父母英語學習態度與父母期望、參與及子女英語成就之相關研究：以台北市萬華區大安區為例

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(1)國立台灣師範大學英語學系碩士論文 Master’s Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 父母英語學習態度與父母期望、參與及子女英語成就之相關研究：以台北市萬華區大安區為例 Correlations of parental attitudes towards English learning with parental expectation, involvement and children's English achievement: A case study in Taipei's Wanhua and Da'an Districts. 指導教授：張武昌博士張鑑如博士 Advisor: Dr. Vincent W. Chang and Dr. Chien-ju Chang 研究生：吳憶妃 Graduate: Yi-fei Wu. 中華民國九十八年七月 July, 2009.

(2) 中文摘要. 本研究旨在研究父母的英語學習態度及父母英語學習態度對其子女的英語教育參與、期望以及子女的英語成就之相關。本文中的父母英語學習態度包含父母對英語學習的容易度感受以及對英語學習的整體感受。本研究採立意取樣，共有三百名來自萬華區及大安區六所國小的六年級學生家長參與本研究之問卷作答，問卷所得資料以描述統計及皮爾遜績差相關法進行分析。學生的英語成就為教師提供之學生九十七學年度下學期的期末英語成績，標準化為 T 分數後進行分析。本研究主要發現如下： 1. 整體而言，萬華區及大安區的父母英語學習態度大致相似。在英語學習的整體感受上，萬華與大安區的父母大致上都持有正面態度，但在英語學習的容易度感受方面，多數仍覺得學習英語是有困難的。而英語學習環境、練習環境以及應用環境是多數父母在學習英語的過程中最需要的；而聽力、口說、寫作以及文法則是父母認為最困難的部分。 2. 父母的英語學習態度與子女的英語成就間有顯著正相關。 3. 父母英語學習態度及父母對子女英語教育的期望間有顯著正相關。 4. 父母英語學習態度及父母對子女英語教育的參與間存有顯著正相關外，父母的英語能力不足以及孩子對於英語的學習意願及動機是父母在參與孩子英語教育時的兩大重要困難。而父母的英語能力不足以及缺少時間是影響父母參與子女英語教育時的兩大重要因素。根據本研究之研究結果，做出以下建議。有關當局及學校單位可提供父母英語學習機會，不但可提昇父母英語程度，更可以父母進一步因有能力而參與子女之英語學習。父母與學校老師間夥伴關係的建立可以幫助孩子的英語學習，父母有意義的參與子女學習對於子女學習幫助更大。此外，父母也可以創造與子女一起共學英語的機會，不僅可增加自身能力也可了解孩子的學習困難。 i.

(3) ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to investigate parental attitudes towards English learning, and to investigate its correlations with (a) children’s English academic performance, (b) parental expectation of children’s English education, (c) parental involvement in children’s English education. Parental attitudes towards English learning in this study included (a) parents’ feelings of ease about English learning and (b) parents’ overall feelings about English learning. The thesis considered a sample size of 300 parents of six graders from thirteen classes in six elementary schools in Taipei’s Wanhua District and Da'an District. The participants were asked to fill out the questionnaire, and their children’s English scores were provided by their teachers. Descriptive statistics and Pearson Correlation were used to analyze the questionnaire. Children’s English scores were standardized and transformed into T-scores. The major findings of this study were as follows 1. Parental attitudes towards English learning were similar in Wanhua District and Da'an District. Parents had positive attitudes towards English learning but in whole, they considered that learning English is not easy. In addition, the environment to learn English, to practice English or to use English was what parents needed most during the process of learning English as a foreign language. Listening, speaking, writing, and grammar were the most difficult parts for parents to learn. 2. There was a positive correlation between parental attitudes towards English learning and children’s English academic performance. 3. There was a positive correlation between parental attitudes towards English learning and parental expectation of children’s English education. 4. Parental attitude towards English learning was positively correlated with parental involvement in children’s English education. In addition, when instructing their children’s ii.

(4) English schoolwork, most parents had the problems of their low English proficiency level, children’s lack of motivation and the lack of English learning environment for children. In addition, parents’ low English proficiency level and lack of time were two main factors that influenced parents’ involvement in children’s English education,. The results of the study suggested that English learning accesses and opportunities should be provided by government authorities or schools in order to promote parents’ English proficiency level and to get parents involved in their children’s English education. Second, the partnership between teachers and parents should be enlisted in children’s English education, especially meaningful involvement. Finally, for parents, they may create the opportunities for English learning by learning English with their children. Parents’ mature cognition may help facilitate children’s English education.. iii.

(5) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS From a full-time student to a full-time teacher, I spent six years for my master degree. The completion of the thesis was no easy task for me. Now, I finally finished it and I would like to give me sincerest and deepest appreciation to the following people and people who concern me. First, I would like to thank my advisors, Dr. Vincent W. Chang and Dr. Chien-ju Chang. Within very limited time, they made every effort to help me complete the thesis. Without their great assistance and support, I would have given up and could not finish the thesis. I am truly lucky as well as grateful to have them as my advisors. My thanks also go to my thesis committee members, Dr. Yuh-show Cheng and Dr. Shu-hui Chen at National Taipei University of Education. I am deeply appreciative of their valuable comments, continuous encouragement and helps. I would also like to express my gratitude for my family: Dad (Paul), Mom (Michelle), my sister (Ruth), my brother, my brother-in-law and my cutest nephew, Eric. With their love, care, and support, I had the courage and power to go through all the difficulties. My dear family, I love you all. Also, my warmest thanks go to Three, my life mentor. Dear Three, thanks for your being with me all the way to encourage and support me. My sincere gratitude also goes to my friends, Eugenia, James Cheng, Monica Kao, Nancy and Sandra, who also struggled with their thesis and career. Also sincere thanks go to my underground advisor, Hung-chun Wang for his advice and continuous encouragement. Besides, I would like to express my appreciation to my students and colleagues, especially An-mei Su, in Hua-jiang High school. Finally, my special and deepest thanks go to Chia-wei, who always stands by me and gives me complete support. Without you, I cannot go through all of the difficulties and finished the thesis. Chia-wei, thanks for your support and unreserved love. I will always. iv.

(6) remember the days with you in Ann Arbor. I love you.. Thank you all. You make the impossible mission possible.. v.

(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page Chinese Abstract ……………………………………………………………………... ⅰ. English Abstract ……………………………………………………………………... ⅱ. Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………….. ⅳ. Table of Contents …………………………………………………………….............. ⅵ. List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………….... ⅹ. List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………….. ⅹⅰ. Page Chapter 1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 1. 1.1 Background and motivation ……………………………………………………... 1. 1.2 Purposes of the study …………………………………………………….............. 6. 1.3 Research questions ………………………………………………………............. 7. 1.4 Definition of terms ………………………………………………………............. 7. 1.5 Significance of the study ……………………..………………………….............. 9. Chapter 2 Literature Review …………………………………………………............ 10. 2.1 English teaching and learning in Taiwan ………………………………………... 10. 2.1.1 Myths and difficulties facing English learning and teaching in Taiwan………………………………………………………………………... 10. 2.1.2 Problems of English education in Taiwan …………………………………... 12. 2.2 Family background and parental background ………………………………….... 14. vi.

(8) 2.2.1 The importance of family background and parental background ………….... 15. 2.2.2 Research on family background and parental background …………............. 16. 2.3 Parental attitudes ……………………………………………………………….... 17. 2.3.1 Definition of attitudes ……………………………………………….............. 18. 2.3.2 Research on parental attitudes and children’s achievement ……………….... 19. 2.4 Parental expectation ……………………………………………………………... 21. 2.4.1 Definition of parental expectation …………………………………………... 21. 2.4.2 Research on parental expectation and children’s achievement ……………... 22. 2.5 Parental involvement …………………………………………………….............. 23. 2.5.1 Definition and classification of parental involvement …………………….... 24. 2.5.2 Research on parental involvement and children’s achievement……………... 25. Chapter 3 Methodology …………………………………………………………….... 27. 3.1 Research Design …………………………………………………………………. 27. 3.2 Participants ………………………………………………………………………. 28. 3.3 Instruments ………………………………………………………………………. 29. 3.3.1 Demographic information …………………………………………………... 30. 3.3.2 Parental attitudes towards English learning ……………………………….... 30. 3.3.3 Parental expectation of children’s English education ………………............. 31. 3.3.4 Parental involvement in children’s English education …………………….... 31. 3.4 Pilot study ………………………………………………………………………... 32. 3.5 Procedures ……………………………………………………………………….. 34. 3.6 Data analysis …………………………………………………………………….. 35. Chapter 4 Results and Discussion ………………………………………………….... 37. vii.

(9) 4.1 Background information of participants ……………………………………….... 37. 4.1.1 Participants’ education and occupation level ……………………………….. 38. 4.1.2 Participants’ socio-economic status ……………………………………….... 40. 4.2 Parental attitudes towards English learning ……………………………………... 41. 4.3 Parental attitudes and children’s English academic performance ……………….. 47. 4.4 Parental attitudes and parental expectation of children’s English education ……………………………………………………………………….... 49. 4.5 Parental attitudes and parental involvement in children’s English education ……………………………………………………………………….... 50. Chapter 5 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………. 56. 5.1 Summary of the major findings ………………………………………………….. 56. 5.2 Pedagogical implications ……………………………………………………….... 57. 5.3 Limitations of the study ………………………………………………….............. 59. 5.4 Suggestions for future research ………………………………………………….. 61. References ……………………………………………………………………............ 63. Appendix A: Questionnaire in pilot study ………………………………………….... 69. Appendix B: Questionnaire in pilot study (English version)……………………….... 73. Appendix C: Questionnaire in formal study …………………………………............ 77. Appendix D: Questionnaire in formal study (English version) …………………….... 80. Appendix E: The note for select teachers ……………………..……………………... 83. Appendix F: Parents' responses to their most difficult parts in English learning……. 84. Appendix G: Parents' responses to their problems and difficulties in English. viii.

(10) learning ………………………………………………………………... 88. Appendix H: Parents’ responses to their difficulties in their involvement in children’s English education ………………………………………….. 93. Appendix I: Parents’ responses to the factors of parental involvement ……………... 99. ix.

(11) LIST OF TABLES. Table. Page. 3.1 Number of participants in two districts………………………………................... 28. 4.1 Number and percentage of participants in Wanhua and Daan Districts …………. 38. 4.2 Number and percentage of participants’ education level ……………………....... 39. 4.3 Number and percentage of participants’ occupation level ………………………. 39. 4.4 Lin’s calculation of socio-economic status…………………………………......... 40. 4.5 Number and percentage of participants’ socio-economic status in two districts ………………………………………………………………………...... 4.6 Descriptive statistics of parental attitudes towards English learning …………….. 41 42. 4.7 Examples of participants’ responses to the most difficult part in English learning …………………………………………………………………….......... 44. 4.8 Examples of participants’ responses to their problems and difficulties in learning English ……………………………………………………………….... 45. 4.9 Correlation between parental attitudes and children’s English academic performance …………………………………………………………………….. 48. 4.10 Correlation between parental attitudes and parental expectation …………......... 49. 4.11 Correlation between parental attitudes and parental involvement …………....... 50. 4.12 Examples of participants’ responses about parental involvement …………….... 52. 4.13 Examples of participants’ responses about the factors of parental involvement …………………………………………………………………...... x. 54.

(12) LIST OF FIGURES. Figure. Page. 3.1 Research design of the study …………………………………………….............. 27. 3.2 Procedures of the study ………………………………………………………….. 35. xi.

(13) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION. 1.1 Background and Motivation The number of English speakers in the world and the role of English in today’s communication reveal both worldwide recognition of the English language and a global trend in learning English. According to a conservative estimate made by Crystal (1997), there are 400 million English mother-tongue speakers, 350 million people using English as a second language, and another 100 million studying it as a foreign language. Over 60 countries around the world use English as an official or semi-official language (Crystal, 1997). Furthermore, Krashen (2003) also defines the role of English in the world thus: “English has become the world’s second language, the world’s lingua franca.” (p. 100). It is now the main language in the fields of business, politics, scholarship, science, communication, pop music, advertising, sports, and even international competitions. The essential role of English in worldwide communication is the momentum for English continuing to prevail. Inevitably, Taiwan is itself very much under the sway of English. The significance and popularity of English learning in Taiwan can be discerned through (a) the establishment of General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) held by the Language Training and Testing Center (LTTC), (b) the increasing importance of English credits and required English proficiency level in Taiwan’s higher education, and (c) the implementation of English education in the Nine-Year Integrated Curricula Reform. According to the LTTC, as of the end of 2008, more than 3.2 million people have registered for each level of GEPT for different purposes. GEPT scores are widely accepted by the public and are adopted by government agencies and private enterprises as a criterion for promotion, admission, hiring or other purposes as well. Furthermore, colleges and universities in Taiwan set the criterion of English proficiency level for placement, entrance, or graduation. For instance, National Taiwan University requires 1.

(14) students to obtain 550 points on the TOEFL-PBT test, 213 points on the TOFEL-CBT test, or to pass the High-intermediate level of GEPT or the level of six in IELTS for graduation requirement. Schools also provide required English credits for students to take. Freshmen in National Cheng Kung University and National Taiwan University have to take six required credits of English each semester in their first year in college. At National Taiwan University, new professors are also required to instruct courses in English in order to promote the position of the school within the global academic field and to advance students’ English ability. The government emphasizes the importance of English not only in higher education but also in primary education. Before the announcement of the Nine-Year Integrated Curricula Reform in 1997, the age at which formal English instruction Taiwan was commenced was thirteen, that is, the secondary level. With the implementation of the Nine-Year Integrated Curricula Reform in 1997, the Ministry of Education officially incorporated English education into elementary school curriculum and enforced it in the fifth grade in the 2001 academic year. In addition, starting from 2005 academic year, the official age for receiving formal English education has further been reduced to the third grade in Taiwan. While most countries start English education at secondary level, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan has lowered the age formal English education is received from the secondary to the primary level. According to Crystal (1997), the number of children studying English as an additional language at secondary level is larger than that at primary level. There are over 80 million children studying English at secondary level, and over 50 million students learning English at primary level. Therefore, while most countries start formal English education at the secondary level, this reform in Taiwan has aroused parents’ eagerness and desire to start their children’s English education early. Parents’ great eagerness for children’s English learning in Taiwan has been dubbed “English Fever” by Krashen meaning “the overwhelming desire to acquire English and to ensure that one’s children acquire English, as 2.

(15) a second or foreign language” (Krashen, 2003, p. 100). Under the strong influence of English Fever, more and more children are sent to the English-only kindergartens or cram schools to get immersed early in the whole English environment in Taiwan. On the other hand, school institutions such as kindergartens, cram schools, or language institutions advertise English-only classes or whole-English classes frequently. Worried parents send their children to English cram schools and anxious learners attend English institutions. It is easy to see the extent to which parents’ enthusiasm for their children to learn English has spread in Taiwan. However, “English Fever” does not guarantee success in English learning in Taiwan. Parents’ enthusiasm for English learning does not reflect children’s achievement in English learning. The problems of Taiwan’s preschool and primary English education and the negative influences of English learning on younger learners have been widely investigated. For example, in an investigation of kindergartens in Taiwan, Chang, Chang and Lin (2002) state that most kindergartens in Taiwan have problems hiring qualified foreign teachers. In their study, Lu and Chen (2005) also discuss the problems of early childhood English education in Taiwan from the perspective of language policy. They observe that (a) a bilingual approach is generally adopted in kindergartens in Taiwan and is encouraged by parents, (b) kindergartens have to hire foreign teachers to teach English under the pressure of parents, (c) the bilingual approach adopted by most kindergartens has negative effects on children’s identification with their own society and native culture as well as their mental and physical health. Hence, prompted by discussion of such negative impact on young learners, in 2004, the Ministry of Education (MOE) announced that a measure barring kindergartens from hiring foreign teachers, or providing courses under the name of bilingual school, whole-English kindergarten or No-Chinese instruction in order to avoid the negative effects of English learning on young learners. With regard to these problems in primary English education, Chiu (2007) concludes that there are four main problems in Taiwan’s primary English education. The problems are 3.

(16) related to problems of (a) teacher sources, (b) different policies in different cities and counties, (c) bridging the gap between different teaching materials and textbooks, and (d) discrepancies in the English proficiency of students. In his study, Chang (2006) goes further to state the problems facing English education at different levels in Taiwan. For example, (a) for preschool children, their parents start their English education at their early age; (b) for elementary school students, they are too busy taking the General English Proficiency Test to prove their English proficiency level; (c) junior high school students have the bipolar distribution of their English scores on the Basic Competence Test. Accordingly, some actions have been taken to reduce the negative impacts of English learning on learners. For example, the LTTC GEPT decided that test-takers under the age of 12 are not allowed to register for the GEPT in order to avoid the negative impact on elementary students of taking the GEPT. In addition, more research and investigation has been done in order to improve the quality of Taiwan’s primary English education. The problems of current English education and the negative impacts of English learning on young learners in Taiwan trigger the discussion of successful factors in English learning for young learners. In the field of second language acquisition and learning, the factors for successful learning being discussed range from learners’ intrinsic factors such as motivation, anxiety, styles and strategies, to extrinsic factors like learning environment, culture, language policy and politics. However, the influence of parents and family on children’s English learning are seldom discussed in the field of second language acquisition and learning. From the perspective of sociology, as part of children’s socialization process, family plays the role as the earliest and highly influential social context for socializing all types of skills. In this respect, parents, the central figures in family, have great potential to shape children’s orientation towards achievement because they are the significant figures in children’s lives (Pomerantz, Grolnick, & Price, 2005). Except for the importance of parents in children’s early education, parents are the main 4.

(17) figures in the family who take the primary responsibility for fulfilling educational functions as well. In Eshleman’s (1994), Schaefer and Lamm’s (1995), and Chen, Kao and Chang’s (2000) discussion of family functions, they all attest to the family’s function of transmitting a particular culture’s norms, values, language, and skills to children. This function is called the function of education in Eshleman (1994) and Chen, Kao and Chang (2000) or called the function of socialization in Schaefer and Lamm (1995). Children’s educational training at home is directly related to the success of training in the school. Thus, when it comes to children’s academic performance, parents play a significant role in children’s education as well as their lives. With the considerable importance of family and parents in children’s education, studies indicate that learner’s academic performance has strong positive correlations with family background and parental factors. For example, family’s cultural capital, socio-economic status and cultural environment including income and household items are all positively correlated with children’s academic performance (e.g., Chang, 2005; Chen, 2004; Chen, 2007; Wang, 1990). Parental factors such as parental involvement and parental expectation have been proven to be positively correlated with children’s learning achievement as well (e.g., Gao, 2006; Jacobs & Harvey, 2001; Liu, 2006; Sattes, 1989). However, among parental influences, the relationships between parents’ affection and children’s academic performance go relatively undiscussed. Through the study of parental affection, it could be said to indirectly influence children’s achievement. For example, in Kaplan, Liu and Kaplan’s (2001) study, parents’ negative self-feelings modifies parents’ expectation for children and parents’ transmission of expectations to children. This study aims at investigating the correlation between parental affection and children’s achievement. In this study, parents’ effect is examined in the context of their English learning and is named parental attitudes towards English learning. Parental attitudes towards English learning are elicited based on parents’ past or current English learning experience. According 5.

(18) to Sattes (1989), parents’ values about or attitudes towards school and learning help to determine and shape their children’s attitudes. In addition, Zhou (2006) states that parents’ past learning experience is one of the factors that affect parents’ educational expectations on their children. The correlation of parental attitudes towards English learning with children’s English academic performance is investigated in this study in order to provide a new perspective on the studies of children’s English achievement. In addition, the correlations of parental attitudes towards English learning with parental expectation of children’s English education and parental involvement in children’s English education are also examined. The positive correlations of parental expectation and parental involvement with children’s achievement are proven (e.g., Gao, 2006; Jacobs & Harvey, 2001; Liu, 2006; Sattes, 1989). Thus, the correlations of parental attitudes towards English learning with parental expectation and parental involvement are examined in this study as a possible factor that influences parental expectations and parental involvement. The study aims at exploring parental attitudes towards English learning and investigating its correlations with (a) children’s English academic performance, (b) parental expectation of children’s English education and (c) parental involvement in children’s English education.. 1.2 Purposes of the Study The major purposes of the present study are to inspect parental attitudes towards English learning and its correlations with (a) children’s English academic performance, (b) parental expectation of children’s English education and (c) parental involvement in children’s English education. The purposes of the study are specified as the following: 1. To explore parental attitudes towards English learning; 2. To investigate the correlation between parental attitudes towards English learning on (a) children’s English academic performance, (b) parental expectation of children’s English 6.

(19) education and (c) parental involvement in children’s English education.. 1.3 Research Questions Based on the purposes of this study, the following research questions are addressed. 1. What is the correlation between parental attitudes towards English learning and children’s English academic performance? 2. What is the correlation between parental attitudes towards English learning and parental expectation of children’s English education? 3. What is the correlation between parental attitudes towards English learning and parental involvement in children’s English education?. 1.4 Definition of Terms The following three terms used in this study are defined as follows: 1. Parental attitudes towards English learning: Fazio and Petty (2008) defined attitudes organized as a “mental structure” or a three-component model (p. 2). The three-component model also called ABC model is the most commonly used definition of attitudes in social science. In the ABC model, attitudes consist of three classes of information: affective, behavioral and cognitive information. A cognitive component refers to “the ideas and beliefs that an attitude-holder has about the attitude object”; a behavioral component consists of “one’s action tendencies towards the object” (Oskamp, 2005, p. 10). In the class of affective information or emotional component, an attitude consists of “feelings or emotions that people have in response to the object” (Fazio & Petty, 2008, p. 2). Oskamp (2005) further pointed out the evaluative aspect of attitudes; attitudes can be seen as a disposition to respond “in a favorable or unfavorable manner” to the given object and attitudes can be based on one’s behaviors and experience with the object (p. 9). 7.

(20) The study aims at investigating the correlations between parental affect and children’s achievement, parental expectation and parental involvement; thus, only the affective component of attitudes is discussed in this study. Parental attitudes towards English learning refer to feelings parents have that are aroused during the process of learning English as a foreign language. Parents’ feelings in this study generally concern (a) feelings of ease about English learning and (b) overall feelings about English learning such as a sense of achievement and happiness. 2. Parental expectation of children’s English education: Assessing parental expectation from children’s perception of parents’ expectation, Liu (2006) defined parental expectation as parents’ concerns about children’s current school work, learning situation, and future plans about their study and career paths. Zhou (2006) further differentiated parental expectation from parental aspiration. While the former refers to a person’s “action goal” which is what one’s real action in life, the latter refers to a person’s “ideal goal” which is what one would like to achieve. In this study, parental expectation indicates parents’ real actions and requirement about children’s current English school work, learning situation and future plans for studies and career. 3. Parental involvement in children’s English education: Pomerantz et al. (2005) referred to parental involvement as “parents’ provision of important resources to their children” (p. 261). Parental involvement is composed of the ways that parents (a) participate in children’s school activities, (b) work on schoolwork with children at home, (c) talk about children’s school days with them, (d) take part in children’s learning experiences and (e) convey their interest in more affective ways such as showing interest in children’s learning and indicating their excitement about children’s successes. In this study, Pomerantz et al. (2005) definition of parental involvement are adopted. As for the means by which parental involvement is undertaken, parents’ (a) participation 8.

(21) in children’s school activities, (b) working with schoolwork with children at home and (c) taking part in children’s learning experiences are all included in this study.. 1.5 Significance of the Study English learning in Taiwan especially at the primary level is so significant and popular but does not seem to be as effective as expected. Thus, the discussion of parents’ influences on children’s English achievement is important because of parents’ close relationships with children. This study aims at investigating parental attitudes towards English learning especially the affective domain of parental attitudes on children’s English achievement. The study can be served as an exploratory study when studying the relationship of parental effect on children’s English academic achievement. In addition, the results of the study can be taken as future research direction when investigating the factors that influence parents’ expectation of children’s English education and parents’ involvement in children’s English education as well. Furthermore, parents’ responses to the open-ended questions can illustrate parents’ problems regarding English learning and reasons for and against parents’ being involved in children’s English education.. 9.

(22) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW. Chapter Two provides a review of literature from five angles. Those being: (a) English teaching and learning in Taiwan, (b) family background and parental background, (c) parental attitudes and related studies, (d) parental expectation and related studies, and (e) parental involvement and related studies. This chapter first deals with problems surrounding English education; myths of English teaching and learning, and difficulties facing English instruction and learning in Taiwan. Second, the significant role of family and parental background and related studies into family background and the background of parents in children’s achievement are described. Third, the definitions of attitudes and the research studies related to parental attitudes are discussed. Fourth, the definitions of parental expectation and its related studies are mentioned in this part. Finally, the importance and classification of parental involvement and its related research studies are discussed.. 2.1 English Teaching and Learning in Taiwan Recently, English education in Taiwan has been reviewed from different perspectives; suggestions and implications have also been provided to improve learners’ English proficiency in Taiwan. In this section, the problems facing English education, the myths and difficulties of English teaching and learning are presented.. 2.1.1 Myths and difficulties facing English learning and teaching in Taiwan To improve learners’ English proficiency in Taiwan, the efforts have been made and a great deal of research into English teaching and learning has also been undertaken. However, there are myths and difficulties associated with English teaching and learning in Taiwan. For example, when discussing the English learning environment in Taiwan, Su (1998) dispelled 10.

(23) the myth that Taiwan’s English learning environment is the context of English as a second language (ESL). After taking Taiwan’s English education objectives, learning environment, and learners’ motivation into consideration, Su concluded that the English learning in Taiwan remains firmly in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL), and thus children’s English education in Taiwan should not be carried out under the name of bilingual education. Further, in the discussion of English teaching, Liang (2003) listed seven major myths of English teaching in Taiwan’s formal English education. These being the myths that (a) teachers should at all times keep up with a given teaching schedule (b) what teachers have taught in class is equal to what students have learned in class (c) teachers’ competent ability in English guarantees them the ability to teach English (d) English is declarative knowledge, in other words information consisting of facts, concepts and ideas (e) learning English entails learning English grammar only (f) English should be learned by translating into Chinese, and (g) errors should be corrected immediately. In her book, Liang (2003) observed the myths which exist in normal English education in Taiwan and provided her own suggestions. Writing from the perspective of a parent, in her book (2003), Chang (with a daughter studying in an entirely English speaking kindergarten) outlined the myths and difficulties that she observed and encountered in the “whole-English” program. For example, parents are under the impression that sending children to the whole-English program ensures that children acquire a native-like accent, get immersed in a foreign environment, and even pursue higher social status in society. Besides parents’ myths regarding such English-only programs, children also suffer from learning difficulties when studying on whole-English programs. In Chang’s (2003) book, her daughter, Hannah, encountered learning difficulties when learning Chinese, which is her mother tongue, at the same time as her English learning was suffering negative impact while studying on the whole-English program. For instance, her daughter held negative attitudes towards her own native language and culture, and did not even enjoy learning her mother tongue. Thus, due to the interference of the target language in her native 11.

(24) language, she encountered learning difficulties when studying Chinese. Furthermore, the high expectations of parents where English education is concerned makes children refuse to learn English on whole-English programs. As both a parent and a professor, Chang (2003) concluded that (a) there is no so-called critical period for learning English; (b) native-accent and fluency do not guarantee English proficiency; (c) young learners are not always faster learners when learning a foreign language; (d) foreign English teachers are not always qualified teachers; (e) whole-English programs have negative effects on young learners’ comprehension of native language and culture; (f) for parents, sending children to whole-English kindergartens is not equivalent to emigration to America or higher social status in Taiwan; and finally (g) the qualifications of whole-English kindergartens should be examined more cautiously and carefully by government authorities.. 2.1.2 Problems of English education in Taiwan As for English education in Taiwan, problems are proposed by many scholars in order to improve the quality of English education in Taiwan especially after the implementation of English education in primary schools. For example, Tsao (2004) stated that learners in Taiwan cannot put what they have learned in class into practice, and students of higher education cannot read English materials or textbooks by themselves. He further proposed that in Taiwan, (a) the current curriculum design are incapable of meeting society’s requirement for advance English learners, (b) there is a gap between language learning theories and real teaching methods in the classroom, (c) the traditional teaching methods of reading skills cannot develop the ability of learners to read by themselves, and (d) the criteria of exams cannot reflect learners’ actual needs for English. Finally, from the perspective of language planning and education planning, Tsao (2004) suggested that government authorities or schools should aim at developing learners’ self-reading abilities and further develop the materials that are suitable for learners’ self-reading. 12.

(25) Moreover, along with the policy of reducing the age at which formal English education is received in Taiwan, problems for English teaching and learning in elementary schools are emerging. Starting from 1968, formal English education in Taiwan was required in the first year in junior high school: the age of thirteen. After the 2005 academic year, the age at which formal English education is first received was reduced to the third grade in elementary school. After the policy had been implemented for a number of years, many scholars started to examine and evaluate the effects of compulsory English education in elementary school from different perspectives. From the perspective of elementary English teachers, Chen (2002) first presented the teaching problems and difficulties that they have been encountered in classroom. Chen (2002) interviewed elementary English teachers and summarized the difficulties that they have faced and problems that they have to overcome in the process of teaching English in elementary schools in Taiwan. The problems are that (a) there is a striking discrepancy in learners’ English proficiency levels, (b) parents misunderstand the distinction between EFL and ESL learning environments in Taiwan, (c) the teaching resources in cities and rural areas are discrepant, (d) current English teaching material and activity designs are not adequate and appropriate, (e) learners lack motivation in English learning, and (f) there is no specific facilities for English teaching such as English classroom, laboratory or related equipment. In order to provide more effective teaching, in Chen’s (2002) study, the teachers suggested that (a) the number of students in each classroom should be decreased, (b) the number of English class hours on the class schedule should be increased, (c) English class should be classified according to learners’ proficiency levels, (d) the age for receiving formal English education should be lowered to the first or second grade, and (e) the access for teacher cultivation should be multiplied. Other problems related to Taiwan’s elementary English education are mainly discussed in three domains: the sourcing and qualification levels of teachers, curriculum design and 13.

(26) teaching materials, and English learning environment in elementary school. When discussing teachers’ qualification and cultivation, the problems are related to the issues of (a) the qualifications of elementary English teachers, (b) the institutions responsible for the cultivation of elementary English teachers, (c) the shortage of elementary English teachers in rural areas, and (d) the selection the best-qualified teachers (Chen, 2002; Chen & Liao, 1998; Cheng, 2000; Wu, 1999; Yang, 2004). As for curriculum design and teaching materials, they are mainly related to (a) the selection of textbooks and teaching materials, (b) the application of teaching materials in classroom contexts, (c) the development of authentic materials or textbooks for Taiwan’s English learning context, (d) the ways of evaluating and assessing learners’ language ability, and (e) filling the gap of teaching materials between elementary English education and junior high and even senior high school English education (Chen, 2002; Chen & Liao, 1998; Cheng, 2000; Wu, 1999; Yang, 2004). Finally, the problems of Taiwan’s English learning environment are related to (a) the class hours of official English classes per week, (b) the lack of specific English classroom and facilities, and (c) the creation of English learning environments for learners (Chen, 2002; Cheng, 2000; Wu, 1999). Altogether these comprise the commonly mentioned problems of elementary school English education. On the other hand, coming from a sociological perspective, Xu (2003) discussed Taiwan’s English education in terms of social class. She claimed that family background, the economic status of parents, and cultural capital that parents provide for children are the factors that affect children’s learning in English and cause the discrepancy of English ability between cities and rural areas.. 2.2 Family Background and Parental Background Family is not only the environment for children to develop their cognitive skills in early stages, but also the most dominant social context in young children’s lives (Gauvain, 2001), and parents are “the significant others” in the minds of children and teenagers, and act as a 14.

(27) “reference group” in their process of growing up and learning (Chen et al., 2000, p. 111). In this section, the importance of family and parents’ background and their related studies are reviewed.. 2.2.1 The importance of family background and parental background From a sociological point of view, family plays the significant role as the earliest and most highly influential social context for socializing all types of skills in children’s development of socialization. Therefore, family does have a great deal of influence on children’s development. Family serves a diverse range of functions for children in their early stages of development especially the function of education and that makes family exert great influences on children’s academic performance. In the study of sociology, Eshleman (1994) first stated seven functions of family; those being the functions of (a) economics, (b) prestige and status, (c) education, (d) protection, (e) religion, (f) recreation, and (g) affection and procreation. In Schaefer and Lamm’s book (1995), six further functions of family are presented, namely: (a) reproduction, (b) protection, (c) socialization, (d) regulation of sexual behavior, (e) affection and companionship, and (f) providing of social status. In their book, Chen et al. (2000) concluded seven functions of family: functions of (a) biology, (b) psychology, (c) economy, (d) politics, (e) education, (f) recreation and (g) religion. Although these functions are given different names, they share similar meanings and ideas. Among the functions, the function of education is composed of the development of personal behavior, personality, attitudes, norms, values and culture. Chen et al. (2000) further specified the influences of family on children. Family has influences on (a) children’s development of personalities and behaviors, (b) children’s acquisition and development of language, (c) children’s value systems, and (d) children’s learning experience in school. Among these influences, children’s learning experience in school may be the factor that affects children’s future success or failure in their subsequent academic performance, social and life adaptation. 15.

(28) Moreover, Eshleman (1994) proposed that family and educational systems supplement each other in the process of conveying cultural values, norms and skills. Zhou (2006) also declared that family provides children who are six to twelve years old with opportunities to develop their literacy skills; shape their values and norms; learn the role of genders, as well as giving them the right environment in which to complete their schoolwork. Thus, the significance of the role played by the family in children’s learning, education and development is evident, and likewise the importance of parents, who are the main caretakers in family, is also considerable. According to Pomerantz et al. (2005), parents contribute to children’s motivation for achievement by aiding children in satisfying their psychological needs to feel competent, autonomous, related and purposeful. Further, Guthrie (2003) also proposed that most experts still hold the belief that the way parents raised children had profoundly impact on children’s emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development. In children’s development and education, parents as well as the family play significant roles.. 2.2.2 Research on family background and parental background The positive correlations of family background and parental background with respect to children’s academic performance have been proven. Family background in these studies includes family-cultural environment (e.g., Wang, 2000), family learning environment (e.g., Chen, 2004; Chen, 2007; Hung, 2007; Li, 2004); parental background such as parents’ socio-economic status (e.g., Chen, 2004; Chung, 2003; Liu, 2006; Pan 2002; Wang, 2000), parents’ education level and occupation (e.g., Chen, 2007; Wang, 2000), with parents’ English proficiency (e.g., Chang, 2004) also being discussed. When discussing the relationship between family background and children’s English achievement, Wang (2000) defined family-cultural background as (a) family facilities and appliances that facilitate children in their learning of English, (b) family members’ interaction 16.

(29) with children in English, and (c) parenting styles. In her study, Wang (2000) found that family-cultural background especially family members’ interaction with children in English positively correlated with elementary school students’ English achievement and English learning methods. Likewise, Chen (2004) also proposed that learners with a better family environment for English learning perform better than those with poor family environments for English learning. Chen (2004) investigated seventh graders’ English proficiency discrepancy and their family background, and in her study, family environment for English learning was composed of (a) verbal communication in an English context between parents and children, (b) parental expectation referring to parents’ desire for their children’s English competence, (c) parents’ values which is parents’ cognition and demanding for their children’s English learning, and (d) parental assistance in children’s English learning. The positive correlations between family environment and children’s learning achievement are verified in these papers. With respect to parental background, the effects of parents’ educational level, occupation and socio-economic status on children’s achievement are most widely discussed. For example, parents’ socio-economic status had positive correlations with children’s learning achievement (Chen, 2004; Chung, 2003; Liu, 2006; Pan 2002; Wang, 2000). Children also perform better when their parents have higher levels of educational and occupation (Chen, 2007; Wang, 2000). In Chang’s (2004) study of gifted students’ English education at home, she concluded that parents’ English proficiency affects children’s English learning at home. The studies show how parental influences relate to children’s achievement.. 2.3 Parental Attitudes Parents’ attitudes or affection are important because they may have impacts on parents themselves as well as on their children. Based on Pomerantz et al. (2005), children’s orientation towards achievement is enhanced when parents satisfy children’s psychological 17.

(30) needs, namely the needs to be competent, autonomous, related to others and purposeful. In addition, when investigating the role of parents in how children approach achievement, Pomerantz et al. (2005) proposed three distinct strands of research. The three modalities investigate (a) the influence of parenting practice called parents’ actions or behavior, (b) parents’ perceptions of children’s competence called parents’ cognition, and (c) parents’ affect. In Oskamp’s (2005) book, he proposed that parents hold great power in shaping children’s attitudes. Thus, children’s attitudes are probably a combination of their own experience with the world and what they have learned or heard from their parents. Furthermore, Oskamp (2005) stated that an attitude can be considered the cause of a person’s behavior toward another person or an object. With respect to the importance of parental attitudes or their effect on children’s language learning and attitudes towards the target language, the research results are evident as well. Bartram (2006) found that parental attitudes are important, for they help parents to construct children’s understanding of language importance, utility and status. Likewise, in Freeman and Long’s (1991) book, they stated that learners’ attitudes towards the target language and learners’ success in the target language are directly related to parents’ attitudes towards the target language. The factors that influence learner’s attitudes towards the target language are parents, peers, learning situation, teachers, and ethnicity. Freeman and Long (1991) further stated that although learners’ attitudes have an important but indirect effect on second language acquisition, learners’ positive attitudes towards the target language and speakers of the target language are related to second language acquisition success. Parents’ attitudes towards learning are important, for what parents experience in life may influence the ways of their parenting and then influence their children’s achievement.. 2.3.1 Definition of attitudes The way in which attitudes are defined alters depending on the purposes of different 18.

(31) researchers. Oskamp (2005) provided the most detailed and complete definitions of attitudes. In Oskamp’s (2005) book, he summarized the different definitions of attitudes which include “attitude as a mental set or disposition, attitude as a readiness to respond, the physiological basis of attitudes, their permanence, their learned nature, and their evaluative character” (p. 7). He further summarized the features of these definitions of attitudes: readiness for response, driving force of attitudes, relatively enduring nature of attitudes, and the evaluative aspect of attitudes. Moreover, attitudes have three important components. In Oskamp (2005), the three components, alternatively called the ABC model included: (a) a cognitive component which is the attitude-holder’s ideas and belief in the attitudes object, (b) an affective or emotional component which refers to the feelings and emotions one has towards the object, (c) a behavioral component consisting of one’s action tendencies toward the object. In Pan’s (2002) study of primary school students’ English learning attitude, she separated English learning attitudes into five categories, attitudes towards (a) English courses, (b) English teachers, (c) English homework, (d) persistent studying, and (e) active studying.. 2.3.2 Research on parental attitudes and children’s achievement While investigating the influences of parents on children’s development or achievement, most studies center on parents’ cognitive and behavioral influence such as parental expectations (e.g., Liu, 2006), parental involvement (e.g., Gao, 2006; Liu, 2006) or parental assistance (e.g., Chen, 2004) instead of parents’ affective influence on children. However, the effect of parents may influence parents’ themselves as well as their children (e.g., Bartram, 2006; Eccles, 2005; Kaplan et al., 2001), and parents’ effect in any past learning experience may also be important (e.g., Sattes, 1989; Zhou, 2006). For example, Kaplan et al. (2001) investigated the influence of parents’ self-feeling and expectations on children’s academic performance. They found that parents’ expectations for children and the transmission of those expectations to children may be modified by how parents feel about themselves. Thus, how 19.

(32) parents feel about themselves affects their own expectation on children. In Bartram’s (2006) study of children’s perception of parents’ attitudes, there are associations between parental attitudes and learners’ attitudes. For some children, connections may be made between parental experience or behaviors with their own language attitudes. Bartram (2006) further found that when parental attitudes are perceived as positive, these positive attitudes appear broadly mirrored in their children’s orientations. Further, Bartram (2006) concluded that parents help to construct their children’s understanding of language importance, utility and status. Under the influence of parental attitudes on children’s development and achievement, the survey of parental attitudes and affect is inevitably necessary. However, while examining learning attitudes or learning experiences, most studies put focuses on learners themselves instead of parents (e.g., Chang, 2005; Ho, 2004; Pan, 2002). For example, in Pan’s (2002) study of primary school students’ English learning attitudes, the findings suggested that students from higher socioeconomic status families have better learning attitudes, persistent study and active study; in addition, learners’ family socio-economic status can predict learner’s attitudes towards English courses, teachers, and homework effectively. Moreover, most studies related to learning experience focus on the time when students are starting their English education instead of the learners’ affective domain. For example, Ho (2004) concluded that learners’ early initiation of English learning has significant effects on learner’s English learning in junior high school. In her study Chang (2005) also mentioned that students who start to learn English between the ages of zero and three surpass those who start English education in junior high in listening learning. Although the studies about parental effect in English learning experience are relatively few, they need to be borne in mind. For example, Sattes (1989) stated that parents’ attitudes are rooted in their experiences at school. Although these attitudes are not likely to change easily, they can be changed with intervention. In this way, when discussing the influences of parents on children’s achievement, parental attitudes towards English learning cannot be neglected. 20.

(33) 2.4 Parental Expectation The importance of parental expectations of the achievements of their children can be seen from the research results. For example, according to Zhou (2006), parental expectation is significant because it influences not only parents’ expectations on their children’s academic achievement but also children’s own educational expectations of themselves. In Johnson, McGue, and Iacono’s (2007) study about how parenting influenced children’s school achievement, they suggested that “parents may tend to try to provide their children with equal opportunities for education” and parents’ expectations of educational attainment may be their expectation of their children’s eventual educational attainment (p. 203). Therefore, when talking about the influence of parents on children’s academic achievement, we cannot ignore the significance of parental expectations.. 2.4.1 Definition of parental expectation The definitions of parental expectation vary in different studies according to the objectives of different studies. From the macro view, parental expectation is parental cognition, which refers to parents’ thinking about children (Pomerantz et al., 2005), and it can also describe the way in which parents perceived the competence of their children. In Liu’s (2006) study, parental expectation referred to parents’ concerns about children’s current school work, learning situation, and future plans about their study and career. Furthermore, some studies differentiate between parental expectation and parental aspiration. For example, Zhou (2006) proposed that while parental aspiration refers to a person’s “ideal goal”, parental expectation refers to a person’s “action goal” (p. 374). A person’s “ideal goal” is what one would like to achieve, and a person’s “action goal” is one’s real action in life. Carpenter (2008) differentiated parental expectations from parental aspirations as well. In Carpenter’s (2008) study, parental aspiration was regularly defined as 21.

(34) the “desire a parent holds about his or her child’s future level of achievement, as opposed to a belief in the child’s likely future achievement” (p. 165). Although parental expectation is defined and termed in various different ways in different studies, it can be explained as parents’ concerns about children or what parents ask children to achieve.. 2.4.2 Research on parental expectation and children’s achievement The link between parental expectations and children’s achievement is examined by researchers in different ways. Although few studies failed to prove the positive correlation between parental expectations and children’s academic achievement (e.g., Carpenter, 2008), the findings in most studies appeared quite consistent (e.g., Hossler & Stage, 1992; Jacobs & Harvey, 2005; Liu, 2006; Urdan, Solek, & Schoenfelder, 2007). For example, when studying a sample of Australian students, Jacobs and Harvey (2005) found that parental expectation is one of the strongest predictors of students’ success. Academically successful students are likely to come from the family in which parents have a high educational background and high expectations for their children. In Liu’s (2006) study of students’ English learning achievement, she also mentioned that there is a positive correlation between parents’ expectation and students’ English learning achievement. Likewise, in Urdan’s et al. (2007) study, they concluded that children have high achievement and high perception of competence only when their parents also expect them to do well in school and have high perception of their competence. When studying high school students’ postsecondary aspirations, Hossler and Stage (1992) indicated that parents’ education level and expectations contribute significantly in explaining students’ postsecondary aspirations. Despite the fact that Carpenter’s (2008) study of Latino students of immigrant families suggested that parental expectations proved not to be a significant predictor of student achievement, the positive correlation between parental expectation and children’s academic achievement is still evident. Given that parental educational expectation shows to influence children’s academic 22.

(35) achievements, the factors that shape parental expectations are important but remain relatively undiscussed. In Zhou’s (2006) book, he listed six factors that may shape parental expectations. The factors are (a) parents’ socioeconomic status, (b) educational levels of parents, (c) gender of children, (d) parents’ race, (e) children’s competence and academic achievement, and (f) parents’ past learning experience in school. In Kaplan’s et al. (2001) study, they found that parents with higher levels of education and higher negative self-feelings place higher expectations on their children and force their children to perform precisely as they demand. Räty (2006) also found that parents’ assessments of their children’s academic competencies and abilities structure their expectations on children’s future education. In Johnson’s et al. (2007) study, findings suggested that offspring characteristics had more influence on parental expectation of educational attainment than they did on offspring engagement or performance. The studies about the factors that influence parental expectation are far from numerous but the correlation between parental attitudes and parental expectation is less.. 2.5 Parental Involvement Among parental influences, parental involvement is particularly beneficial and the most direct way of facilitating children’s academic performance. There is growing awareness of the importance of involving parents in children’s education. For instance, in Taiwan, from the first semester of the 2001 academic year, the MOE asked every primary school to initiate parental involvement programs as part of the school schedule. The role of parental involvement in children’s academic performance is vital in several ways. Based on Pomerantz et al. (2005), parental involvement has the potential to enhance children’s achievement because it can (a) help children to build skills that facilitate their feelings of competence, (b) foster feelings of closeness between parents and children, and (c) support children in regarding themselves as purposeful since they are engaged in valuable activities. Furthermore, from a sociological perspective, Zhou (2006) recognized the 23.

(36) significant role of parental involvement because it helps to (a) develop the foundation of children’s learning in early stages, (b) enhance children’s academic achievement, (c) establish good communication between school and family, (d) increase parents’ satisfaction with school, and (e) force parents to take responsibility for children’s education. Thus, in the discussion of parental influences on children’s achievement and academic performance, parental involvement is essential and important.. 2.5.1 Definition and classification of parental involvement In a study of the strategies used by Chinese parents to support English language learning, Gao (2006) defined parental involvement as manners of behavior that parents have in reaction to children’s language learning. Gao’s (2006) definition of parental involvement emphasized the behavioral aspects of parental influences. In Pomerantz’s et al. (2005) study, parental involvement referred to “parents’ provision of important resources to their children” (p. 261). They further classified the types of parental involvement, those being: parents’ (a) participation in children’s school activities, (b) facilitation of children’s school work at home, (c) talking with children about their days at school, (d) involvement in children’s learning experience, and (e) affective ways of showing their interest in children’s learning such as showing excitement about children’s successes. In Urdan’s et al. (2007) study, parental involvement took the form of (a) supervising homework, (b) actively selecting schools for children, and (c) reading with children. Moreover, Fehrmann, Keith and Reimers’ (2001) proposed that parental involvement integrate ways of parents’ (a) expectation of school performance, (b) verbal encouragement or interactions regarding school work, (c) direct reinforcement of improved academic performance, (d) general academic guidance and support, and (e) influences on children’s plans after high school. Among these definitions and ways of parental involvement, besides the behavioral aspect which is the most common mentioned in parental involvement, the affective and cognitive domains of parental 24.