安心領導的內涵與組織行為的影響：文化差異的比較研究

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(1)國⽴臺灣師範⼤學管理學院管理研究所碩⼠論⽂ Graduate Institute of Management College of Management National Taiwan Normal University Master Thesis. 安⼼領導的內涵與組織⾏為的影響：⽂化差異的⽐較研究 Conceptualization of “An-xin Leadership” and Impact on Organizational Behavior: Comparison of Cultural Differences. 中村昌敏 Masatoshi Nakamura. 指導教授：邱皓政博⼠ Advisor: Chiou, Hawjeng PhD.. 中華民國 107 年 1 ⽉ January, 2018.

(2) 謝辭. 在撰寫此碩⼠學位論⽂的過程中，我必須感謝邱皓政教授於平⽇論⽂討論惠予諸多寶貴的建議。論⽂撰寫期間，多虧邱教授持續的⿎勵與引導，讓不斷對於論⽂感到茫然的我體會到所謂的「安⼼」。此外，我也必須特別感謝許書瑋助理教授，在平⽇論⽂討論中審慎給我諸多質性研究⽅⾯的專業意⾒。擔任⼝試委員之⼀的國⽴彰化師範⼤學⼈⼒資源管理研究所許壹傑教授，在⼝試結束後問我：「在論⽂的開始與結尾階段，你對安⼼的看法改變了嗎？」這問題使我銘記在⼼，也影響最終論⽂完整版甚鉅。此外，也必須感謝參與論⽂訪談的受訪者, 願意在百忙之中撥冗接受論⽂繁瑣的訪談。不能遺漏的是我的朋友們在論⽂撰寫期間扮演的⾓⾊，這⼀年內朋友分享了我的快樂也分擔了我的憂慮，朋友的⽀持使我的研究所⽣活更有動⼒向前邁進。經過與教授們的多次審慎討論，也經歷多次修改，終於誕⽣此份論⽂。平⽇討論論⽂，教授們都相當尊重我的個⼈想法，氣氛融洽卻不失嚴謹，讓我親⾝體會到本論⽂探討的所謂「安⼼」。.

(3) 來臺求學，家⼈也始終是我最強⼒的後盾，讓我能無後顧之憂地追求⼈⽣⽬標。撰寫此份碩⼠論⽂，需要感謝的⼈族繁不及備載，在此對所有幫助過我的⼈致上最誠摯的感謝。. 中華民國⼀百零七年⼀⽉. 中村昌敏.

(4) 摘要. 當今多元社會，由於複雜的⽂化背景與現有許多領導理論，領導者不易領導和管理員⼯。研究提出⼀個問題:「能否形成⼀個上層的概念，即更普遍的領導⽅式，涵容現有的領導理論概念？」，且提醒了我們⼀個概念:「安⼼」。. 此研究中，⾸先透過訪談來理解及界定「安⼼」和「安⼼領導」的概念。16 名受訪者包括⼋名臺灣⼈與⼋名⽇本⼈，分別是四名領導階級和下屬。其次，找出了“安⼼領導”機制，其特點是（1）Counselorship、（2）Parentalship、（3） Directorship、（4）Comradeship，這是我們歸納出的新概念。第三，研究發展出 “⼩籠包模式”，其中我們發現了“Parentalship”是其他三項特徵的基礎。最後，我們討論了“安⼼領導”帶領員⼯的⽅式，以及“安⼼領導”該具體執⾏的⾏動。. 關鍵字：安⼼、安⼼領導、信賴關係（Rapport）、信任與不信任、Parentalship、⼩籠包模型、修⾝、肯定.

(5) Abstract. Due to current diverse society, cultural backgrounds and many complex existing leadership theories, it is very difficult for leaders to lead and manage employees. Then, one question was come up with, which was “Is it possible to develop an upper concept that leadership of universal way, which includes lower concepts that are past existing leadership theories? Then, it reminded us of one word, “An-xin (peace of mind)”.. In this research, we, firstly, understood and defined concept of both “An-xin” and “An-xin Leadership” by doing interview study. 16 interviewees included eight Taiwanese and eight Japanese, which four subordinates and leaders, respectively. Second, we figured out a mechanism of “An-xin Leadership”, whose characteristics were (1) Counselorship, (2) Parentalship, (3) Directorship and (4) Comradeship, which are our new concept. Third, we developed the "⼩籠包 model” because we had discovered that "Parentalship" underlied the other three characteristics. Lastly, we discussed how “An-xin Leadership” lead employees and what “An-xin Leadership” need to do.. Keywords: An-xin (安⼼), An-xin (安⼼) Leadership, Trust Relationship (Rapport), Basic Trust and Basic Mistrust, Parentalship, ⼩籠包 model, Self-cultivation, Acknowledgement.

(6) Content Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research background and motivation ........................................................ 1 1.2 Meaning of “An-xin” in different cultural management ............................ 2 1.3 Research purpose ......................................................................................... 5. Chapter 2: Literature......................................................................................... 6 2.1 Comparison of Eastern and Western Cultural Differences ....................... 6 2.1.1 Eastern Culture ............................................................................................... 6. 2.1.1.1 Chinese culture ......................................................................................... 6 2.1.1.2 Japanese culture ....................................................................................... 9 2.1.2 Western culture .............................................................................................. 12. 2.2 Review of Leadership Theory ....................................................................... 13 2.2.1 Characteristic Theory .................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Behavioral Theory ............................................................................................ 15 2.2.3 Contingency Theory ....................................................................................... 16 2.2.4 Theory of Charismatic Leadership / Transforming Leadership .................. 18 2.2.5 Emergence of Various Theories ..................................................................... 20. 2.3 An-xin ......................................................................................................... 25 2.3.1 An-xin from universal perspective ................................................................ 25 2.3.2 An-xin from organizational perspective ........................................................ 26 2.3.3 An-xin from NLP perspective ........................................................................ 27 2.3.4 An-xin from Japanese perspective ................................................................ 30 2.3.5 An-xin from American perspective................................................................ 31 2.3.6 An-xin from Chinese perspective .................................................................. 33. 2.4 Solution Focus Brief Therapy Approach (SFBT)...................................... 36 2.4.1 What is SFBT? ............................................................................................... 36 2.4.2 Three important SFBT’s philosophies .......................................................... 37 2.4.3 OK message .................................................................................................... 38.

(7) Chapter 3: Methodology................................................................................... 41 3.1 Purpose of Interview .................................................................................. 41 3.2 Participants ................................................................................................ 42 3.3 Interview Question Framework ................................................................ 44 3.4 Analyses ..................................................................................................... 45 3.4.1 Five Steps Analytic Process ........................................................................... 46 3.4.2 SCAT (Steps for Coding and Theorization) .................................................. 46. Chapter 4: Research Findings ......................................................................... 48 4.1 Result of Interview..................................................................................... 48 4.1.1 Background Information of Taiwanese Interviewees .................................. 48 4.1.2 Background Information of Japanese Interviewees:.................................... 51. 4.2 Coding & Categorizing for Subordinates’ “Not An-xin” ........................... 55 4.2.1 Coding for Subordinates’ “Not An-xin” ......................................................... 56 4.2.2 Categorizing for Subordinates’ “Not An-xin” ................................................ 65. 4.3 Feeling for Category of Subordinates’ “Not An-xin” ................................ 67 4.4 Coding & Categorizing for Leaders’ “An-xin Leadership” ....................... 68 4.4.1 Coding for Leaders’ “An-xin Leadership” ..................................................... 69 4.4.2 Categorizing for Leaders’ “An-xin Leadership” ............................................ 78. Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion ........................................................... 83 5.1 Discussion ................................................................................................... 83 5.1.1 Comparison with Taiwanese and Japanese data ......................................... 83 5.1.2 Compassion at Work ...................................................................................... 85 5.1.3 Google’s Project Aristotle ............................................................................... 86. 5.2 “⼩籠包“ Model ............................................................................................ 88 5.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 90 5.4 Managerial Implications............................................................................ 93 5.5 Limitations & Further Study Recommendations..................................... 94 Reference .......................................................................................................... 97.

(8) 1. Chapter 1: Introduction. 1.1 Research background and motivation After graduating from a college, I have devoted myself to my study as a sommelier at a five-star hotel of a foreign capital affiliated firm. However, I felt that I needed not only knowledge from books about wine but also experienced of growing grapes and wine making, in order to understand the essence of wine. Therefore, I engaged in canopy management, cultivation and management work for wine grapes, in Western Australia. After that, I met a winery in Japan which was the same ideal of wine making of mine and was engaged in growing grapes and wine making. However, I had had one thing that kept going through my head all the time while working there. That was an "company’s attitude for employees and customers". Because even if I worked winery like utopia, but the company’s management for people, both employees and customers, wasn’t the standard level that I thought at all. Therefore, I began to be interested in the relationship between people and corporate organization, psychology and management.. Investing in the health of employees is often considered a negative investment. However, the majority account for the opinion that it is an investment that leads to growth of the company in the long run. It is said that employee healthy improves employee satisfaction. Then, employees with high employee satisfaction levels lead to be able to improve customer satisfaction. In order to survive in the complicating market competition, it can be said that employee health management is the top priority.

(9) 2. management task. “Health and Productivity Management”, which means to think strategically from the viewpoint of health management from the management standpoint, based on the foundation that companies can expect great achievement in terms of management by considering the health of employees, has been supported by private companies and government together last few years in not only Japan and other countries. Also, recently Google found out that “psychologically safety”, which refers to the environment and atmosphere where you aren’t frightened by other people's reactions or don’t feel shame and they can expose your own be-yourself, is their highest priority, in order to improve productivity. All members belonging to the team or organization will be able to participate in activities in a relaxed state as usual without playing the personal character for work that is different from the original self. Thus, now I have come to the conclusion that it is the most important for employees to provide employees “An-xin (peace of mind)” in management.". 1.2 Meaning of “An-xin” in different cultural management Japanese society has "mutual surveillance and mutual regulation mechanism". Therefore, in the place released from its "mechanism", Japanese often take action like "what happens in Vegas stays in Vegas", it leads us to be in “An-xin”? For "An-xin" of Chinese thought, first word caught my head is "安身立命", which is "position of the body" refers to a place that can feel comfortable and is a spiritual base. "安身立命" is also described in sentence written by Zhang Zai (1020 - 1077). However, do Chinese people manage organization and workers with this concept of "安身立命"? We believe that most of companies in Chinese society apply Western method into Chinese management. Can we feel “An-xin” in such complicated environment? The doctrine.

(10) 3. (principle/tenet) which becomes the center of Judeo and Christianity is "contract with God". It is often said that Western society is a "contract society". However, the underlying principle is "contract with God". Therefore, this way of thinking is also applied in "contract between people". It is becoming a public stance that "a person who is an agent of God" contracts. Do they apply this kind of principle into Western society? That means that trust by contract equal to “peace of mind” in Western management?. Also, in the past two decades, it has become difficult to succeed the skills, which are intellectual property worn by humans, due to a significant change in employment formation. The importance of human beings, which are three elements of corporate management, has been questioned again. Konosuke Matsushita, the founder of Panasonic who is my most admired person, says this. "People before product”, which means that cultivate people before making products because better products are only born from better people." (Matsushita, 1978) It is saying that was told decades ago, but it is thought that many entrepreneurs have recently adopted in particularly. Recently, it seems that movements trying to face the problem of the organization's environment using theories and methods have been actively increasing in different cultural background. Therefore, localization has been focused on again. Recent literature on cultural issues in organizational behavior studies mainly focuses on individualism. In collectivism, we should study relationalism research in the context of Eastern culture., but currently there are few such studies. (Chuang, Hsu, Wang & Judge, 2015). However, it is very difficult for managers and executives to change and solve management methods, due to such complex theories and cultural backgrounds. We, therefore, came up with the question "Is it possible to develop an upper concept, which.

(11) 4. includes in lower concepts?" For example, suppose there is a way to change the environment of an organization, which is able to adapt to Chinese society, Japanese society, Western Europe society, to every society at all. As a premise, we think that there is, in the fundamental part of human, universally common something regardless of the differences of cultural and historical aspect. For example, suppose that ideas, ideals, desires, etc. in the root of every human being in the world are the same, which is Maslow’s hierarchy needs motivation theory. We asked ourselves what the way to change the environment of the organization, and it reminded us of using the idea of the Solution Focus Brief Therapy Approach (SFBT), which can lead people to solution viewpoint from problem viewpoint, which can solve problems much quicker. Specifically, by establishing an organizational climate with acknowledge, which is the foundation of SFBT, people’s needs of esteem which is at the fourth stage of Maslow’s theory is satisfied, and they are stepping forward to the final stage of self-actualization needs stage. Thus, by creating an organizational climate that includes the both common concepts, all employees can work safely within the organization.. And the trust relationship will become stronger by continuing to acknowledge each other – no denial, no negative reflection. Then, people are able to reduce mental stress and their self-esteem will increase. In the end, each employee can demonstrate their full potential for the purpose of society, for the purpose of their life, for the purpose of their contribution for organization. In addition, more creative ideas in each worker are likely to come out naturally. As a result, the strength of the organization becomes comprehensively stronger, and there is no need to consider human relationships, because they could feel “An-xin” in their organization..

(12) 5. 1.3 Research purpose In this research, we firstly do interview study to understand and define concept of both “An-xin” and “An-xin Leadership”, because no literatures about “An-xin Leadership” have been reported before. Then, we figure out how people feel organization climate managed by “An-xin Leadership” in cultural differences., such as Chinese society, Japanese society and Western society. Lastly, we hope that this model could help us to advance organizational climate more.. Here are our research purposes that, in particular, emphasize on “An-xin Leadership”. (1) We clarify two concepts of "An-xin" and "An-xin Leadership", which none of the survey has ever been studied, coined by this study. (2) Is it possible to develop a superordinate (upper) concept (leadership of universal way leadership to make people feel “An-xin”), which includes subordinate (lower) concepts (past existing leadership theory)? (3) We would like to figure out a mechanism of “An-xin Leadership” in organization behavior management..

(13) 6. Chapter 2: Literature. 2.1 Comparison of Eastern and Western Cultural Differences 2.1.1 Eastern Culture In Eastern country, And the other is “Interdependent View of Self”, which it centers on the belief that “people are made up of involvement through roles and positions with surrounding people.” When stipulating themselves, they consider better relationship with others. In other words, the idea that humans are generally prescribed by incorporating “external factors” around them, such as expectations and social roles from the surrounding people. In order to be recognized as an adult, it’s necessary not to disturb other people or not to be out of the circles of surroundings with own selfish behavior. Also, they have to pay attention to the feelings of the people around. And while changing the idea of themselves appropriately, it’s required to match themselves to the surrounding people and to fulfill their role, according to the expectations of people around you.. 2.1.1.1 Chinese culture About Taiwanese "Face (Mian-zi) culture," Ya-Mei, Xie (1999) point out that "Face (Mian-zi) thinking" exists in every place in Taiwanese society, which is affecting Taiwanese thinking and behavior. According to the definition of Face of Goffman (1967), Hwang (1985) tried to clarify the face action of Chinese people by using the concept of the interaction of their own faces. In Chinese society, "Face (Mian-zi)" is.

(14) 7. often mentioned as a characteristic of society with the concept of "Relationship (Guan-xi)" and "Humanity (Ren-qing)".. Hwang (1987) tries to describe how key concepts of "Humanity (Ren-qing)", "Face (Mian-zi)" and "Relationship (Guan-xi)" work in the Chinese society and how will they affect Chinese behavior in "Humanity (Ren-qing) and Face (Mian-zi) theory model." "Humanity (Ren-qing) and Face (Mian-zi) theory model" is a theoretical analysis of the process of interaction both t the existence of social resource petitioners and resource allocators, which is assumed, by using the framework of social exchange. According to this model, when resource allocators are asked by social resource petitioners, they firstly consider the relationship between the social resource requesters and themselves, and they decide whether to receive a request. Here, the relationship between opponents and own self is divided into three.. The first type is "expressive tie", and the family falls under that. Since it is a relationship tied by blood, it is stable and is in contact with the human figure in its original form. The second type is "instrumental tie". For example, there are many temporary relationships such as drivers and passengers, so there are few emotional elements. Relationship maintenance is not the final goal of socialization, and it is only a tool to achieve other goals. Therefore, considering the cost of paying for the request from opponents and the settlement of remuneration, they decide whether to receive objectively. The third type is an "mixed tie" between the first and second. Friends, acquaintances, colleagues, etc. belong to it. People with this kind of relationship usually constitute complex human relations nets because third party, who is common acquaintance for both, is existed. People in this kind of relationship are expected to have.

(15) 8. a relationship in the future, it’s possible for third parties, who enter the same relations nets, to know situation of their relationship. Therefore, when resources are requested, the allocators of the resource must take into consideration not only the "relationship" between the person and the other person and the size of the face of the other person, but also those of third party of the common acquaintance. In this relationship, people do not want to pay the cost for the opponent, but there is a possibility of falling into the dilemma of "Humanity (Ren-qing)" that they also do not want to break the relationship. If, as a result of considering both, we accept the request of opponents, while the petitioners’ Face (Mian-zi) is saved, "Humanity (Ren-qing)" becomes indebtedness. Conversely, if the allocators of the resource decide to refuse the request of the petitioners, the petitioners may lose Face (Mian-zi), and the relationship between them may be broken.. In the model of "Face and Favor", Hwang (1987) explains how "Humanity (Ren-qing)", “Face (Mian-zi)" and "Relationship (Guan-xi)" interact. From this model, it is understood that “human relations”, “Face (Mian-zi)” and “social resource acquisition”, are deeply related. As long as human relationships are good, Face (Mian-zi) stands, and then people with good Face (Mian-zi) are highly likely to improve human relations. In other words, we could obtain society resources as much as we successfully operate " Humanity (Ren-qing)", " Face (Mian-zi)" and " Relationship (Guan-xi)" in Chinese society. For that reason, it can be said that the Face (Mian-zi) of Chinese-based people, so to speak, self-image contains individual ability and presence or absence of profits as a major element..

(16) 9. Chinese people have the concept of ”looking upon as belonging to the family 自家人“. Even if they sacrifice, which is close to abandoning their lives, they help & trust each other and protect themselves. This is the ”looking upon as belonging to the family 自家人", which is the smallest Chinese fundamental unit. Besides "home people", it means that they are convenient people, convenient people. People except for. 自家人. are just those who are convenient people or useful people for them.. The basic axis for Chinese judgment of things is "obsession with self-feeling". It is characterized by deciding on-site action and at that time, departing from their way of thinking, feelings and interests on things. In other words, in extreme cases, Chinese are more likely to decide things by themselves according to their own will rather than something big frame, situation or circumstances. And the actions of Chinese people differ very much depending on "Qing (feelings)" for their opponent. (Ishii, 2017). 2.1.1.2 Japanese culture About Japanese "A culture of shame" in a study of Japanese culture “The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, people will care about others’ criticism and set their own policy by the discretion of others. (Ruth, 1946) She defined "shame" as follows. "Shame is the reaction to the criticisms of the surrounding people. Being ridiculed in public or being rejected, otherwise belief that you are being ridiculed someone is a cause of shame. In either case, shame is a powerful enforcement. But in order to work it, what is looked at by someone is necessary. Or, it is necessary to have the belief that it is looked at, at least. In addition, she explained the loan of the “on” (especially, the relationship between the “on” and the “giri) in comparison with the loan of money..

(17) 10. Person who keeps the “on” as it is received is the same as not repaying debt. Just as the enforcement force is acting towards repaying debts in the United States, the power to encourage to return the “on” (fulfilling the “giri”) is working in Japan. That enforcement is the "shame". If you do not fulfill your duty, you incur ridicule of the public as a human who does not know shame. Thus, the Japanese will do their “giri”.. Japan has “excessive consideration”, which means that an excessive request that “I want to be seen better by others” is expressed as an excessive consideration for others that “Am I not being hated by others?” Interpersonal relationship is divided from Uchi (in-group person), Soto (out-group person) and Yoso (unknown person), and excessive consideration became the greatest to Soto and is weakened or disappeared against Uchi & Yoso. “Good manners even between good friends.” which means that even among friendly buddies, we must communicate using the principles appropriately.. Here is very interesting result of study, called “Social dilemma” experiment, by Toshio Yamagishi. They experimentally created the situation of the prisoner's dilemma. They will play a game that allows participants to gain great profit by trust and "cooperation" each other. Japanese act selfishly compared to Americans, and betrayal increases. Conversely, with setting a rule that imposes "fine", cooperation rate of Japanese, compared to Americans, also rises sharply. The most important thing that this social dilemma experiment revealed is that, "when you don’t have the expectation that other people will cooperate with, most people don’t take a cooperative attitude. It is often thought that "Japanese are collectivism and Americans are individualism". However, it is a shallow "common sense". The reason why Japanese are collectivism is that, in a word, because Japanese society has "mutual surveillance and mutual.

(18) 11. regulation mechanism". Therefore, in the place released from its "mechanism", Japanese often take action like "what happens in Vegas stays in Vegas". Ruth Benedict, who explained "Japanese are a culture of shame, Western people are cultures of sin" on “Chrysanthemum and sword”, pointed out “there is mutual regulation in Japanese society” radically. (Yamagishi, 1990). There is collectivism understanding of "Contextualism (Kanjin-shugi)" by Eshun Hamaguchi, which is an idea that emphasizes the relationship between people and people and acts in the bondage. Japanese type of collectivism is pointed that “Voluntary involvement in the group tends to commit to organizational activities, on the basis that we know that it brings about our own well-being”. That is, what Japanese act, respectful of each other emphasizing or cooperative, in the group is not because Japanese have the character of mind like "friendliness", but because Japanese know that acting like this will produce favorable results for ourselves. (Hamaguchi, 1982). In addition, Mika Hirai said, "’The Japanese (ordinary Japanese)’ are thinking collectivism, but ‘Myself’ is not as extreme collectivism as ‘The Japanese’, but rather individualistic tendencies are stronger.". In other words, many Japanese think that ‘Myself’ is not so collectivism, while holding the common sense of ‘collectivism Japanese’." (Hirai, 1999). In the case of the Japanese, the "Ba (Place)", that is, their position in the whole situation surrounding them, behavior that they feel good as their way they should behave, and actions that satisfy the surrounding expectations for that position are considered to be its basic axis. It is easy for Japanese people to reach a common feeling,.

(19) 12. and it is likely that individual actions do not give discomfort to others as much as possible, and they can be convinced from the surroundings as much as possible. For this reason, it is easier to read the actions of each other, and they can calm down and work on their own actions within the tacit consent. On the other hand, if these common feelings are not established, the Japanese relationship tends to be uncomfortable. (Ishii, 2017). 2.1.2 Western culture In Western country, they expressed the definition of “what is a person?” as “Self”. And they compare this “self” between Western and Eastern. There are two types of “self”. The one is “Independent View of Self”, which it centers on the belief that “people are distinguished from others and surrounding things and exist independently.” In order to be recognized as an adult, it’s important to find a unique ability, talent and personality that can be proud of others, which is different from others. In other words, they don’t need to worry about people’s eye sight so much. First of all, they need to turn their eyes their inner face and actively express what they can proud of themselves outwards.. In the West of the Christian civilization, the norm of behavior is religious precepts. If they keep God’s commandments, the mind is perfectly clear, but once they go against it, they have a strong sense of sin. There is always God in their mind. This is called, “A culture of sin” by Ruth Benedict..

(20) 13. Thus, in the case of Westerners, the promises of "God", the "consciousness of law", the "contract" and the responsibility as a member of society are considered to be the basic axis of deciding action. In this way, strict observance of laws and moral codes of society, Westerners are to act autonomously according to personal values and desires. This is the meaning of Western individualism that is translated as "individualism". (Iwata, 2017). The overwhelming reason why cross-cultural leadership research has greatly developed is because of the framework proposed by Hofstede. Hofstede (1984) demonstrated that by analyzing the survey data of IBM around the world, management way required by different country is quite different, and that showed four dimensions (seven dimensions in the latest data) quantitatively indicating the cultural difference by the country. It is necessary to consider whether the required leadership direction change or not, how cultural and institutional differences affect, if countries and regions are different. Therefore, we, next, introduce the trend of some leadership theories which seems to be deeply related to the difference of way of leadership caused by culture.. 2.2 Review of Leadership Theory The history of leadership research has accumulated over decades. With the transition of leadership, we can see the six trends of "Characteristic Theory", "Behavioral Theory", "Situational Leadership", "Theory of Charismatic Leadership / Transforming Leadership" and "Emergence of various theories". However, on the other hand, most of the studies are being studied in the United States, and may not fully.

(21) 14. capture the diversity of the world. Under these circumstances, Hofstede’s data above has greatly influenced cross-cultural leadership research.. Source: By this study Figure 2.1 Transformation of Leadership Theory and Era Background. 2.2.1 Characteristic Theory What was the mainstream of leadership as far back as around the 1950s is "Characteristic Theory." "Characteristic theory" is the idea that a great person with excellent qualities can be a leader, and the idea is that the leader is not the one to be made but the nature of being born. Stogdill (1948) has characteristics that are highly correlated with the leader's characteristics, such as "fair" "honest" "loyal" "thoughtful".

(22) 15. "judicious" "agile" "creativity" "patience" Confidence "" aggression "" adaptability "" sense of humor "" sociability "" reliability "are raised. Currently, there is no researcher who talks about leadership with "characteristic theory" alone. However, in modern times for a lot of people's perspectives, some kind of idea like "Characteristic Theory", such as "humans with charismatic qualities should take leadership", have persisted deeply. Since in view of the fact that attention is focused on characteristics of leaders again in relation to Charismatic Leadership etc. in recent years, it is also true that there is an idea that "Characteristic Theory" has not lost any value.. 2.2.2 Behavioral Theory "Behavioral Theory" came out around the 1940s in the form of defeating the idea of “Characteristic Theory.” Leadership is behavior and technology. Many researchers have conducted various phenomena research on "Behavioral Theory". For example, there are the "Ohio State Leadership Studies" by C.Shartle et al, "Three Major Leadership Styles" by K.Lewin, "System of Management" by R.Likert, "Managerial Grid Model" by R.R.Break and J.S.Mouton, and "PM Theory of Leadership" by Jyuji Misumi. This time, we will introduce in detail about "Managerial Grid Model" by R.R.Break and J.S.Mouton, and "PM Theory of Leadership" by Jyuji Misumi. -. Managerial Grid Model: It is the behavioral theory advocated by Blake and Mouton in 1964. The behavioral style of leadership is grasped in two axes "concern for people" as the x-axis and "concern for performance" as the y-axis, and.

(23) 16. each axis is divided into 9 stages. Then it becomes the total of 81 grids and they could make here as the managerial grid and classified five typical leadership types (1,1 type, 1,9 type, 9,1 type, 9,9 type, 5,5 type). Blake and Mouton argued that 9,9 type is the most ideal leadership type among them. -. PM Theory of Leadership: In 1966, one of the behavioral theory that was advocated by Japanese social psychologist, Jyuji Misumi, and leadership is the idea that it consists of two capacity elements (P: Performance and M: Maintenance). depending on the magnitude of the two abilities, which is ability to achieve targets by goal setting, planning, instructions to members (P) and is maintaining good relationships between members and group cohesion (M), leadership type was classified into 4 types (PM, Pm, pM, pm). A desirable leadership type is assumed to be a state where both P and M are high (PM). The background behind the "behavioral theory" is the need to discover and. nurture numerous leaders in the United States after the war in the late 1940s. As mentioned earlier, based on the premise that many researchers are "a leader is one that is made", they studied what kind of behavior makes effective leaders. In order to elucidate leadership, we will introduce not only behavioral characteristics but also "Situational Leadership" born from the idea that something different additional condition was necessary.. 2.2.3 Contingency Theory The leadership theory so far at that moment focused only on the behavioral characteristics of the leader to the last. However, since the 1960s, an idea called.

(24) 17. "Contingency Theory", leadership has different styles to take depending on the situation, was appeared. Just because the leader who caught in "Behavioral Theory" led the organization does not necessarily leave good results. If it was, researchers began to think about not only the behavioral characteristics of the leader to solve the leadership but also some additional condition was necessary. Because this theory holds based on the idea that “there is no unique universal leadership style that can be adapted to all situations", unlike "Characteristic Theory" and "Behavioral Theory", it is based on the hypothesis that not only the behavioral characteristics of the leader but also some additional conditions should be studied. We will introduce "Path-Goal Theory" by R. House and "SL Theory" by P. Hersey and K.H. Blanchard.. -. Path-Goal Theory: Path-Goal Theory was advocated by House et al. who was descended from Ohio State University research in 1971. First of all, the effectiveness of leadership is "depending on the action taken by the leader, whether the subordinates can be motivated or not." In order for subordinates to be motivated by a leader, "the leader understands what kind of path to follow so that the subordinate can successfully reach the purpose / achievement (goal) and it is necessary to act effectively." In addition, in order to show the effective path (route) to the subordinate for the goal that the leader wants to achieve, it is said that two conditions ("Environmental conditions" and "personal characteristics of subordinates") must be kept in mind. By combining these two conditions, they classified the leader behaviors that are effective at that time into four types: Directive type, Supportive type, Achievement type, and Participative type.. -. SL Theory: SL stands for Situational Leadership, which is the Contingency Theory advocated by Hersey and Blanchard in 1977. They believed that the.

(25) 18. effective leadership style differs depending on the maturity of each subordinate and that leadership will change depending on two factors: the necessity of business directive behavior and the necessity of supportive behavior for communication. First, they divided them into four quadrants with two axes of task behavior (directive behavior) and relationship behavior (supportive behavior). They showed what to do to improve the effectiveness of leadership in each situation. Effective leadership is stipulated in order of lower maturity of subordinates as follows; telling → selling → participating → delegating. Most of the new researches and proposed leadership phenomena studies are based on Contingency Theory, even now from after it became mainstream.. 2.2.4 Theory of Charismatic Leadership / Transforming Leadership Since the 1980s and 1990s, the concept of "Charismatic Leadership, Transforming Leadership" appeared. Leadership was thought to be charismatic behavior to promote organizational change and to show the vision and achieve the target. The background that " Charismatic Leadership, Transforming Leadership " appeared is that it began to be required to manage to lead the subordinates by drawing future vision. Because the economic stagnation caused a drastic change in the competitive environment, it was impossible to achieve satisfactory performance simply by managing subordinates according to pre-existing routines. -. Charismatic Leadership: according to House (1976), leader is defined as that “leaders are not congenital characteristics, but they can become charisma by.

(26) 19. having their subordinates recognized as charisma”, and “by having a very high level of self-reliance and trust from subordinates, leaders can guide their subordinates to their goals." In other words, the notion of charisma that had been captured as a person's qualities was that he focused on the effect that leaders would change into followers. This is a very important way of thinking in Charismatic and Transforming Leadership Theory. Then, Conger and Kanungo (1998) studied "what kind of specific actions should be taken, are leaders recognized as charisma?", from the viewpoint of recognition from subordinates. As a result, they claimed that they could be recognized as charisma by acting three things; (1) presenting strategic visions, (2) taking leaders' own risks themselves and taking actions that become a norm of their subordinates, (3) correct evaluation in the current situation. Transforming Leadership is leadership phenomena research that began to be proposed around the 1980s, which is similar to the "Charismatic Leadership" mentioned above, but this theory established under the idea that “a person having a vision for achieving organizational change is a leader.” There are various researches on leadership phenomena classified as Transforming Leadership, but this time we will introduce J.P. Kotter's Leadership Theory and N.M. Tichy's Transformational Leader. -. Kotter’s Leadership Theory: Kotter (1995) insisted on the difference between leadership and management, and emphasizes that what was necessary for the era of change was leadership. He considered the most important elements of leadership to be the "vision of the leader" and advocated eight stages of change to realize transformation. In addition, he focused on the characteristics and skills of leaders and mentioned the leaders' essential abilities as "interpersonal attitude" and "high.

(27) 20. energy level". The ability as a leader of "interpersonal attitude" "high energy level" explained that it was greatly influenced by childhood, work experience, culture of belonging organization, and so on.. -. The Transformational Leadership: Tichy (1986) defined leader as not to manage, but to present a vision to carry out change and to encourage members to do it. This theory clearly defines the way of "leader" that carries out change, not "manager" who is dedicated to routine repetitive tasks and rule-based management. It is similar to Cotter's leadership theory, including the leader presenting a vision and encouraging members to do it. He proposed "leadership engine", which was a new concept; leaders exist in every level of the organization, it is important to create a mechanism whereby leaders themselves create next generation leaders.. 2.2.5 Emergence of Various Theories From around 2000, based on the transforming Leadership, the idea of attaching importance to the relationship between the leader and the follower has spread. "The emergence of various theories", such as Leader Member Exchange (LMX) Theory, can be seen as a way of thinking that develops from there. We pick up and introduce five major phenomena studies from among studies on leadership phenomena that are drawing attention and diversity in recent years. -. Servant Leadership: "Servant leadership" is the theory advocated by Robert K. Greenleaf in the 1970s. The reason that this theory is attracting attention in recent years is that the trend of wanting leaders to seek ethical trust from social anxiety.

(28) 21. and corruption has been raised. Greenleaf (1977) defines that a person who is the leader of "servant leadership" will serve the opponent first and then lead the opponent. He argues that leadership is not a "way of doing" skill, but a theory (management philosophy) that focuses on the "way of being ("resourcefulness" of leaders)" of leadership based on the trust relationship between interstitial people. -. Shared Leadership: "Shared Leadership" is to maximize the abilities of all the people in the organization by giving authority to each person and providing opportunities to play a leader role in each specialized field. Bergman et al. (2012) defined that “it occurs when two or more members participate in team leadership and influence and instruct fellow members to maximize the team's effect. As the movements of global market expansion, industry restructuring, consolidation of successive organizations become more active, as more dynamic flexibility and a wider knowledge base and expertise are required, shared leadership is regarded as one of the solutions to its complicated needs.. -. EQ (Emotional Intelligence Quotient) Leadership: EQ leadership is a leadership phenomenon study that Daniel Goleman who advocated EQ (Emotional Intelligence Quotient) argued. Goleman (2013) defined that, in leadership, it is more important to grasp the hearts of the people and gain resonance of subordinates than intelligence and expert knowledge, it is the secret of organization's success to make unity and unite based on resonance and empathy towards the goal. Goleman identified the correlation between EQ and the company's performance and confirmed the correlation between EQ and leadership. Goleman also mentioned that leadership has six different styles; visionary, coaching, affiliative, democratic, pace-setting and commanding, each based on a different "Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ)”. Also, the leader who is doing the.

(29) 22. best results does not rely only on one of leadership style, and states that he is constantly using most of the six styles according to the situation. -. Authentic Leadership: "Authentic leadership" has become widely known since the early 2000s, one of the proponents is Bill George, former CEO of Medtronic. The characteristics of the new leader George (2003) claims are the following five types; be aware of your objectives firmly, act based on your firm values, lead with full of your heart, build solid human relationships, firmly rule yourself. Also, "Authentic Leadership" is said to be able to raise yourself personally in the life including your private life, and this is also a feature of the one.. -. Paternalistic Leadership: Cheng and Farh (2000) connected the Confucians Culture · Lawyer's thought · Family idea with the research of Paternalistic Leadership announced by Silin in 1976 and developed a unique Paternalistic Leadership that is different from Western leadership thought. Cheng and Farh defined Paternalistic Leadership as "there is a relationship between the power of leader itself and the reaction and behavior of subordinates. Leaders have personal authority, good morals and sincerity, and they attend to subordinates with attitude such as careful consideration, giving guidance, protection etc; meanwhile, the subordinates are interacted with such a leader, and they show admiration and devotion, obedience, affirmative response to the leader." Cheng and Farh also divided the Paternalistic leadership into three different leadership; Benevolent Leadership, Moral Leadership, Authoritarian Leadership.. Benevolent Leadership: Leadership that leaders protect Mianzi of his subordinates and takes personal consideration..

(30) 23. Moral Leadership: Leadership that leaders set an example to others by themselves, that leaders interact with his subordinates regardless of selfless devotion and leaders’ personal feelings. Leaders' morals and constancy include many virtues. Authoritarian Leadership: Leadership that leaders use personal authority to dominate subordinates, which is including methods of grasping power all at once, methods of evaluating (disinclining) abilities of men lower, methods of decorating images, methods of giving guidance.. Many leaders tend to be unable to adapt to a situation of rapid changes in order to respond to reality based on the leadership theory so far. According to a survey conducted by PwC on 6,000 senior executives in 2015, "a strategic leader" or "a leader who can effectively lead change" was only 8%. Leitch et al. (2016) of PwC, who conducted the survey, explained on the reasons for this low percentage as follows.. "For most companies, there are lots of leader with the high operational capability which is necessary to" keep the status quo. " However, now, "wicked problems", such as "a change in the way of doing business itself" are required, is occurring. Leaders need two specific abilities. One, of course, "ability of work (expertise)". However, the organization's management can’t be run well only by "job ability". Other abilities are also necessary. That is the second "building relationship " ability. We must keep communicating with people in the field, forecast the future, keep track of the situation, recognize each other, and create a system that can cooperate and respond. Until now, corporate organizations have regarded communication as "flowing from top to bottom". However, in order to challenge and respond the current situation, it is no longer possible.

(31) 24. to comply with the one-way, such as the above person thinking and the lower person executes it. We must make the situation that the whole organization is thinking about what is happening and how to respond to it.. Heffernan (2015) defines that "organization thinks" means "dialogue between employees". In other words, "dialogue between employees" is not only information exchanges, but also gives people, who exchange it, opportunities to "think". The important point is that answers for problem solving and ideas leading to innovation are not only in the head of a single person but depend on how we can connect with other brains. "Connecting with other brains (other people)" will bring in new innovations and inventions. It is not only a leader to think in the head by themselves but to "dialogue" with people in an organization or across organizations. Given the challenges faced by modern global companies, it is clear that "thinking alone" is no longer appropriate. Everywhere, humans are required to develop the ability of "thinking together".. However, here is the difficulty. "Dialogue" is to enter (the world of) chaos, inevitably, the stress of people becomes high. When stress becomes high, people tend to think closedly, also to return to "the (shell of) individual". It can happen as a physiological reaction of human beings. The cause of physiological reaction is probably because we are trying to put ourselves in a safe and secure space to protect ourselves because it is anxious. Then, we thought that creating the space where people in the organization can secure is the most important and premise for the leaders, and we also thought whether or not there is no universal leadership style that can be adapted to all situations. Thus, the purpose of our research in this time is to elucidate the features of "An-xin Leadership" with the theme of "An-xin"..

(32) 25. 2.3 An-xin 2.3.1 An-xin from universal perspective "An-xin (peace of mind)" is defined as feeling "I’m allowed to exist in this world". For things, in most cases, an intention and purpose go ahead of things. The form is given by the intention, and things are born. For example, in the case of "chopsticks", the intention of "eating" goes ahead of chopsticks, and chopsticks are made up by makers, and then chopsticks will exist.. On the other hand, for "human", existence goes ahead of intention and purpose. French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre (1943, 1956) positioned things that don’t have freedom, which purpose goes ahead of existence and define own by own self, as “Being-in-itself”, and also positioned things that have freedom, which existence goes ahead of purpose and define own by repeating the acts choosing subjectively, as “Being-for-itself”. Human, who is "existence of being born unintentionally ", is an existence who can determine his / her own purpose and meaning by him/herself.. Erikson (1950, 1963), an American psychologist, argues that life is divided into eight developmental stages and each stage has developmental challenges, in the life cycle theory advocated by himself. Here, we skip the details of 8 developmental stages, however, in infancy which is the earliest stage, it’s important to earn “Basic trust” and to overcome “basic mistrust” in relation to mother. We change "unpleasant state" of a baby into "comfortable state". By repeatedly experiencing these behaviors, the baby will acquire "basic trust" for "I’m allowed to exist in this world". Thus, we define "basic trust" claimed by Erik Erikson as "An-xin (peace of mind)"..

(33) 26. "People" who observed "An-xin (peace of mind)" will seek for themselves to contribute value to "society" in order to make their existential significance more definite (we think that this is close to the "self-realization" of the fifth hierarchy in Maslow's hierarchy needs theory). If we don’t get "An-xin (peace of mind)" for society, the motivation to contribute to society will not come up. If human is not satisfied with "An-xin (peace of mind)", human will try to satisfy the missing part by " acknowledgement" from others (it is equivalent to “esteem” of the fourth hierarchy in Maslow 's hierarchy needs theory), in order to create mutual trust. When human is satisfied with "An-xin (peace of mind)" and "acknowledgement", which human has mutual trust with others, the motivation for "self-realization" will come up in order to contribute to society.. 2.3.2 An-xin from organizational perspective Next, we consider the corporate organization and "human" working at there. Regarding “An-xin (peace of mind)”, we believe that this is not important key issue in general corporations in general. Isn’t it reality that it will not be even a subject for discussion? The reason is that corporate organization side looks upon "basic trust" and "An-xin (peace of mind)" as that they should be cultivated in the home or school education. We should be considered that it is common to adopt workers on the premise that they are in “An-xin (peace of mind)”. We think that the reality of many companies and working "people" exists between "An-xin (peace of mind)" and "self-actualization". In other words, we think that people exist in the stage that they want to be "acknowledged". Here, they work for daily work for salary / bonus, promotion, praise, etc., or in order that people want to be acknowledged by companies, bosses and.

(34) 27. customers, people consider of what they expect, in order to establish mutual trust, and people act accordingly. This is by no means a bad thing. Rather, it can be said that it is a relationship that can achieve the purpose of each other for both corporate organizations and working people.. On the other hand, focusing on the existence of working "human", they try to explore types that others expect and can meet his / her needs for acknowledgement by adjusting themselves for others expectations. Therefore, you can see that this kind of human becomes “Being-in-itself”, which purpose goes ahead of existence. According to Sartre, as long as it is existence of “Being-in-itself”, it is not a life of human, but a life of things. What on earth, even in the organization, do we do in order for people to work like “human”?. A “Being-for-itself” way of working is to repeat subjective choices and practices, which, deeming acknowledgement needs as motivation, is not by adjusting themselves for others expectations, but by looking for something that you can contribute value to the world. We think that, in order to practice the “Being-for-itself” way of working, it will be more important to create an environment that supports the “Being-for-itself” way of working. This environment is the "An-xin (peace of mind)".. 2.3.3 An-xin from NLP perspective Now we would like to introduce NLP, Neuro-Linguistic-Programming, which started from the establishment of basic theory by Dr. Richard Bandler, co-creator of.

(35) 28. NLP and American self-help author, and Dr. John Grinder, co-developer of NLP and American linguist, in the 1970 's.. Firstly, we need to explain about NLP shortly. NLP is said "brain instruction manual" in the United States, which is the birthplace of NLP. Psychotherapy based on the fundamental theory of NLP was effective in short term sessions, and it became popular and expanded. They started with a study of three therapists who were said to be genius at the time. Milton Erickson (Hypnotherapist), Virginia Satir (Family therapist) and Frits Perls (Psychiatrist/Gestalt therapist). These three therapists are said to have treated in a short period even for clients who other therapists could not treat for over years. Bandler and Grinder, analyzed the common elements of the three therapists, from the viewpoint of "how did the three therapists quickly and effectively make the treatment successful?". They extracted the common elements such as words, behavior and expressions that the three therapists were using, and they codified from aspects of neurology, psychology and linguistics, which was established as a model applicable to third parties. At the beginning, we mentioned about NLP as "brain instruction manual", but, analyzing the behavior patterns of outstanding human means research on how to use the brain of the three therapists who became the model. Through the research of Bandler and Grinder, many therapists, at their own site, have been able to apply genius therapy techniques such as Milton Ericsson. The method has been applied not only to therapy but also to various fields such as business, education, art, sports and so on.. “Neuro” is the study of the mind and nervous system (how we think), through which our experience is processed, how we represent the outside world to ourselves via our five senses: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, olfactory and gustatory. “Linguistic” is.

(36) 29. the study of language and how we use it. Language and other non-verbal communication systems through which our neural representations are coded, ordered and given meaning. Includes pictures, feelings, words (self-talk), sounds taste and smell. “Programming” is the sequence of our actions; how we motivate ourselves to achieve our goals. The ability to discover and utilize the programs that we run in our neurological systems to achieve our specific and desired outcomes.. The purpose to learn NLP is that how do "five senses" and "language" create "programming"? You, through NLP, can instantly get a state “you want to become” by deeply understanding about the program that human creates up and will discover the potential programming in human beings. Thus, NLP is a method that human changes into something that is easy to live. Learning NLP is more or less related to "change", which is both "your own change" and "change of others". NLP is very effective and can be often compared with a knife that cuts well. Because NLP deals with unconsciousness (sub-consciousness) which is said to be the driving force to move humans.. Yamasaki mentioned the moral soundness of human beings using NLP, so people always cherish making “An-xin (peace of mind) places than anything else, in order to establish “Rapport (mutual trust)”, and human eventually seek some sense, which is “An-xin (peace of mind)” and security. (Yamasaki, 2007, 2009) Thus, when we are in organization as workers, if there would be the place of “An-xin (peace of mind), workers could have felt more comfortable and confident to pursue their needs for their company and themselves..

(37) 30. 2.3.4 An-xin from Japanese perspective Japanese society is more collectivism "trusted society" than American society, conversely, the image, which American society is dry and individualistic "contract society" has been spread in the world. This common sense is denied by some experiments, called “Social dilemma” experiment etc. (Yamagishi, 1999), which is mentioned in culture later. "Social dilemma" means that situation is that "Everyone can gain a profit by cooperating with each other, but when each person acts by considering only own interest, in the end, everyone is suffering losses". A modeling of such a situation is an experiment of social psychology called "Social dilemma” experiment. The most important thing that this social dilemma experiment revealed is that, "when you don’t have the expectation that other people will cooperate with, most people don’t take a cooperative attitude. It is often thought that "Japanese are collectivism and Americans are individualism". However, it is a shallow "common sense". The reason why Japanese are collectivism is that, in a word, because Japanese society has "mutual surveillance and mutual regulation mechanism". Therefore, in the place released from its "mechanism", Japanese often take action like "what happens in Vegas stays in Vegas". What is characteristic of Japanese society is not “trust” but “An-xin (peace of mind)”. To put it briefly, “trust” is the psychology expecting partners to meet for the first time as “not bad person”. “An-xin (peace of mind)” is the psychology expecting that someone show already has some social relationship “I can’t do bad things in this distraction”. "An-xin (peace of mind)" and "trust" are key concepts in Yamagishi's research. "An-xin (peace of mind)" is to think that those who walk along are implicitly regulated by society. "Trust" means that people do not usually do bad things even if they are not regulated. Because Japan is not a “trusted society” but a “An-xin (peace of mind) society”, even if it seems at first glance to cooperate collectively, we just can.

(38) 31. believe like that it is simply because of the existence of various sorts of things, such as law of a Mura society, like “Opponent would not betray me.” (Yamagishi, 1999). 2.3.5 An-xin from American perspective The Japanese "An-xin (peace of mind)" is a word that can be widely used in various situations, such as when solving a serious trouble or when relieving with trivial things. However, in English, there are many expressions that express "An-xin (peace of mind)" in accordance with situations. When we want to say "An-xin (peace of mind) " in English, it is necessary to distinguish expressions properly in some cases, such as “what kind of security it is” or “why did you feel secure?”. We introduce some expressions of “An-xin (peace of mind)” in English below.. -. Seeing her lovely face relaxed me.. -. I feel calm drinking coffee.. -. I’m relieved to hear that you got home safely.. -. Her words set my mind at rest.. -. Please feel at ease and make yourself at home.. -. Today’s sales reassured the company’s CEO.. -. I feel secure about my future.. -. You are perfectly right, I feel a sense of relief.. -. If thoroughly heated, this meat is perfectly safe to eat.. -. I feel better knowing that.. -. Dad assured us that everything would be all right.. -. Make your mind easy..

(39) 32. -. You can trust him to do the work.. For example, “Relaxed” refers feelings when you lose your tension and your heart and body are in peace. It does not necessarily mean that "I was anxious before."“Calm” refers to a quiet feeling like when the waves of feeling cease. You can judge with coolness. It represents a "state" without change. “Relieved” refers to the feeling "released" from troubles and anxiety. It includes implications that you have been caught up in something anxiety and trouble all the time. “At rest” is literally "to be in a state of rest". It refers to the feeling of quietly quitting after stopping the nervousness. You could think of it as a "break" when the situation where you used your head restlessly by distress or anxiety has ended. “At ease” refers to the feeling that the pain of your heart has soften and you feel lighter. Even if you use the adjective’s ‘easy’, it has the same meaning. "Reassure" means "to re-guarantee." It refers to a happy feeling that worries and doubts are removed by something. Since it shows "when you are relieved by something" Trigger and information for peace of mind, such as happy news and words, are needed. Japanese can express these sentences only one word “An-xin (peace of mind)” in Japanese. Why do American have to distinguish expressions properly? In other words, why do Japanese can express by only one word? This is very interesting issue. What we can’t find suitable word of “An-xin (peace of mind) in English is because the Western culture and Japanese culture are different. And the sense of “An-xin (peace of mind)” here seems to be a concept including a Japanese emotion. In Japan, I believe that the reason why “An-xin (peace of mind)” can’t be properly discussed in Japan is because efforts of Western experts” who are stronger in logicality are insufficiency..

(40) 33. The doctrine (principle/tenet) which becomes the center of Judeo and Christianity is "contract with God". It is often said that Western society is a "contract society". However, the underlying principle is "contract with God". Therefore, this way of thinking is also applied in "contract between people". It is becoming a public stance that "a person who is an agent of God" contracts. If you believe in God, a contract with God will be established. And God protects people (believers) and promises to "give some profit". In the United States, even a graduate student will surely have an employment contract called “Offer letter”. The basic content is working days, salary, welfare benefits, position, working hours etc. However, depending on the company, other conditions are described in detail, and it may extend to several pages. Showing everything clearly in the contract and signing a contract gives rise to a relationship of “trust”. In short, it seems that in the United States people trust people by contracting and it is a mechanism to get “An-xin (peace of mind). However, we mentioned again that there are some evidences that Japanese society is more collectivism "trusted society" than American society, conversely, the image, which American society is dry and individualistic "contract society" has been spread in the world. This common sense is denied by some experiments etc. (Yamagishi, 1999), Thus, we believe that we should not stereotype people and some previous evidences.. 2.3.6 An-xin from Chinese perspective Here we would like to talk about the "An-xin" of Chinese thought. Then, the first word caught our head is "安身立命". In a sentence that appears in Water Margin, "position of the body" refers to a place that can feel comfortable and is a spiritual base. This, below, is a passage written by Zhang Zai (1020 - 1077), and "安身立命" is also.

(41) 34. described in this sentence. It is also a sentence quoted in the "Imperial Edict of the End of the War", that Japanese Emperor of Showa read at the end of the World War II.. 「為天地立心，為生民立命，為往聖繼絕學，為萬世開太平。」 Make a mind for Heaven and Earth, set up the Tao for human beings, restore the lost teachings of the past sages, and build a peaceful world for all future generations.. To explain this briefly, the heaven and earth has spent billions of years and has created many animals and plants. And finally, they create 'human', and 'human' got something called 'heart' for the first time. In other words, the heart of 'human' is the heart of heaven and earth. 'human' are the heart of heaven and earth, and 'human' must live along the Heavenly Road. But it is difficult and hard to convey to the general public. Then, 'human' named a saint appeared there, for example, Buddha, Confucius, Christ etc.) will preach the way of 'human'. However, if you leave that learnings as they are, they will be extinct. Therefore, we learn them and pass on them to the next generation. By doing so, we are planning to create something of great peace for "Manyo" (as the generation changes 10,000 times).. From this perspective, it is important to master academics in order to become public officers, people studied hard so that they earned money and support their own family..

(42) 35. 『老吾老，以及人之老，幼吾幼，以及人之幼』 "Care for my own aged parents and extend the same care to the aged parents of others; love my own young children and extend the same love to the children of others". Chinese people have the concept of ”looking upon as belonging to the family 自家人“. Even if they sacrifice, which is close to abandoning their lives, they help & trust each other and protect themselves. This is the ”looking upon as belonging to the family 自家人", which is the smallest Chinese fundamental unit. People except for 自家人 are just those who are convenient people or useful people for them. As mentioned in this words above, we believe that treating your family (自家人) well, will lead to "安身立命" = "An-xin".. So far, we have described "An-xin" about humans from different perspective, which is (1) "Basic trust" seen from a universal point of view, (2) "Being-for-itself" seen from an organizational point of view, (3) "Rapport (mutual trust) " seen from an NLP point of view. Then, we found that one common keyword to achieve these people's “An-xin” is emerged. That keyword is "acknowledgement". Therefore, we, now, describe the theory of Solution Focus Brief Therapy Approach which, in particular, emphasized the "acknowledgement"..

(43) 36. 2.4 Solution Focus Brief Therapy Approach (SFBT) Trust relationship is constructed by acknowledging or accepting each other – no denial, no negative reflection. Then, people are able to reduce mental stress and their self-esteem would increase. In the end, each employee can demonstrate their full potential for the purpose of society, for the purpose of their life, for the purpose of their contribution for organization. It is the most important to understand how to establish trust relationship. Because we believe that this is the key factor for “An-xin Leadership”. Thus, we introduce a theory, called Solution Focus Brief Therapy Approach which, in particular, emphasized the "acknowledgement".. 2.4.1 What is SFBT? The Solution Focused Brief Therapy Approach (SFBT) proved successful in quickly helping clients make desired sustainable changes in their lives. SFBT was originally born as a top discipline (style) of therapy (psychotherapy) in the United States. For Psychoanalysis born in Europe, they interview over 200 times over the course of its treatment process. In contrast, the Brief Therapy, which treats in a short-term, started in the United States. And in the mid-1980s Solution-Focused-Brief-Therapy was born as its most advanced discipline. A Korean American woman named Insoo Kim Berg and an American named Steve de Shazer, who are couple, made a base called The Brief Family Therapy Center (BFTC) with therapist friends in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, and developed the SFBT.. The Main purpose of SFBT is to “focus on heading towards solutions without staying out of the problem.” SFBT was adopted also in an area of "business coaching".

(44) 37. which began to get popular since the 1990s. Business consultants and coaches, who focused on the method of changing client's behavior in only two meetings, started using it around 2000 centered around Europe, in order to improve communication efficiency in the business domain or to apply SFBT to organization development.. SFBT stands on the stance that "the person himself knows best about himself", and based on the reality that it is difficult for humans to know ourselves structurally, SFBT tells us confirmation method that internal resources own self, strength that people have, and external resources own self, surrounding supporters and the effective environment including people. It is a way of thinking that it is possible to solve the problem if it becomes visible of internal and external resources.. In other words, it is a technique that can be applied to almost all problem solving, from psychological problems of individuals to problems in the workplace, and positive thinking is necessary for solving various problems. As a result, SFBT contributes to strengthen the positive-oriented, which is the well-being and resilience.. 2.4.2 Three important SFBT’s philosophies 1.. If it ain’t broke, do not fix it: It means that we should not grab that people who have problems are broken, so we must fix them. We find the possibility of solution by not denying the character and human nature of the opponent, by deciding that they are broken, by not forcing them.. 2.. Once you know what works, do more of it: We ask "What happened in the past as a factor in your destination (goal)?" when people focus on their conscious of.

安心領導的內涵與組織行為的影響： 文化差異的比較研究

安心領導的內涵與組織行為的影響：文化差異的比較研究