方言),而不是京音官話,學 堂也多以閩粵方言授課。到了民國建立,中國教育部制定以「白話國語」為教學 媒語,以利溝通與教育之普及,南洋華社私辦的舊式學堂也改成以白話國語教 學,新客華人逐漸以語言認同界定身分屬性。因此,對這些說華語,受華文教育 小學的數理科目以英文授教。

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的華裔公民來說,國家獨立之後政府的國語法令,以及後續的教育與文化政策, 意味著華文與中華文化被主流論述「次等化」與邊緣化。政府訂定馬來文為唯一 國語,顯然並沒有讓語言問題塵埃落定,相反的,語言問題成為其他族群不安的 源頭,成為不定時炸彈。一九六九年發生在吉隆坡的五一三種族衝突事件的導火 線,雖說是反對黨人的遊行與馬來人的反遊行,遠因其實還是語言、教育與文化 問題沒有擺平;一九八七年的「茅草行動」的引子同樣還是語言與教育爭議。9 另一方面,遠在十九世紀末,海峽華人社群即響應峇峇僑領林文慶(也就是後來 出任廈門大學校長的林文慶)的呼籲,展開「再華化」運動,開辦華語識字班, 重新界定峇峇身分為華人。這是海峽華人的第一波身分認同之舉,不過時值殖民 地政府鴻圖大展之際,英文經濟價值高,地位穩定,因此學英文上英校仍是這些 不會講華語(或只會講福建話)的僑生華人之首要選擇。重要的是,講英語(不 會講華語)和(海峽)華人的身分並沒有抵觸,他們不需在講英語與說華語之間 做出抉擇。然而,半個多世紀之後,英文這白人殖民者的語文,已隨馬來亞獨立 與殖民時代結束而風光不再。重新當家作主的馬來統治階級不是不知道英文的重 要,他們自己即英文教育的受惠者,但是去殖民化與發揚馬來文化才是當務之 急,政治正確性遠比多元文化理想重要,何況他們認為給予非馬來人移民公民權 已是犧牲與讓步。馬來文成為當道語文,當然是復興馬來民族主義的象徵,馬來 話的俗語「語言者民族魂也」(“Bahasa Jiwa Bangsa”)在獨立後便成為推行「國

語」的口號,政府甚至將此口號製作成徽章發給各源流學校學生。10面對馬來文

的強勢,這些受英語教育、口操英語、手寫英文的英籍海外公民海峽華人及其後

裔,面對的困境,不是不諳馬來文之苦,他們的馬來文早已自成一派,11而是英

9 「五一三事件」指一九六九年五月十三日吉隆坡爆發的華巫種族流血衝突,詳 Leon Comber, 13

may 1969: A Historical Survey of Sino-Malay Relations (Singapore: Graham Brash, 1983)。「茅草 行動」(Operasi Lalang)指政府在一九八七年大事逮捕反對黨人與異議人士,以緩和當時的族 群緊張關係。相關評述可參閱 R. S. Milne and Diane K. Mauzy, Malaysian Politics under Mahathir (London and New York: Routledge, 1999) 107-109。

10 「語言者民族魂也」亦為一九五六年九月在新加坡召開的第三屆全馬來亞馬來語文與文學大

會的標語。

11 只受華文教育者或南來的新客在申請成為本地公民時才有不懂馬來文的問題。不懂馬來文意

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文的失勢。 林玉玲另有〈詠歎調〉(“Lament”)一詩,寫她對英文的忠貞不二: 我一直忠心耿耿 對你,我的語言, 我做夢、交歡、講笑話 咒罵人的語言。 可是她也化身棄婦,指控「英文」這薄悻的良人: ……。多少回 你背叛我,無情無義! 遺棄我── 表面上看來,馬來亞聯合邦獨立,海峽華人的身價頓時從殖民地的寵兒,變成獨 立國的「亞細亞棄兒」,似乎是歷史的嘲弄,離散華人的悲哀。但是在政治上, 海峽華人顯然無意隨波逐流,讓歷史的洪流淹沒,相反的,它們往往是歷史的弄 潮者,甚至走在歷史的前方。馬來亞的華人政黨「馬華公會」諸創黨元老,如陳 禎祿,就是峇峇僑領,甚至「馬華公會」──馬來亞華人公會──的名稱和林文 慶在殖民時期倡辦的「海峽英籍華人公會」也相去不遠。陳禎祿畢生致力於華巫

攜手合作建國,馬來人尊稱他為「禎祿伯」(Pak Cheng Lok),連荷蘭街也改名

「敦陳禎祿街」。12不過,詩中的女性說話人自承地位有如英文的情婦,遠在(獨 立)以前即知道日後並無望明媒正娶,倒是受英文教育的海峽華人相當傳神的比 喻。儘管如此,她依然如是說: 我一直只對你 忠貞不二, 我的語言。你遠比 12 「敦陳禎祿」的「敦」(Tun)為馬來西亞各州蘇丹頒授對國家社會貢獻卓越人士的勳銜。這 方面的資料,可參考麥留芳的《島嶼東南亞人名與稱謂》。書末〈詞匯表〉的“Tun”條目即解 釋為「民事及公共服務界之最高勳銜,在馬來西亞通用」(106)。

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國家…… …… 情人與丈夫 還要重要 …… 雖然世人皆知 你非我所屬。 他們以了然的眼神 笑我愚昧── 我、異鄉人、外邦人, 本無權擁有 竟索取所有權── 犧牲,舌 因恐懼而分裂。(Lim 1994a: 56-57) 一九六九年底,林玉玲赴美留學,帶著五一三種族流血衝突事件的創傷。13 畢業後她面臨歸國與滯美的抉擇,最後決定自我放逐,浪跡天涯,不回去這個開 始排斥外邦人的祖國。是時馬來西亞已實施以配額制度保護馬來人的新經濟與教 育政策,提出獨尊馬來與伊斯蘭文化的一元國家文化概念,並全面推動馬來文教 育。林玉玲一心嚮往以英文創作,又嫁了個外邦人(美籍猶太裔)丈夫,自不可 能認同這種一面倒的本土化做法,只好放棄國家、犧牲根源。詩中說道:「我的 語言。你遠比/國家……/還要重要」,可謂充分彰顯了英文在她生命中的份量 與意義。最後兩行「舌/因恐懼而分裂」,則隱含「語言的分歧」(forked tongue) 之意。語言為民族的靈魂,分歧的語言造成分裂的國族,也就在所難免了。語言 13 說五一三種族流血暴動及其後遺症(一面倒向馬來主義)的經歷對林玉玲而言乃恆久的記憶 與創傷並不為過。她不僅在回憶錄《在白色圓臉之間》中一再述及此事件,近作長篇小說《馨 香與金箔》(Joss and Gold [Singapore and Kuala Lumpur: Times Books International, 2001])更刻 意以一九六九年的吉隆坡為敘事背景之一,五一三事件為此部分的重要場景。

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的選擇從來就不單純,向來就是政治。 對許多我這一代的馬來西亞人來說,我們所熱愛、所熟悉的語言並非我 們的母語,不是烏都語(Urdu)或興地話(Hindi)14或華語或廣東話, 而是英文,那是在我們的認知裡頭既害怕又仰慕的白人的話。那些教我 讀丁尼森(Tennyson)的愛爾蘭修女自已也是殖民主義的兒女,但身為 教師她們頗為稱職。我不僅學會了閱讀,還懂得愛;我不但學會如何模 仿,還想心有所屬。關於這一點個人的收穫,我要感謝的倒不是那些愛 爾蘭修女,而是英文,以及英文文學。(Lim 1994b: 170-71)

在〈舌與根:流放的語言〉(“Tongueand Root:Languagein Exile”)中,林玉玲 如是寫道。儘管在國家獨立後,由於英國殖民主義下台,本土主義興起,英文勢 必要遜位予國語,私心裡她還是希望這個她口說或手寫都如魚得水的語文沒有落 日之時,因為英文已成為她存在的一部份了。精確說來,文章副題「流放的語言」 (“Languagein Exile”),其實是「語言的流放」:被放逐的是英文,不僅是詩人

林玉玲。她面臨的是(沒有)選擇的困境:「要是我忠於我的(馬來西亞)根源, 我就得背叛我的存在;而要對馬來西亞身分忠實,我就得繼續在美國當異鄉的異客」 (Lim 1994b: 170-71)。換句話說,她面臨的其實是一種(不可能的)交易的境況: 改變自己的存在,回到已經跨越的馬來半島,回到季風史。不可能,是因為一九 七零年代的馬來西亞政府以族裔取人,不可能以打造一個多聲喧譁的多元文化主 義社會為理想。結果她選擇了忠於自己的存在,繼續留在美國,把他鄉當家鄉, 成為亞裔美國人,「學習愛美國」,15同時「行走於海水與陸地之間」16成為離散

14 烏都語(Urdu)、興地語(Hindi)、與淡米爾語(Tamil)皆為印度通行語。烏都語也是巴基斯

坦的官方語文,為印度斯坦語(Hindustani)的一支,書寫文字屬波斯-阿拉伯文系統,操此語 者為穆斯林。興地語也是印度斯坦語一支,乃現代印地(Indic)白話,通行於北印度人中信 奉興都教(Hinduism,一般譯成「印度教」)者,亦譯「印地語」。之前提到的淡米爾語(Tamil), 則屬南印度的達羅毗荼語(Dravidian),也通行於室里蘭卡。新加坡與馬來西亞華人話語中的 「印度人」,是個籠統的族群稱謂,其實這些「印度人」祖先分別來自印度、巴基斯坦、室里 蘭卡、或孟加拉等南亞各地,其膚色、語文、宗教、穿著並不盡相同。 15 林玉玲有詩題為〈學習愛美國〉(“Learning to LoveAmerica,收入她一九九八年的詩集。見 Lim 1998: 74。 16 林玉玲詩〈無人林〉(“No Man’sGrove”)中的詩句「我選擇行走於海水與陸地之間」。見 Lim 1994a: 37。

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華人。不過,傾盆大雨的半島、貝殼燦爛的半島,在林玉玲去國之後,依然經常 陰魂不散地在她的詩裡出現,可見交易之不可能。如果交易不可能,歸返可不可 能呢?17 當年馬來亞這個新興國家在制訂國籍法(而且是單一國籍法)時,也正是 海峽華人第二次面臨身分屬性界定的時候。說峇峇馬來語、婦女衣著服飾與烹飪 馬來化、欣賞馬來歌舞、吟唱馬來班頓(pantun)的海峽華人,18可以說同化的 程度相當深,但是並未改奉伊斯蘭教(masuk Islam)。19換句話說,儘管海峽華 人的語言與文化傾向馬來化,唯有宗教儀式仍然保留中華屬性,因此就族群分類 無法被視為馬來人,更不會被視為土著(或曰「卜米」,即 Bumi,Bumiputera 之 簡稱)。麥留芳即指出,馬來政府的同化政策是「單面條件性同化主義」,因此「同 化的華人在憲法上仍然不是巫人或土著。……仍不能分享土著所擁有的權利」(麥 留芳 1985:25)。依照前文的「交換與改變」經濟論述,或者依張木欽的說法, 華人如果皈依伊斯蘭,等於變成馬來人(masuk Melayu),捨棄華人文化(包括 姓名),與中華屬性徹底決裂,代價極大,「很少人付得起這個代價,連峇峇都付 不起」,更何況成為馬來人,卻不受承認為土著,「付出的代價沒有獲得補償」, 因此回過頭來,選擇認同主流華人社會(張木欽 79)。20不過,這樣的選擇,還 是難免面對另一困境:不會說「中國話」,不會講華語。 17 關於林玉玲的歸返,請參閱我多年前的一篇論文〈跨越半島,遠離群島:論林玉玲及其英文 書寫的漂泊與回返〉,收入拙著《南洋論述:馬華文學與文化屬性》(台北:麥田,2003)191-205。 林玉玲個人與詩文的「漂泊與回返」,可以「旅行跨國性」(traveling transnationalism)現象視 之。 18 「班頓」為傳統馬來詩歌形式,四行,或四行一節。文思德(Richard Winstedt)的名著《古

典馬來文學史》(A History of Classical Malay Literature, Rev. and ed. Yusof A. Talib [Kuala Lumpur: MBRAS, 1996]136-46)中論馬來詩歌一章探討相當詳細,可參考。 19 巴素(Victor Purcell)論述馬來亞華人宗教時指出,宗教儀式為華人社會重要支柱,「就連已 經忘記先人語言的峇峇,也未嘗忘記祖先傳下來的宗教儀式」(Purcell 130)。張木欽書中也引 用了巴素這句顯示峇峇沒有數典忘祖的話,唯未註明出處。張著雖非學術著作,卻是少數討 論峇峇文化的華文書(可見華人社會對峇峇並不十分關注),而且頗多洞見。 20 這個說法可能還得進一步論證,因為海峽華人的語言與文化既然已「馬來化」在先,除了保 留華人姓名、婚禮儀式和宗教儀式之外,生活起居和馬來人差不多,可以說已切斷了不少中 華屬性的文化聯繫,如果飲食習慣可以改變(不吃豬肉),改奉伊斯蘭其實並無不可(中國與 台灣還不是有不少穆斯林)。我的設論是,海峽華人無法和馬來人同化,除了宗教因素之外, 還和性別及階級問題相關:早期海峽華人家庭雖帶有母系社會色彩,但在公共領域發聲的都 是男性。這些主外的男人受英文教育,甚至留學英國,可以說相當西化,而且不是商人就是 公務員或醫生等專業人士(因此除了英文與馬來文之外,還得通福建話)。

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張木欽認為「講華語是華人很重要的特徵」(113)。這句話至少對馬來西亞 華人來說的確如此,雖然依前面提過的離散華人漸進變態說法,極可能到後來就 不會講華語了,可是就族群分類而言仍然屬於華人或華裔(海峽華人即典型例 子)。海峽華人不會說華語,主要是他們的社群自成一封閉系統,華語派不上用 場。峇峇男性經商用語不是英語就是福建話,女性除非讀書上學,否則只講峇峇 馬來話。這也意味著海峽殖民地華人新客以說福建話者居多,峇峇不懂華語也還 是無礙彼此交往與溝通。不過,既然說華語為馬來西亞華人的中華屬性特徵之 一,不會說華語的華人身處說華語的語境,即使不被會說華語的華人排斥,也難 免會感到尷尬與匱乏。林玉玲詩選集中的「獻給孔家店」一輯,其中的〈致李白〉 (“To LiPo”)與〈摩登秘密〉(“Modern Secrets”)即流露出這種情緒。 〈致李白〉一開頭詩的說話人「我」就直書:「我用異鄉人的語言讀你/同 樣有一雙斜眼的兄弟」,因為「我」活在「洋鬼子」的社會,不懂華文,只能讀 翻譯本。讀翻譯的李白詩,並想像李白佇立自家屋後田間阡陌,悠然觀看稻禾, 而心思漫遊四方,觀察家家戶戶的農事與起居。接著「我」想到人生在世,不論 愚智,皆有如客居紅塵(誠如李白詩〈擬古其九〉所云:「生者為過客,死者為 歸人;天地一逆旅,同悲萬古塵」),這種飄然超越之心代表了中國人的智慧。而 依此觀點,中國人自命不凡,但在人類史上,不外也是一種存在的境況罷了。這 大概是「我」讀李白詩所得。最後「我」復跟數百年前的同胞坦承: 然而我無法流利地說你的話, 我不再來自中國。你的故事 引起離散之苦,而且讓我想起 你我單純的親屬關係(Lim 1994a: 43) 離散之後,「我」和李白之間僅有的「單純的親屬關係」是──同為華冑,但同 樣是「華人」,「我」既非來自中國,也不諳華文,只能靠不可靠的翻譯想像李白 的田間阡陌。「我」,是所有客居他鄉而不會講中國話的散居華人的代言人。 另一首短詩〈摩登秘密〉則帶點諷刺兼懷舊的味道。詩中的「我」用英文

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告訴友人說,「昨夜我做夢說中文」,友人以「單音節」的話(中文)回答道:「我 都瞭解」。第二節「我」的中文夢縮小成小說,而結局早已不是秘密。其實,說 話人「友人」即講中文的「我」,那個許多年前的── 皮膚黯黃的小孩 拿著碗吃飯 櫃子裡還藏有飯碗 以及瓷器與茶葉(Lim 1994a: 45) 用英文說「昨夜我做夢說中文」當然是反諷。而(還會)說中文的友人瞭解「我」 何以做夢說中文,因為「我」是華人(只有「夢裡不知身是客」,才會說中文), 因為「我」寄寓異鄉,每天吃麥片說英文,久而久之自然將自己的中華屬性束之 高閣,有如藏在櫃子裡的碗、瓷器與茶葉這些中華文化的符號。這是現代散居華 人的「秘密」,但其實也不是甚麼秘密,因為這樣的結局,多年以前就知道了, 雖然算命先生沒說。「我」五歲時母親央人卜卦算命,問歸宿問財富,算命先生 有問必答,唯獨沒有預言「我」會背井離鄉,移居美國。21為何當年算命先生沒 有預言?是因為當時馬來亞還沒獨立,華人在這塊土地的前途未卜,難以斷言 嗎? 林玉玲在懷鄉自述的《在白色圓臉之間:娘惹女性主義者回憶錄》(Among the

White Moonfaces: Memoirs of a Nyonya Feminist)中透露了身世背景。她經常以「娘 惹」自居,但是根據她書中所提,幼年時代住在祖父家,除了母親之外,大家都 講福建話,母親才講峇峇馬來語,顯然林家並非峇峇世家。祖父在二十世紀初才 從廈門下南洋,生有兒女七人,從苦力變成頭家,為典型南洋華人移民的謀生模 式;他在馬六甲荷蘭街蓋了一棟房子,跟陳禎祿住在同一條街。林玉玲父親排行 老五,一心追求西方文化,在二次大戰爆發前夕娶了土生華人娘惹為妻,乃新客 與峇峇聯姻的例子。林玉玲說他娶了一個娘惹,「脫離了華人身分」,不知何故。

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傳統峇峇社會,並不乏入贅女家的情形,而往往入贅的是新客,新峇聯姻後新客 便被同化成峇峇。林玉玲父母的婚姻並未循此模式,因為當時娘家已家道中落, 林父也非傳統衛道之士。換句話說,林玉玲在詩文或訪談中常提到自己的僑生華 人或娘惹身分,顯然認同的是母親的身分屬性。她五、六歲以後就幾乎只講英語 和峇峇馬來語,英語是學校與父親講的話,說峇峇馬來語則因為那是媽媽的話。 林玉玲的詩多探索語言與身分的問題。而身為海峽華人/馬來西亞人/(不會講 華語的)華人/亞裔美國人/散居華人,她的模稜屬性有助於我們進一步思考中 華屬性(Chineseness)與散居華人之間的複雜關係。值得注意的是,散居華人在 不同的語言與身分之間流動與游離,在不同的符號與意義之間進行交換變易,以 換取諸種改變與權利,顯然是一種必要。然而,往往由於交易的不可能(例如「中 華屬性」與「美國屬性」之間的「摩登祕密」)或無法順利成交(如李白之譯成 英文或不會說中國話),最後呈現在詩或其他類別文本字裡行間的總是一種(一 廂情願的)渴望成交的慾望(或慾望的記憶)在不同的語言與身分之間流動與游 離,這也是林玉玲的詩一再回到離散前的家國、父親母親、夢等等母題的原因─ ─離散總是從(政治)不確定性(的記憶)開始,或繼續。 引文書目見書目附錄部份

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附件二:專書出版計畫

此計畫之研究成果將以英文專書方式呈現。目前僅有大綱及有待進一步整理與修 訂的初稿片段,唯已撰有中文稿一章,將修訂後改寫為英文。下列為專書內容綱 要:

(

E

X)CHANGING

P

LACES

D

IASPORA,

T

RANSNATIONALISM, AND

L

ITERATURE

(Book Project)

1. Introduction

2.

流動與游離,交換與改變(之必要):林玉玲的離散詩學

(To be rendered into English)

3.

(Ex)changing Sense of Place: Reading Chin Woon Ping’s Camillia Song 4.

DiasporicIdentity and CulturalMemory:On Marilyn Chin’sPoetry 5.

Li-Young Lee’sFurious Versions of Diasporic Memory 6. Conclusion Bibliography Index ………...

內容概要如下:

Introduction

Diaspora, Transnationalism, and Literature

基本上此部份為本人對離散、流放的切入角度,指出離散的政治性選擇。

I focus in this study on the works of diasporic and transnational writers, here represented by Shirley Geok-lin Lim, Chin Woon Ping, Marilyn Chin, and Li-Young Lee, and their trajectories of diaspora. The term diasporic identity, however, is a faking or forging construction. If we consider the idea of diaspora in the word’s etymological sense of forced dispersion, the existence of such an identity is then

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problematical. Diaspora, as a state of being, implies a neither-nor (or, as the chapter-title of Azade Seyhan’s book [Seyhan 2001] indicates, “neither here/nor there”) situation. Furthermore, in the act and (hi)story of changing places and cultures, a diasporic persona/person cannot carry his or her cultural, ethnic, and national identities along, for migrating often means redefining such identities or even his or her ethnicity.

Such kind of ambiguous self-exile is closer to expatriates, who, as defined by Edward W. Said, “voluntarily livein an alien country,usually forpersonalorsocial reasons,”than to refugees,though,likealldisplaced persons, voluntary exilesalso sufferfrom “thesolitudeand estrangementofexile”(Said 1990:362).Hereliesthe predicament of the self-exile: being an exile in a foreign country, like all émigrés, means he or she is able to enjoy the benefits of a new kind of freedom, yet he or she is still not free from estrangement. In his “Reflectionson Exile,”Said underlinesthe misery of the exile's “hopeless attempts to make satisfying contact with new surroundings” by citing Joseph Conrad's own description of the death of Yanko Goorall, the central character of his short story entitled “Amy Foster”: Yanko's miserabledeath,“which likethedeathsofseveralConradian heroesisdepicted asthe result of a combination of crushing isolation and the world's indifference.”Despite the freedom he enjoys, in exile the expatriate, Yanko, for example, exists in “the supreme disaster”of loneliness, despair, and estrangement (Said 1990:361-62).

Exile means being forced to be out of a place called home, mostly for political reasons. It is a kind of punishment, or banishment, for being a non-conformist. Self-exile, on the other hand, is a voluntary act of self-displacement so as to escape from the reality, memories, or ideology at home, or to enjoy the freedom (of speech, of using a marginalized language, for instance) not found in the homeland. Self-exile, hence, suggests a sense more of enjoyment than suffering; it is a fulfillment of necessity rather than mourning for the lack and loss. It is political and yet non-political.

Such kind of self-exileiscloserto expatriates,who “voluntarily live in an alien country, usually for personal or social reasons,” than to refugees, though, like all displaced persons, voluntary exilesalso sufferfrom “thesolitudeand estrangement ofexile”(Said 1990:362).Hereliesthepredicamentofthe self-exile: being an exile in a foreign country, like all émigrés, means he or she is able to enjoy the benefits of a new kind of freedom, yet he or she is not free from estrangement. In his

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“Reflectionson Exile,”Said underlinesthemisery oftheexile's"hopeless attempts to make satisfying contact with new surroundings" by citing Joseph Conrad's own description of the death of Yanko Goorall, the central character of "Amy Foster": Yanko's miserable death, "which like the deaths of several Conradian heroes is depicted as the result of a combination of crushing isolation and the world's indifference. Yanko's fate is described as 'the supreme disaster of loneliness and despair'" (Said 1990:361-62). In exile the expatriate, therefore, exists in loneliness and estrangement.

Estrangement is a feeling that arises as a result of the Malaysian government's native cultural and pro-Malay economic policies. The two policies, part of the contents of the government's social restructuring project to strengthen the ruling party's power and secure Malay's financial wealth, were implemented in the early 1970s. Since then there has been a sense of estrangement in the non-Bumiputra communities. A consequence of this monocultural and racial ideology is the voluntary exile of many non-Malay intellectuals, who emigrated to other Commonwealth countries and the United States. Many chose to leave and not to return not because their lives were threatened, but because “[t]he multi-racial, multi-religious, multi-lingual identity which Malaysia had achieved was, apparently, now to make way foramonoculturalism”(Singh 1987:36).They leftbecauseofthefearofbeing marginalized in their own country.

流動與游離,交換與改變(之必要):林玉玲的離散詩學

(To be rendered into English)

亞洲作家移居美加,自有其歷史因素。值得注意的是,許多當代的移民現 象,並非單純的移民行為,而是「再移民」。再移民增加了移民行為流動性的複 雜。而由於居所的一再變易,家變得不可能,或相當游離。亞裔流動與游離的原 因因人而異,但華裔的流動與游離歷史,和近代西方殖民亞洲史、中國近代史、 東南亞洲國家與民族主義興起息息相關。本論文試圖探討的華裔亞美詩人林玉玲 (Shirley Geok-lin Lim),即其中一個流動與游離的例子。林玉玲原為馬六甲的 「土生華人」,六十年代末在吉隆坡經歷種族衝突事件,留學美國之後即外流美 國文壇,日後詩文卻在不同地方(美國、英國、新加坡、馬來西亞、香港)出現,

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身分屬性也因詩文發表地或刊物屬性不同而有所變易,而詩人自己也多番以作家 與學者的身分往返於亞洲與美國之間,正代表了一個華裔亞洲詩人在全球各畛域 的流動與游離。本論文即從離散的概念出發,指出她對散居華人的(後殖民/後

現代)認同與屬性的關注,同時彰顯語言與身分認同之間的變換與交易關係。*

(Ex)changing Sense of Place

Reading Chin Woon Ping's Camillia Song

The paper is part of my project of constructing an Asian/Asian American poetics of diaspora. A strong sense of changing places, or being out of place, illuminates the transnational and transcultural nature of such a poetics. As a member of diasporic Chinese/Asian American poets, Chin Woon Ping, a Malaysia-born scholar-writer living between Asia and America, expresses in her poetical works her diasporic/fragmented identity and postmodern/postcolonial ethnicity. This paper reads Chin's poems, collected in The Naturalization of Camellia Song and In My Mother's Dream, by exploring the hybridized and complicated sense of place in her poems. Such a reading is to trace and recount the change and/or exchange between her first and second homelands, English and mother tongue, as well as migrated and native cultures.

Is it possible for a change to take place without exchanging something for something else? If it is possible, then how many times could that be? Is it possible to talk about this subject without involving more subjects—such as date, disappearance, gaining, history, identity politics, negation, negotiation, place, sign, time, or translation (in alphabetical order)? Or are they sub-subjects of the object of my study here, that is, Chin Woon Ping? Who is Chin Woon Ping? And why Chin Woon Ping? I shallbegin with afew linesofaMalay poem from herprelude“TheNaturalization of CamilliaSong”to her collection of poetry:

Sudah lama kami ada di sini. Kami telah menyembungikan diri

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Kami tidak mau kembali.

Kami gembira di sini dengan bidang-bidang Kecil dan pohon-pohon yang

Kami jaga dengan rapi.

(1993:9)

Di sini”[here]indicatesalwaysalready asenseofplace,ormore than oneplace, or even displacement. The subjects kami [we] are here, di sini, distancing themselves from those“yang ada di rumah”[theonesback home].Sosini is not rumah; here is not home:wehaveanegation of theideaof“Homeiswhereyou are….”Whileno sign of identity is found between sini and rumah,thesubjectsdeclare that“Kami tidak mau kembali”[Wedon’twantto go back],22 suggesting that there is indeed a sense of identity,as“we”are“gembira di sini”[Happy to behere].Identity involvesnegation and exchange. The objects of the two nouns [negation and exchange of what?] are identical:place,and perhapsalso time.“Sudah lama”means“havebeen sometime” or“since.”Hencea negation of[returning to]thepastand acceptanceofthepresent. Ever since then “we” are here. “Here,” in exchange of “there” (the homeland?), becomes the place where the sense of identity formed.

Thestanzaquoted manifeststheChinesesaying “luodi shenggeng”[literally, enter earth, grow roots], meaning become deeply-rooted, and make the sojourning place home or second home. The lines come immediately after the following stanza:

Sheheard thenamelessbird’sinsistence, squeezed memory’sgates

foranothergarden’smusic,

when air was palm-fringed, gloriosa-heavy, when elders sat in rowed satisfaction,

when the moon was soft as dough and edible and all talk was in her baby tongue.

(1993:9; emphasis mine)

We are informed that within the speaker's "memory's gates," there were “elders”

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around, and we can infer that they talked in (Baba)Malay,alanguage“she”was familiar with because it was her "baby tongue." For her elders/ancesters, to make the place home is to change the language used (from Chinese to Malay). The change of place, also a change of home, leads to a change in language. Here we have an answer to one of the questions raised: a language is eventually exchanged for another, which isthepriceof“luodi shenggeng.”

The two stanzas provide a historical context for us to read many of Chin's poetical works as an epitome or microcosm of the early Chinese community in Malaya. In the title poem “The Naturalization of Camellia Song,”members of this community is named "diasporics":

She could hear the city’s last engines riding home-how peaceful were the pauses!

Yes, this too was home, the here and now afforded by industry and chance, the breathing in and out of three million lives in a packed place built on the dreams of fellow diasporics, all the beauties raised from digging

into earth, all that was learned from luodi shenggen,

. . . .

These diasporics eventually “called this island-home / home, there was little to fear,” for in their heart a sense of place has emerged.

Besides language, the change of the sense of place is also the change of names of flora and fauna. In “What It Means to Be a Poet,”Chin writes:

It is to shun pure

platitudes and make the difficult choice of defining terms for one-self and one’s relationship to the land. To love the land passionately, know by name its trees, flowers, weeds.

“One’s relationship to the land”is in fact referring to the sense of place manifested by naming.

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Diasporic Identity and Cultural Memory

On

Mar

i

l

y

n

Chi

n’

s

Poe

t

r

y

此章為分析陳美玲詩中的離散身分與文化記憶的論文初稿。陳美玲詩中諸多與中 國歷史及個人家庭歷史的指涉,既有小我的流動身分及女性意識的立論,也有華 裔美國人身分及文化融合揉雜的探討。

Diasporic Identity and Cultural Assimilation

Marilyn Chin once mentioned that, as a Chinese American poet, her identity is a “nonstatic”one.23 “Nonstatic”is the right term for diasporic identity. A diasporic poet, in this context, suggests that he or she is an immigrant or whose ancestors are immigrants. In the postcolonial context the diasporic community refers quite often to South Asian people or the ethnic Chinese who live in Europe and North America. They carry with them a migrant identity.

In the prelude to her collection The Phoenix Gone, the Terrace Empty, Marilyn Chin writes: “Your heart is a house / I/we are its inhabitants. / Although the country is lost / rivers and mountains remain”(1994:v). The last two quoted lines are in fact a rendition of Du Fu’s famous line “Guopo shanhe zai”[(The) country (though) fallen(,) (the) mountains (and) rivers (still) remain]. In Chin’s lines, the lost country refers to her parents’motherland—China. For her mother, what is lost is not only the country but also a past history. The lack has to be compensated by some objects. But “rivers and mountains”are not the geographical landscape (“mountains and rivers”) in Du Fu’s poem; they are symbolic objects in her memory. History, memory, and forgetting have contributed to the formation of such a diasporic identity.

History, memory, and forgetting also constitute the dominant theme of her poetry. In Dwarf Bamboo, Chinese history is already the main focus. Her writing, in the collection, can be viewed as act of translating history into poetry. But poetry is of course not quite history. As pointed out by Edward Butscher in a review: “References and quotes abound, mostly to and from Chinese authors, giving the appearance of seriously cemented into a mosaic of past and present private histories, Chin’s ancestors and siblings, shards from her own scrapbook existence”(1990;52). The place of history in Chin’s poetry, therefore, is worth further examination.

23 In Chin’s own words: “I see myself and my destiny as nonstatic. I see myself as a frontier, and I see

my limits as limitless. . . . I don’t believe in static identities. I believe that identities are forever changing”(Moyers 1995:65)

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In “The End of a Beginning,”the first poem in Dwarf Bamboo, Chin writes: The beginning is always difficult.

The immigrant worked his knuckles to the bone only to die under the wheels of the railroad. One thousand years before him, his ancestor fell building yet another annex to the Great Wall— and was entombed within his work. And I, the beginning of an end, the end of a beginning, . . . .

(1987:3)

The lines reveal how the poet, as a Chinese American, contemplates the complexity of history. The history of Chinese American as immigrants was indeed a traumatic one. The forefathers of Chinese immigrants went overseas to seek their better fortunes in the nineteenth century—particularly to the States, the Gold Mountain, as cheap laborers to construct railroads and as gold miners. Later on those survived the environment and mistreatment became the ancestors of Chinese American citizens. Such a beginning is, of course, a difficult one. History always begins with difficulty. That long and harsh history ends toward the end of the Second World War, with the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Acts, and the speaker’s generation is “the beginning of an end”as well as “the end of a beginning.”The poet further reconnects the history of Chinese American with Chinese history by fading in the image of the worker who built the Great Wall and who was entombed in it, suggesting the long suffering history of Chinese and the hope and dreams of finding a new homeland overseas: “The beginning of an end.”

However, though the poet is a first-generation Chinese-American, she was not born in USA (she was born in Hong Kong, then a British colony), and she could only imagine the homeland of her ancestors, for she left her birth place in an early age. China and things Chinese, moreover, become her source of cultural memory, which is an imaginary memory or ideological fantasy, motivated by a lack, or necessity, out of her diasporic identity. Many times she has lamented, “I am afraid of losing my Chinese, losing my language, which would be like losing a part of myself, losing part of my soul”(Moyers 1995:70), expressing a desire to maintain her Chineseness in the land of America.

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lost is memory and the fear of losing. In “That Half Is Almost Gone,”such a fear of losing her language has found some ground:

That half is gone,

the Chinese half, the fair side of a peach,

darkened by the knife of time, fades like a cruel sun.

In my thirtieth year

I wrote a letter to my mother. I had forgotten the character

For “love.”I remember vaguely the radical “heart.”

The ancestors won’t fail to remind you the vital and vestigial organs

Where the emotions come from. (2002:17)

Forgetting the “part”(radical) of the Chinese character ai [love] symbolizes forgetting a part of herself,24 a part of her past. Hence forgetting the past or history. This in turn arouses the question of identity. In the final stanza of the poem, the speaker’s identity is confirmed by her mother’s words: “You are a Chinese—said my mother / who once walked the fields of her dead”(echoing the line quoted above: “The ancestors won’t fail to remind you”), but in celebrating her 36th birthday, she confesses that “I have problems now / even with the salutation,”suggesting a lack concealed by her nonstatic identity. Reading Chin’s poetry, therefore, in this sense, I argue, is to identify the boundaries of the lack and necessity, or in Jameson’s words, history as “the experience of Necessity”(1981:102). The lack and necessity suggest a rupture between memory and history.

Retextualizing the rupture in her poetry, Chin’s act of writing can be read as an act of mending the rupture and (re)interweaving memory and history, and her poetry thereby demonstrates the idea of poetry as re(con)textualized history. Hence the

24

Marilyn Chin here refers to the traditional Chinese character ai; in Mainland China, where the simplified character system is followed, the character ai is without the heart.

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abundance of allusions to Chinese historical events and references in Chin’s three collections of poetry.

Cultural Memory

Chin’s Chinese allusions and references in her poetical works can be categorized into different sorts of cultural memory, which falls into Maurice Halbwachs’s distinction between “autobiographical memory” and “historical memory”(1980).25 While “autobiographical memory”refers to events related to personal experience, “historical memory” is historical remembrances that “can increase through conversation and reading”(1980:51). The former memory in Chin’s poetical works is demonstrated in poems such as “How I Got That Name,”“The Floral Apron,”“Turtle Soup”as well as those inscribed with her name “Mei Ling.”In “How I Got That Name,” for instance, she begins a story of assimilation (of Chinese Americans) with her personal experience in a patriarchal family:

I am Marilyn Mei Ling Chin. . . . .

. . . . Of course,

the name had been changed

somewhere between Angel Island and the sea, when my father the paperson

in the late 1950s

obsessed with a bombshell blonde transliterated “Mei Ling”to “Marilyn.” And nobody dared question

his initial impulse—for we all know lust drove men to greatness,

not goodness, not decency.

(1994:16)

Obsessed with the blonde, Chin’s father left his family for her. Revealing the poet’s familial history, the poem is one of Chin’s works that speak for her suffering mother. Chin’s mother’s silent suffering, like the Exclusion Acts for many Chinese

25 Using Halbwachs’s distinction between the two sorts of memory to analyze Ania Walwicz’s red

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