特質焦慮,政治技巧,與工作績效:以台灣證券產業為例

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(1)Trait Anxiety, Political Skill, and Job Performance: The Securities Industry in Taiwan. by Chi-Wei Chiang. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Yi-Chun Lin, Ph. D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June, 2015.

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(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor Prof. Yi-Chun Jane Lin for her continuous support, remarkable patience, and incredible openness. With her guidance, I could have overcome all the difficulties during my study period. She is the best advisor who I could meet for this thesis study. Expect for my advisor, I would like to sincerely thank my thesis committees: Prof. James J. Jiang and Prof. Wei-Wen Vera Cheng. They always provided me with insightful comments and inspiration. Their enlightening questions motivated me to keep exploring my research from various perspectives. I would also like to show my gratitude to Prof. Chung-Chiang Hsiao and Dr. Jacob Tsai for assistance with quantitative research methodology. With their thoughtful comments on the quantitative methodology used in this study, this research could be better implemented. My sincerely thanks also goes to Mr. Wu, and my mother, Mrs. Chiu-Yu Yang. They always provided me with practical insights about critical issues in the industry. Without their support to collect data, this study would not be possible to be conducted. Last but not the least, I would like to thank my family and my friends for supporting me mentally throughout the writing period of this thesis. In particular, I am grateful to Ms. Ya-Yuan Chang whose selfless dedication have inspired me and made me move forward in the past few years.. I.

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(5) ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate the moderating role of political skill on the relationship between trait anxiety (referred to as a personality trait) and job performance in the socioanalytic perspective. Specifically, this study hypothesized that trait anxiety is positively associated with job performance. This study further hypothesized that political skill positively moderates the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. The data of this study was collected from 201 securities specialists working in the securities firm in Taiwan. The results did not support the positive relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. The moderating role of political skill on the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance was not supported as well. Instead, the results demonstrated that trait anxiety is negatively. related to job performance, and political skill becomes a more important predictor of job performance than trait anxiety in the service-selling context. The finding of this study suggested that in order to improve personal and organizational success, the securities firm could provide training of political skill to securities specialists. Implications for research, limitations, directions for future research, and practical implications are provided.. Keywords: trait anxiety, political skill, job performance. III.

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(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................... I ABSTRACT .......................................................................................... III TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................ V LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................... VII TABLE OF FIGURES ...........................................................................IX CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1 Background of the Study ................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................... 3 Research Question ............................................................................................. 4 Research Purpose............................................................................................... 4 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................ 5. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW................................................. 7 Trait Anxiety...................................................................................................... 7 Job Performance ................................................................................................ 9 A Socioanalytic Perspective on Job Performance ............................................. 10 Political Skill ....................................................................................................11 Trait Anxiety and Job Performance .................................................................. 13 Political Skill as Moderator of the Trait Anxiety- Job Performance Relationship ........................................................................................................................ 15. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ............................................. 19 Research Framework ....................................................................................... 19 Research Hypotheses ....................................................................................... 19 Research Design .............................................................................................. 20 Subject Selection ............................................................................................. 20 Measures and Variables.................................................................................... 22 Questionnaire Design....................................................................................... 25 Conditions of Testing ....................................................................................... 25 Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 26 Regression Analysis ......................................................................................... 29 Pilot Study ....................................................................................................... 30. CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND FINDINGS ........................................ 33 Descriptive Statistics ....................................................................................... 33 Correlation and Reliability Analysis................................................................. 35 Confirmatory Factor Analysis .......................................................................... 36 Regression Analysis ......................................................................................... 37. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION ............................................................... 41 Trait Anxiety and Job Performance .................................................................. 41 V.

(8) Political Skill as Moderator.............................................................................. 41 Implications for Research ................................................................................ 42 Limitations of the Study................................................................................... 43 Future Research ............................................................................................... 44 Implications for Practice .................................................................................. 45 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 46. REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 47 APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE-ENGLISH .................................... 53 APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE-CHINESE ..................................... 56. VI.

(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1. Summary of the Describing Magnitude ................................................... 26 Table 3.2. Summary of Fit Index ............................................................................. 28 Table 3.3. Descriptive Statistics for Pilot Study ....................................................... 31 Table 3.4. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlations, and Reliability for Pilot Study .. 32 Table 4.1. Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................... 34 Table 4.2. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlations, and Reliability ......................... 36 Table 4.3. Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis ................................................. 37 Table 4.4. Results of Regression Analysis ................................................................ 39 Table 4.5. Results of Hypotheses Testing ................................................................. 39. VII.

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(11) TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. Research framework .............................................................................. 19. IX.

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(13) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. This chapter introduces the background, problem statement, research purpose, research questions, definition of terms and significance of the study. The background describes the imperative of research on the current circumstance of the securities industry and securities specialists in Taiwan. The problem lying in the political skill used by securities specialists and limitations of the study were both illuminated. Furthermore, the research purpose and questions were presented. Lastly, the significance of this study was discussed.. Background of the Study With the advent of intense competition in the securities market in Taiwan, the securities industry has faced a transition toward diverse business scopes. To date, the scopes of business for securities firms are comprised of stocks, financial derivatives, futures and various securities. Even if the scopes of securities firms are expended, much data has demonstrated a shrinking market in the securities industry in Taiwan. The number of securities firms in Taiwan had decreased from 384 in 1990 to 122 in August 2012 by merger and acquisition (Chen & Wang, 2012). Furthermore, based on the report of the Taiwan Stock Exchange Corporation (TSEC) in 2014, the total number of transactions had declined from 244,784,746 in 2010 to 184,235,272 in 2013. On the other hand, the number of securities specialists in Taiwan has continually been reduced as well. According to the TSEC, the number of securities specialists was declined from 39,672 in March 2011 to 36,663 in March 2014. The decline in the total value of annual securities transactions and the number of securities specialists indicated a competitive environment in the securities industry in Taiwan. In order to survive in the competitive environment, securities specialists are forced to keep high performance. One of the major measuring standards for securities specialists is market share. Market share of a securities specialist is the percentage of the total stock 1.

(14) transactions value in the securities market. In general, securities specialists are evaluated by their market share, so securities specialists need to have high market share to demonstrate competitiveness. The Taiwan Ministry of Labor (TMOL) in 2013 noted that the securities specialist in Taiwan is in an extremely challengeable and competitive position, since they have performance requirements and need to proactively develop their clients. In response to these arduous circumstances, securities specialists in Taiwan have competed intensely in order to avoid being released. Securities specialists in Taiwan might experience anxiety that is an aversive emotional and motivational state resulting from experiencing threatening circumstances (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007). For instance, most of the annual salary of securities specialists is from a performance bonus, which means their income can easily fluctuate. In Taiwan, the prevalence of probable common mental disorders, such as anxiety disorders, has doubled from 11.5% in 1990 to 23.8% in 2010, and one of the reasons was that the employment market has continued to decline since the early 1990s (Fu, Lee, Gunnell, Lee, & Cheng, 2013). In addition, economic instability and income inequality might make individuals easier to get anxiety disorders (Patel & Kleinman, 2003). From a perspective of personality traits on anxiety, individual differences to feel anxious are referred to trait anxiety that is individual differences in anxiety-proneness to perceive stimulus situations or circumstances as threatening (Spielberger, 1966, 1972, 1985). Individuals high in trait anxiety tend to have insufficient confidence in themselves, and undervalue their job performance relative to individuals low in trait anxiety (Mughal, Walsh, & Wilding, 1996). However, in order to achieve goals, individuals high in trait anxiety tend to develop strategies to improve their performance (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992). Securities specialists need to utilize strategies to astutely observe others and to inspire trust in others, since securities specialists always interact with clients who are from different background and social status. Indeed, according to the TMOL (2013), individual who is good at interacting with 2.

(15) others at work is more suitable for the position of securities specialist.. Statement of the Problem A socioanalytic perspective on job performance suggested that most of the jobs in an organization are associated with social interactions (Hogan & Shelton, 1998). During social interactions, everyone is motivated to get ahead and to get along, but levels of effort to get ahead and to get along are evaluated by others. In order to translate motivation into achievement, individuals need to utilize a social competency that can activate personality traits. Political skill, one of the social competencies, specifically focuses on behaviors in the workplace (Perrewé, Ferris, Frink, & Anthony, 2000). Since politic inherently exists in and around organizations (Mintzberg, 1983), political skill is an important social competency for job success (Perrewé et al., 2000). Politically skilled individuals who combine social awareness with the ability to adjust behavior to changing demands at work effectively influence manifestation of others, inspire trust in others, and make others have confidence in them (Ferris et al., 2005, 2007). Previous studies found that political skill activated personality traits that reflect the getting ahead motive (i.e., extraversion) and the getting along motive (i.e., agreeableness) in the prediction of job performance in the socioanalytic perspective (Blickle et al., 2008； Blickle, Wendel, & Ferris., 2010； Meurs, Perrewé, & Ferris, 2011). Blickle et al., (2008) found that. political skill moderated the relationship between agreeableness and job performance ratings. Blickle et al., (2010) reported that political skill moderated the relationship between extraversion and job performance measured by actual sales. Finally, Meurs et al., (2011) found that political skill moderated the relationship between trait sincerity and supervisor-rated performance. In short, three empirical studies all reported that political skill facilitated the relationship between personality traits and job performance. A good social competency should coexist with not only positive personality traits but also 3.

(16) flawed personality traits (Hogan & Shelton, 1998). Anxiety can be referred to as trait anxiety, which is a personality trait. Individuals high in trait anxiety tend to lack self-confidence and self-esteem, and to easily perceive situation as threatening (Spielberger, 1966, 1972, 1985). Some empirical studies investigated the relationship between trait anxiety and cognitive performance (Eysenck, 1985； Eysenck & Calvo, 1992； Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007； Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin, & Norgate, 2012). Instead, little research examined the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. A study found that individuals high in trait anxiety had higher job performance in terms of actual sales (Mughal et al., 1996). In order to have high performance in sales jobs, individuals need to get along well. with customers, to make a good impression to customers, to inspire trust in customers, and to influence customers in effective ways (Nerdinger, as cited in Blickle et al., 2012). Although anxious individuals may be not good at interacting with others (Hogan & Shelton, 1998), individuals high in trait anxiety, who perceive situations as involving more failure, tend to pursue higher earnings as an insurance against the expected trouble in the future (Mughal et al., 1996). Apart from the motivation of anxious individuals, an intervention that directs individuals high in trait anxiety to adapt to the environment might lead them to work more effectively (Mughal et al., 1996). However, previous research did not clearly indicate what kind of intervention that makes individuals to adapt to the environment can have influence on the relationship between trait anxiety and performance in sales jobs.. Research Question In accordance with the problem statement, the research question was: What is the role of political skill on the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance?. Research Purpose Individuals possessing political skill astutely interpret situations of social interactions, have a powerful interpersonal influence, inspire trust and confidence in others, and easily build 4.

(17) social networks among people (Ferris et al., 2005, 2007). In the socioanalytic perspective on job performance proposed by Hogan and Shelton (1998), social skill plays a moderating role on the relationship between personality and job performance, since it can transfer individual motivation into achievement. Furthermore, previous research found that political skill can also play a moderating role between personality traits and job performance in the socioanalytic perspective (Blickle et al., 2008； Blickle, et al. 2010；Meurs, et al., 2011). Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate the moderating role of political skill on the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance based on the socioanalytic perspective.. Definition of Terms Trait Anxiety Researchers have been identified anxiety as two distinct factors, which were trait anxiety and state anxiety (Spielberger, 1966).Trait anxiety reflected "relatively stable individual differences in anxiety-proneness, that is, to differences between people in the tendency to perceive stressful situations as dangerous or threatening and respond to such situations with elevations in the intensity of their state anxiety (S-Anxiety) reaction" (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg & Jacobs, 1983, p.4).. Political Skill Political skill was defined as "the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or organizational objectives" (Ferris et al., 2005, p. 127).. Job Performance Job performance of this study refers to individual market share in the second one-half of 2014. Individual market share reflected the percentage of total stock transaction value in the securities.. 5.

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(19) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW. The study reviews literatures about anxiety, state-trait anxiety, job performance, a socioanalytic perspective on job performance, and political skill. Furthermore, two hypotheses, including the positive relationship between trait anxiety and job performance, and political skill as moderator of trait anxiety-job performance relationship, are provided.. Trait Anxiety Anxiety Different views of anxiety, such as philosophical and theological views, have their own interpretations of the meaning of anxiety. Freud is the pioneer in the field of anxiety with psychological views, and his theoretical views of anxiety have evolved for many years (Spielberger, 1966). Freud (1936) stated that anxiety is an unpleasantly emotional state, but not every unpleasant state could be called anxiety. Moreover, anxiety has other distinct characteristics that include "(1) a specific unpleasurable quality, (2) efferent or discharge phenomena, and (3) the perception of these" (Freud, 1936, p. 70). In addition to some distinct characteristics, anxiety is referred to a response to the dangerous situation, and this reaction would be reproduced when the similar situation of danger recur (Freud, 1936). The situation of danger to anxiety is specific and distinguishable. For instance, fear is a primitive warning to respond to present danger. Conversely, anxiety is a future-oriented emotion, which refers to that the focus is rapidly shifted to potentially dangerous events when potentially aversive events are perceived as uncontrollability and unpredictability (Barlow, 2002). In spite of a few specific attributes of anxiety, various theories of anxiety in psychological views have defined anxiety from different perspectives, since the nature of anxiety is multidimensional (Izard, Bartlett, & Marshall, 1972; Spielberger, 1966). For instance, Lazarus and Averill (1972) maintained that "anxiety is an emotion based on the. 7.

(20) appraisal of threat, an appraisal which entails symbolic, anticipatory, and uncertain elements" (p. 246). The theory of Lazarus and Averill emphasizes the characteristics of anxiety appraisals rather than the components of basic emotions of anxiety. From a perspective of basic emotions of anxiety, Izard (1972) stated that anxiety as one of the complex emotion processes is the combination of two or more fundamental emotions, which specially combines fear with other two or more fundamental emotions including distress, anger, shame and excitement. However, anxiety is not only characterized by a complex reaction or response, but also referred to a personality trait (Spielberger, 1966).. State-Trait Anxiety Theory Spielberger is one of the few cognitive theorists to evidence his state-trait theoretical conception, and to consider anxiety as a personality trait (Barlow, 2002). Anxiety as a personality trait (trait anxiety) is a relatively stable individual difference, which refers to past experience of individuals resulting in different anxiety-proneness to perceive stimulus situations or circumstances as threatening or dangerous, and to respond to such situations or circumstances with state anxiety reactions, whereas state anxiety is conceptualized as a transitory emotional state or condition of the human organism that alters in intensity over time (Spielberger, 1966, 1972, 1985). Spielberger (1966, 1972, 1985) proposed a state-trait-process model of anxiety which posits two anxiety constructs, stat anxiety and trait anxiety. This model reflects that through the cognitive appraisal of threat that is affected by individual differences in trait anxiety, external stressors (e.g., imminent danger of injury), and internal stimuli (e.g., thinking of dangerous situations), individuals might arouse state anxiety to initiate a behavior sequence in order to avoid the dangerous situation, or might evoke the defense mechanism in order to reduce state anxiety or adjust the cognitive appraisal of the situation. Individuals high in trait anxiety, who tend to be low in self-esteem and have insufficient confidence in themselves, would perceive situations or circumstances involved more failure or 8.

(21) threatening to self-esteem. In order to reduce or eliminate the anxiety, an individual, who encounters stressful situations frequently, might develop particular coping responses (Spielberger, 1966, 1972, 1985).. Job Performance Different researchers have their own views to define performance, which depends on attributions made by researchers and purposes of assessment. For instance, Viswesvaran (2001) suggested that individual job performance is defined as evaluable behaviors, but the evaluable behaviors have not explicit distinction between outcomes in many cases. By contrast, some researchers (Campbell, Gasser, & Oswald, 1996) maintained that "performance is synonymous with behavior" (p. 261), since a discrepancy between behaviors and outcomes should be identified by their distinct differences. Organizations, one of the social systems, are comprised of individuals who make some common outcomes (Katz & Kahn, 1978), and job performances, one of the various outcomes in organizations, are affected by individual differences (Campbell et al, 1996). The effect of individual differences in job performance has different aspects in organizations. For instance, individual job performance affects not only personnel selection, but also development of a training program. When individual differences in job performance exist, high-quality personnel selection could improve productivity (Hunter, Schmidt, & Judiesch, 1990). Furthermore, individual job performance is required for organizations to plan a training program, since the improvement of individual job performance provides evidences that expenses of training programs are worthy (Viswesvaran, 2001). Individual job performance is generally assessed by organizational records and subjective evaluations (Viswesvaran, 2001). Organizational records, which represent a material without obvious use of ratings, are distinguished as hard criteria such as sales and production, and subjective evaluations, which make some common errors resulting from a judgment of people, are distinguished as soft criteria, such as rating and ranking (Smith, 1976). 9.

(22) Although organizational records are more objective than subjective evaluations to evaluate performance of employees in organizations (Smith, 1976； Viswesvaran, 2001), objective measures associated with accurate economic performance are often difficult to be obtained from business units of multi-industry and privately-held firms (Dess & Robinson, 1984). Indeed, compared to subjective measures which provide a sensible approximation, actual job-related behaviors or outcomes tend to be directly recorded by objective measures such as sales, which could avoid the contamination in an evaluation of supervisor (Bommer, Johnson, Rich, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 1995). However, even if countable and discrete outcomes better control the biasing influences made by subjective evaluations, criterion contamination and deficiency may affect organizational records (Viswesvaran, 2001). For instance, sales as one of the organizational records used for measuring sales personnel might have defects if a sales criterion ignores the importance of the potential of different sales areas (Smith, 1976). Thus, since both objective measures and subjective measures have some latent problem, an integrative approach including both objective measures and subjective measures is recommended to completely assess performance (Bommer et al., 1995).. A Socioanalytic Perspective on Job Performance In a socioanalytic perspective on job performance (Hogan & Shelton, 1998), personality can be defined by the views of the inside and the outside. From the view of the inside, personality that is an individual identity guides social behaviors and influences strategies to get ahead and to get along. From the view of the outside, personality that is an individual reputation reflects trait and behavior evaluations of other people on the individual. To get ahead refers to proactively taking responsibilities and getting attention from others. To get along refers to cooperating and working well in a team (Hogan & Holland, 2003； Hogan & Shelton, 1998). Everyone is motivated to get along and to get ahead, but the level of effort to get along 10.

(23) and to get ahead is evaluated by others (Hogan & Shelton, 1998). The perceptions of others have important influence on job performance, since social interaction frequently occurs at work. Some personalities have been perceived as rewarding to deal with and high motivation to get along and to get ahead, such as agreeableness and extraversion. Individuals with these personality traits seem positive and confident, which increase their opportunities to be successful during social interaction (Hogan & Holland, 2003). In contrast, individuals who seem anxious and frequently worried are likely to lack self-confidence to get ahead and to get along, which may lead to low performance during social interaction (Hogan & Shelton, 1998). The distant between the perception of others and self is social skill, since social skill reflects how observers feel but not what actors really intend. Social skill can not only facilitate the relationship between the positive personality and job performance, but also coexist with the flawed personality. In order to achieve interpersonal goals, social skill can be a significant moderator of the relationship between personality and performance in the workplace (Hogan & Shelton, 1998). However, other social competencies are likely to moderate the relationship between the personality and performance in the socioanlytic perspective as well (Blickle, Wendel, & Ferris , 2010).. Political Skill Political skill, one of the social competencies, was defined as "the ability to effectively understand others at work and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or organizational objectives" (Ferris et al., 2005, p. 127). Politics that refers to the use of informal and ostensible behaviors to influence or against individuals and groups inherently exists in and around organizations (Mintzberg, 1983). Thus, political skill is an essential social competency for individuals to be successful in organizations (Perrewé et al., 2000). Political skill is identifiable between other social competency constructs through its distinct characteristics. Although social competency constructs including various related 11.

(24) constructs make each construct tend to slightly overlap, each construct still has its distinct characteristics (Ferris, et al., 2007). For instance, political skill might a little overlap with emotional intelligence regarding aspects of interpersonal behavior, but the distinction between two constructs still exists. Emotional intelligence primarily focuses on aspects of emotions, such as effective influences on oneself and others by the use of emotions, whereas political skill that specifically emphasizes behaviors in organizational settings is a comprehensive social competency that is more than emotions. (Ferris et al., 2007； Perrewé et al., 2000). Political skill reflects both dispositional antecedents that are relatively stable variances and situational variability that are affected by experience, practice and training. Through practicing and training political skill, individuals, who are lack inherent political abilities, can improve political skill (Ferris et al., 2007). Individuals who practice political skill convey a sense of personal security and self-confidence being outward toward others instead of inward and self-centered, which makes other people feel comfortable and engaging (Ferris et al., 2005； Perrewé et al., 2000). Furthermore, through the use of political skill, politically skilled individuals tend to perceive working environment less stressful (Perrewé et al., 2000). Previous research has shown that political skill neutralizes negative effects of stressful contexts. Perrewé et al. (2004) found that political skill at work moderated the relationship between role conflict and strains, such as psychological anxiety. Ferris et al. (2005) demonstrated that political skill measured by the Political Skill Inventory composite score indicated a significant negative correlation with trait anxiety (Blickle et al., 2008； Blickle et al., 2010； Meurs et al, 2011). Indeed, individuals with high levels of political skill in stressful work environment enjoy the challenge and are good at dealing with stress, which makes such individuals reduce anxiety and have greater success (Perrewé et al., 2000). Previous research has also investigated the moderating role of political skill on the relationship between personality traits and job performance (Blickle et al., 2008； Blickle et al., 12.

(25) 2010；Meurs et al., 2011). Blickle et al., (2008) found that political skill moderated the relationship between agreeableness and job performance ratings assessed by supervisors, peers and subordinates, which demonstrated that individuals who were high in both agreeableness and political skill were associated with higher performance. In addition, Blickle et al., (2010) reported that political skill moderated the relationship between extraversion and job performance measured by actual sales, which indicated individuals who were high in both extraversion and political skill were associated with higher levels of sales. Lastly, Meurs et al., (2011) used a narrow personality trait, trait sincerity, to test whether political skill moderated the relationship between personality and supervisor-rated performance. The result demonstrated that individuals who were high in both political skill and trait sincerity were associated with higher performance. In short, three studies reported consistent empirical results that political skill moderated the relationship between personality traits perceived as positive and job performance.. Trait Anxiety and Job Performance Two theories including the processing efficiency theory (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992) and the attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007) had proposed to explain the effect of state and trait anxiety on cognitive performance. State anxiety is affected interactively by trait anxiety and by stimulus situations such as stressful environment (Eysenck, 1985). Eysenck and Calvo (1992) suggested that the distinction between state anxiety and trait anxiety is often hard to be distinguished at an empirical level, since experimental research has reported that state anxiety and trait anxiety were highly correlated (r ≥0.70). Processing efficiency theory addressed the relationship between state anxiety and cognitive performance. Processing efficiency theory assumed that anxiety tends to impair processing efficiency that refers to the relationship between performance effectiveness and processing resources used in task performance, whereas anxiety may not impair performance effectiveness that refers to the quality of task performance when anxious individuals use 13.

(26) compensatory strategies, such as use of additional processing resources (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992). By clarifying unclear issues within processing efficiency theory, attentional control theory was proposed to provide a more comprehensive explanation on the effects of anxiety on cognitive performance (Eysenck et al., 2007). Attentional control theory more emphasized the relationship between trait anxiety and cognitive performance. One of the major assumptions of attentional control theory is that "anxiety impairs efficient functioning of the goal-directed attentional system and increases the extent to which processing is influenced by the stimulus-driven attentional system" (Eysenck et al., 2007, p.336). Several empirical studies have examined the relationship between state or trait anxiety and cognitive performance. For state anxiety, Bertrams, Englert, Dickhäuser, and Baumeister (2013) found that individuals high in state anxiety impaired cognitive test performance, but increased self-control can eliminate the adverse effects of state anxiety on cognitive test performance. For trait anxiety, Eysenck (1985) found that when monetary incentive was provided, individuals low in trait anxiety had better cognitive performance regarding letter transformation than individuals high in trait anxiety. Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin, and Norgate (2012) reported that working memory capacity positively moderate the relationship between anxiety and cognitive test performance. However, previous research has rarely investigated the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance (Mughal, Walsh, & Wilding, 1996). An empirical study found that salespeople high in trait anxiety had higher job performance than those low in trait anxiety (Mughal et al., 1996). An individual high in trait anxiety tends to have insufficient confidence and to easily perceive situation as more threatening (Spielberger, 1966, 1972, 1985). Mughal et al., (1996) proposed that a tangible incentive in the workplace is likely to motivate individuals high in trait anxiety to have higher performance. A tangible incentive in the workplace can be desired by the organization but not formally rewarded by the compensation system. For instance, high market share is directly rewarded by customers through ignoring other competitors instead of being formally rewarded 14.

(27) by the compensation system, but high market share is still desired by the organization (Siders, George, & Dharwadkar, 2001). Furthermore, individuals high in trait anxiety who tend to lack self-confidence are likely to undervalue their job performance relative to individuals low in trait anxiety (Mughal et al., 1996). For instance, explicit and objective job measurements might make most individuals only achieve requirements given by a company, whereas individuals high in trait anxiety are likely to make higher outputs as insurances against expected troubles in the future (Kreps, 1997； Mughal et al., 1996). Thus, in light of prior research on the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance regarding sales, this study contends that individuals high in trait anxiety lead to high job performance. Hypothesis1. Trait anxiety is positively associated with job performance.. Political Skill as Moderator of the Trait Anxiety- Job Performance Relationship Individuals high in trait anxiety tend to lack self-confidence and self-esteem, and to perceive situations as threatening (Spielberger, 1966, 1972, 1985). Previous research found that individuals high in trait anxiety had higher performance in sales jobs owing to motivational settings at work. A tangible incentive may motivate individuals high in trait anxiety, who tend to be worried about the future, to put greater effort into having higher earnings to avoid expected troubles in the future. In addition, the greater effort made by individuals high in trait anxiety leads to higher job performance instead of less efficient outcomes. However, apart from the aspects of motivation at work, an effective intervention is likely to make individuals high in trait anxiety have high performance in sales jobs as well (Mughal, Walsh, & Wilding, 1996). In order to have high performance in sales jobs, individuals need to have abilities to get along well with customers, to make a good impression on customers, and to inspire trust in 15.

(28) customers (Nerdinger, as cited in Blickle et al., 2012). Through combining social awareness with the ability to adjust behavior to changing demands in different situations, individuals possessing political skill appear to be sincere, inspire trust in others, and make others have confidence (Ferris et al., 2005, 2007). Furthermore, individuals employed in sales jobs need to precisely express themselves to customers and to influence customers in effective ways (Nerdinger, as cited in Blickle et al., 2012). Individuals high in political skill know which a specific influence tactic to use in each situation and how to appropriately execute tactics to effectively influence others at work (Ferris et al., 2007). Indeed, previous empirical studies found that when individuals high in political skill executed ingratiation, one of the influence tactics, the ingratiation behavior were perceived as a sincere and positive behavior instead of a manipulative behavior (Liu, Ferris, Xu, Weitz, & Perrewe, 2014； Treadway, Ferris, Duke, Adams, & Thatcher, 2007). Lastly, establishing social networks is also important for success in sales jobs (Nerdinger, as cited in Blickle et al., 2012). Individuals possessing political skill have high networking ability. Individuals high in political skill know how to develop and use networks of people, which makes them benefit from these networks (Ferris et al., 2007). In short, political skill can play an important role in successful sales performance that partly relies on interacting with others (Blickle et al., 2012). Anxious individuals who tend to perceive a current goal in threatening situations are likely to initiate effective strategies to achieve their goals (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992). According to the socioanalytic perspective (Hogan & Shelton, 1998), in order to achieve interpersonal goals, individuals can use a social competency to facilitate the relationship between personality and job performance. Although anxious individuals who are relatively moody tend to be lack of confidence of their ability to interact with others (Hogan & Shelton, 1998), anxious individuals may utilize the social competency to achieve their interpersonal goals. Therefore, Use of political skill seems an effective strategy for individuals high in trait anxiety to improve 16.

(29) their performance in sales jobs. Hypothsis2. Political skill positively moderates the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance.. 17.

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(31) CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS Research Framework The research framework is constructed from the literature review. Trait anxiety is proposed to be positively associated with job performance. In addition, political skill plays a moderating role in the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. Figure 3.1. is the research framework of this study.. Political Skill. Control variables -Gender --Education level. H2. Trait Anxiety. Job Performance H1. Figure 3.1. Research framework. Research Hypotheses H 1. Trait anxiety is positively associated with job performance. H 2. Political skill positively moderates the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance.. 19.

(32) Research Design A predictive correlational study was conducted. The data of this study was collected at the different points in time. Job performance in this study reflects market share in the second one-half of 2014. The measure of market share was evaluated by objective data calculated by the securities firm. The Other two measures, anxiety and political skill, were assessed after market share was calculated. Questionnaires were mailed to different branches located in the central area of Taiwan. The address of each branch was obtained from a director working in one of the branches. Managers in different branches facilitated subject selection and data collection. Securities specialists working in selected branches were entirely selected as subjects. Subjects received a package in the mail with the state-trait anxiety questionnaire, the political skill questionnaire and the performance questionnaire. These questionnaires were sent together with prepaid return envelopes. The research design tried to reduce several errors of survey research in order to enhance the validity of this study. The threats to external validity including frame error, selection error and non-response error were controlled with assistance from managers. However, sampling error could not be controlled, since this study conducted purposive sampling. Additionally, in order to reduce measurement errors, this study selected reliable and valid scales developed by scholars, and use accurate outcome to measure job performance. Furthermore, subjects were insured that data was treated confidentially, and that this research not affected their employment.. Subject Selection The subjects in this study were securities specialists working in the same firm but different branches located in the central area of Taiwan. This target securities firm has approximately 30 branches in the middle of Taiwan. According to the data from TMOL (2013), the age range is from 21 to 50, and a high school diploma is required as well. People who would 20.

(33) like to be a securities specialist in Taiwan are required to have a professional certificate after graduating from high school. The certificates of securities specialists have two different types including the securities specialist and the senior securities specialist. The distinction for securities specialist between two types of certificate is that the senior securities specialist can provide more services to clients. Job duties of specialist securities comprise several dimensions. For instance, assist clients to open new accounts, develop and maintain long term client relationships. Securities specialists in Taiwan seldom ask for leave or take vacation during the working period, since they are frequently worried about losing clients. The combination of their salary, in general, is a low base salary and high bonus, and the average bonus has 67% of their total salary (TMOL, 2013). Therefore, clients are very important for them in this compensation system. This study conducted convenience sampling, since market share of securities specialists was confidential data for the securities firm which was hard to be obtained. Managers were major channels to contact subjects. The permission of managers of different branches was demanded, since the market share data of securities specialists was generally confidential for the securities firm. The subject criteria was securities specialists who were current employees working in different branches of the target securities firm located in the central area of Taiwan. The target population was securities specialists in the central area of Taiwan. The accessible population was securities specialists working in different branches of the target securities firm located in the central area of Taiwan. According to the statistic data of a director working in the target securities firm, accessible population was approximately 460. Samples were securities specialists working in different branches located in the central area of Taiwan where managers were willing to provide the market share data of subjects. The sample sizes were around 210 which are calculated by a 95% confidence level, a 5% confidence interval and approximate 460 accessible populations. The calculation of sample 21.

(34) size was based on a formula. (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970).. Measures and Variables This study used reliable and valid scales to measure anxiety and political skill, and the precision of measurements was confirmed through the reliability analysis. The degree of precision was indicated by Cronbach's alpha illustrating a coefficient of internal consistency. The accepted value of Cronbach's alpha has to be greater than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). In addition, this study used the individual market share in the second one-half of 2014 to develop the response categories to measure objective performance.. Anxiety The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) developed by Spielberger et al. (1983) is selected. The STAI consisted of two domains to measure state anxiety and trait anxiety. Each domain consisted of 20 items. The state anxiety inventory measured whether individuals feel anxious at the present moment. The trait anxiety inventory measured whether the anxious state for individuals is caused by their inherent anxiety-proneness. The trait anxiety inventory is employed in this study. Statements used include the following: "I feel pleasant." and "I wish I could as happy as others seem to be." All 20 items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1= not at all; 5= very much so), and summing score on each dimensions overall would produce interval data with a high score indicating a high level of anxiety. Additionally, Cronbach's alpha for the trait anxiety inventory is 0.82 (Spielberger et al., 1983). Since subjects prefer to respond to the Chinese questionnaire, this study refers to The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory in Chinese translated by Chong and Lung (1984) to conduct translation. Cronbach's alpha for the trait anxiety inventory was 0.86 (Chong & Lung, 1984).. Political Skill This present study selected The Political Skill Inventory (PSI) developed by Ferries et al. (2005). Political skill referred to utilizing persuasion, manipulation and negotiation to exercise influence (Mintzberg, 1983). The PSI inventory is comprised of 18 items. The items 22.

(35) asked included: "I always seem to instinctively know the right thing to say or do to influence others." and " It is easy for me to develop good rapport with most people." All 18 items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly degree, 7 = strongly agree), and summing score on each dimensions overall would produce interval data, with a high score indicating a high level of political skill. Additionally, Cronbach's alpha of the PSI is 0.9 (Ferries et al., 2005).. Job Performance This study used the accurate and objective outcome, individual market share, to measure job performance of securities specialists. Although securities specialists sell various products, such as stocks, financial derivatives, futures and various securities, market share of individual only represents the percentage of the total stock transactions value in the securities market. For securities specialists, market share is a tangible incentive from outside that is directly rewarded by customers (Siders, George, & Dharwadkar, 2001), which represents securities specialists need to interact with customers frequently. For managers, market share of the securities specialist is one of the objective measures to evaluate performance. Since the objective data of the market share was confidential to the securities firm, the director suggested reporting the interval data instead of the actual data. Therefore, in order to develop the measurement of job performance, a seminar on defining the interval of the market share is held to discuss with the director. After the seminar, one item measurement was developed. The item is "Market share you had in the second one-half of 2014?" This one item is measured on a 5-point Likert scale. (1 = below 0.00003, 2 = 0.00003 and above to below 0.00005, 3 = 0.00005 and above to below 0.00007, 4 = 0.00007 and above to below 0.00009, and 5 = 0.00009 and above), with higher scores indicating higher job performance. Subjects were self-reported their market share in the second one-half of 2014 through this measurement. Since the measure of objective job performance was derived from objective data, measurement error was controlled to enhance the validity and reliability. 23.

(36) Control Variables This study controlled two variables to ensure that the results of hypothesis test were fair and valid. Previous research has found that gender (Dwyer & Shepherd, 1998； Lyness & Thompson, 1997), and education level (Ng & Feldman, 2009) have impacts on job performance. Thus, these variables were served as control variables in the analyses. Gender. Previous studies found that the effect of sex on job performance existed in organizations (Dwyer & Shepherd, 1998； Lyness & Thompson, 1997). Specifically, research demonstrated that in a sales setting, individuals tended to sell products to customers who were the same gender, which may constrain their selling boundaries and performance (Dwyer & Shepherd, 1998). Thus, subjects would be asked to indicate their gender. Dummy variable was coded as female (0) or male (1) to measure sex. Education level. Education level refers to "the academic credentials or degrees an individual has obtained" (Ng & Feldman, 2009, p.91). Higher education level is likely to provide greater abilities and more knowledge for an individual, which makes a highly educated individual may have higher job performance. In addition, vocational or nonvocational education might lead to different levels of job performance (Ng & Feldman, 2009). For instance, vocational or technical schools might provide individuals with a specific skill to complete a particular job. In Taiwan, a high school diploma or vocational high school diploma is required for an individual who would like to be a securities specialist. Thus, education level was coded as 1 (high school diploma or vocational high school diploma), 2 (associate degree), 3 (bachelor degree), 4 (master's degree) or 5 (doctoral degree). When the data of education level was entered into the regression analysis, the data was recoded into a dummy variable. The responses of high school diploma or vocational high school diploma and associate degree were coded as 0；the responses of bachelor degree, master's degree and doctoral degree were coded as 1. 24.

(37) Questionnaire Design The questionnaire used scales developed in English with established reliability and validity. Since the first language of subjects was Chinese, the questionnaire was translated into Chinese. In order to confirm preciseness of statement of each item and to confirm the face validity, the process of translation was reviewed by two Chinese translators including a high school English teacher and an assistant professor receiving Ph.D. in the U.S. Apart from confirming the validity of the questionnaire, the questionnaire was also designed to reduce common method variance (CMV) which might make the systematic measurement error (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). First of all, the answers of respondents were confidential to encourage subjects to respond as honestly as possible. Second, the questionnaire used different scale formats including two 5-point Likert scales and one 7-point Likert scale to reduce CMV. Third, negative items were reverse coded in the questionnaire of the anxiety measure to avoid response sets.. Conditions of Testing The connection with securities specialists was through managers. This study initially contacted one director working in one of branches located in the central area of Taiwan. Through this director, the connection with other managers was extended. The target securities firm has approximately 30 branches located in the central area of Taiwan. 215 questionnaires were mailed to 12 branches located in the central area of Taiwan after communication with other managers by the director. Managers of each branch not only facilitated the survey process and data collection, but shared instructions to encourage subjects to respond as honestly as possible. For example, the data collection is for research and only reports as grouped data. The managers distributed questionnaires to securities specialists and then mailed questionnaires back after collecting the data, with this process taking approximately two to three weeks.. 25.

(38) Data Analysis This study was a quantitative study conducted in questionnaires. The statistical software of SPSS v18.0 was used in this study to analyze the data. The analysis method includes:. Pearson Correlation Analysis The Pearson correlation analysis was used in this study. Before using the Pearson correlation analysis, the scatterplot was used to confirm for a monotonic relationship between the two variables which indicated the direction of correlation. A monotonic relationship between the two variables on scatterplot refers to positive or negative correlation which means either the one variable value increases, the other variable value increases, or as one variable value increases, the other variable value decreases. Pearson's r ranged from -1.0 to +1.0. Table 3.1. demonstrates a standard that is used for describing the magnitude of the correlations.. Table 3.1. Summary of the Describing Magnitude r. Adjective. 1.0 0.70-0.99 0.50-0.69 0.30-0.49. Perfect Very High Substantial Moderate. 0.10-0.29 0.01-0.09. Low Negligible. Note. Adopt from "Elementary survey analysis," by Davis, J. A. 1971. Copyright 2010 by Englewood Cliffs.. Descriptive Statistics This study used descriptive statistics to describe the characteristics of subjects. The frequency distribution and the percentage of numbers were used to determine the distribution 26.

(39) patter of subjects in age, gender, work experience, organization tenure, goal achieved, and education level.. Confirmatory Factory Analysis (CFA) CFA was used to determine how well a measurement model generalizes across groups or time (Brown, 2006). In other words, CFA was used to examine whether an existing measure that was developed in the past is appropriate for the current population. According to Hair, Tatham, Anderson and Black (2010), fit indices of CFA model can be identified as three categories: absolute fit indices, incremental fit indices, and parsimony fit indices. In addition, three to four fit indices are typically adequate to provide evidence of model fit. Generally, at least one absolute index and one incremental index as well as chi-square (χ²) results should be reported to assess model fit. Chi-square (χ²). Chi-square is a fundamental statistical measure to assess the statistical probability that the observed and predicted covariance matrices are actually equal in a current population. This statistical probability is represented by the p-value. Although the p-value for the Chi-square test is less meaningful as sample sizes become large or the number of observed variables becomes large, this Chi-square value for a model does provide researchers with an evidence to judge about the fit of model. Absolute fit. Absolute fit indices assess how well a theory fits the sample data. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is widely used and recommended from this category. The RMSEA can indicate how well a model fits a population .The RMSEA that is relatively sensitive to sample size is a population-based index. RMSEA values of 0.0 indicate a perfect fit, and RMSEA values very approaching 0.0 imply good model fit (Brown, 2006). Furthermore, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) is widely used from this category as well. The SRMR compares fit across models. The SRMR indicates the average 27.

(40) discrepancy between the correlations in the input matrix and the correlations predicted by the model. SRMR values of 0.0 indicate a perfect fit, and SRMR values close to 0.0 suggest better model fit (Brown, 2006). Incremental fit. Incremental fit indices are used to "assess how well the estimated model fits relative to some alternative baseline model (p.650). The comparative fit index (CFI) is one of the most widely used indices from this category. CFI Values that range between 0 and 1 closer to 1.0 indicate good model fit (Brown, 2006). Acceptable model fit. Although multiple guidelines for assessing acceptable model fit exist, this study will use guidelines developed by Hair, Tatham, Anderson and Black (2010). Table 3.2 provides cutoff values based on different sample sizes and model complexity. N indicates the number of respondents, and m indicates the total number of observed variables. Table 3.2. Summary of Fit Index N＜250 Fit indices. 𝑥2. CFI. SRMR. RMSEA. m≦12. 12＜m＜30. m≧30. Insignificant p-values Significant p-values even. Significant p-values. expected. with good fit. expected. .97 or better. .95 or better. Above .92. Biased upward, use. .08 or less(with CFI of .95. Less than .09(with CFI. other indices. or higher). above .92). Values ＜ .08 with. Values ＜ .08 with CFI. Values＜ .08 with CFI. of .95 or higher. above .092. CFI = .97 or higher. Note. Adapted from “Multivariate Data Analysis (7th Edition),” by Hair, J. F., Tatham, R. L., 28.

(41) Anderson, R. E., & Black, W. 2010, p.654. Copyright 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.. Regression Analysis Linear Regression Analysis Linear regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. Two steps were conducted. In the first step, control variables were entered. In the second step, the independent variable was entered to test the effect of the variable on the dependent variable.. Hierarchical Regression Analysis Hierarchical linear regression analysis (Baron & Kenny, 1986； Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003) was used to examine the moderating role of political skill in the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. In order to reduce the multicollinearity problem, before calculating an interaction term (trait anxiety x political skill), trait anxiety and political skill were centered by subtracting the mean from the original ones (Aiken & West, 1991).Three steps were conducted to test the moderating effect of political skill. In the first step, control variables were entered. In the second step, the independent variable and the moderator were entered spontaneously to test the impact of the two variables on the dependent variable. Lastly, the third step was to enter multiplication item to test the interaction effect on the dependent variable.. 29.

(42) Pilot Study The pilot study was conducted to confirm the reliability of measurements, examine relationships between variables, and describe the characteristics of the samples. Although the larger samples are better for the precision of estimates, a reasonable minimum sample size for a pilot study to do a preliminary survey is 30 (Johanson & Brooks, 2010). Therefore, the sample size was 30 collected from two branches of the target securities firm located in the central Taiwan. Through the assistance of the director, the period of data collection was finished in one day. Table 3.3. summarizes the descriptive statistics analysis described the frequency distribution and the percentage of numbers to understand the demographic information of the samples. Most of the respondents who were manager (23.3%) and senior manager (20.1%) were female (90%) with an associate degree (50%). Over half of the respondents (56.7%) achieved their performance goal set by the firm in the first one-half of 2014. The respondents predominantly were 46 to 50 years old (26.7%) and 51 to 55 years old (30%), and had 16 to 20 years of work experience (33.3%) and 21 to 25 years of work experience (33.3%) and 16 to 20 years of organizational tenure (43.3%) and 21 to 25 years of organizational tenure (40%). In the pilot study, the reliability and the Pearson correlation analysis were also conducted to confirm the reliability of the measurements and to preliminary understand the relationship among each variable. Table 3.4 presents the mean, standard deviation, correlations, and reliability. First, for the reliability analysis, the accepted value of Cronbach's alpha has to be greater than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). Cronbach's alpha for the scale of political skill was 0.884, and Cronbach's alpha for the scale of trait anxiety was 0.896. Second, the result of the correlation analysis indicated that political skill exhibited a significant and negatively moderate correlation with trait anxiety (r = .48, p < .05). Furthermore, market share exhibited an insignificant and negatively low correlation with trait anxiety (r = -.25). Contrary to the expected relationship between market share and trait anxiety, market share exhibited an 30.

(43) insignificant and positively moderate correlation with political skill (r =.31). Table 3.3. Descriptive Statistics for Pilot Study (N=30) Item. Frequency. Percentage Item. 1. Age 36-40. 6. 20%. 41-45 46-50 51-55 Total. 7 8 9 30. 23.3% 26.7% 30% 100%. Frequency. Percentage. 3 10 10 7 30. 10.1% 33.3% 33.3% 23.3% 100%. 4. Work experience 11-15 16-20 21-25 Over25 Total. 2. Education. 5.Organizational. level High school or vocational high school diploma. tenure 11-15 16-20 21-25. 5 13 12. 16.7% 43.3% 40%. Total. 30. 100%. 6. Job Title Specialist. 1. 3.3%. Senior specialist Junior manager Assistant manager Manger Senior manager. 3 9 4 7 6. 10% 30% 13.3% 23.3% 20.1%. Total. 30. 100%. 6. 20%. Associate degree Bachelor degree Total 3. Gender Female. 15 9 30. 50% 30% 100%. 27. 90%. Male Total. 3 30. 10% 100%. 7. Goal achieved No Yes. 13 17. 43.3% 56.7%. Total. 30. 100%. 31.

(44) Table 3.4. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlations, and Reliability for Pilot Study (N = 30) Mean 1. Gender 2. Education Level 3. Political Skill 4. Trait Anxiety 5. Market Share. .10 2.10 5.06 2.40 2.63. S.D.. 1. .31 .71 .56 .43 1.10. 2 .11 .10 .19 -.30. 3. .19 .10 .09. (.884) -.45** .31. Note. Two-tailed test. The Cronbach's alpha estimates are in parentheses. **p < .05.. 32. 4. (.90) -.25. 5. (-).

(45) CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND FINDINGS This chapter presents the results of data analysis and findings of hypotheses in this study. First of all, the descriptive statistics analysis was presented. Second, the results of reliability analysis, and the results of correlation analysis among trait anxiety, political skill, and job performance were demonstrated. Third, the results of confirmatory factor analysis were showed. The final part of this chapter presented the findings of hypotheses tested by the hierarchical multiple regression analysis.. Descriptive Statistics The sample was collected from 12 branches of the securities firm located in the central area of Taiwan. The surveys were distributed to 12 branches consisting of 215 securities specialist through self-addressed stamped envelopes. 201 surveys were returned for a 94% response rate. Table 4.1 summarizes the frequency and percentage of the demographic information of the samples. Most of the respondents who were junior manager (22.9%) and assistant manager (25.9%) were female (73.1%) with an associate degree (41.3%) and a bachelor degree (38.8%). The respondents predominantly were 46 to 50 years old (23.9%) and 51 to 55 years old (20.9%), and had 16 to 20 years of work experience (25.9%), 21 to 25 years of work experience (20.4%), and over 26 years of work experience (20.9%). The respondents mostly worked in the securities firm for 11 to 15 years (26.9%) and 16 to 20 years (37.8%). Surprisingly, over half of the respondents (50.7%) did not achieve their performance goal set by the firm in the first one-half of 2014.. 33.

(46) Table 4.1. Descriptive Statistics (N=201) Item. Frequency. Percentage Item. Frequency. Percentage. 1 11 22. 0.5% 5.5% 10.9%. 1. Age 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45. 11 29 28 37. 5.5% 14.4% 13.9% 18.4%. 4. Work experience Below 1 1-5 6-10. 46-50 51-55 Over 56 Total. 48 42 6 201. 23.9% 20.9% 3% 100%. 11-15 16-20 21-25 Over 26. 32 52 41 42. 15.9% 25.9% 20.4% 20.9%. Total. 100. 100%. 2. Education level High school or. 5.Organizational tenure Below 1. 6. 3%. vocational high school diploma Associate degree Bachelor degree Master degree. 31 83 78 8. 15.4% 41.3% 38.8% 4%. 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25. 19 31 54 76 15. 9.5% 15.4% 26.9% 37.8% 7.5%. Doctoral degree Total. 1 201. 0.5% 100%. Total. 201. 100%. 6. Job Title Representative. 14. 7%. Specialist Senior specialist Junior manager Assistant manager Manger. 11 27 46 52 38. 5.5% 13.4% 22.9% 25.9% 18.9%. Senior manager Missing Total. 10 3 201. 5% 1.5% 100%. 3. Gender Female. 147. 73.1%. Male Total. 54 201. 26.9% 100%. (continued). 34.

(47) Table 4.1. (continued) Item. Frequency. Percentage. 102 93 6 201. 50.7% 46.3% 3% 100%. 7. Goal achieved No Yes Missing Total. Correlation and Reliability Analysis The reliability and the Pearson correlation analysis were conducted to confirm the reliability of the measurements and to understand the relationship between variables. Table 4.2 presents the mean, standard deviation, reliability, and correlations among variables. For the reliability analysis, the accepted value of Cronbach's alpha has to be greater than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). Cronbach's alpha for two measurements exceeded the accepted value (Cronbach's alpha for the scale of political skill = .94； Cronbach's alpha for the scale of trait anxiety = 0.88). The results of the Pearson correlation analysis presented that political skill had a significant and moderate negative correlation with trait anxiety (r = -.36, p < .01). Furthermore, job performance had a significant and low positive correlation with political skill (r = .20, p < .01). Contrary to the expected relationship between job performance and trait anxiety, job performance exhibited a significant and low negative correlation with trait anxiety (r = -.20, p < .05).. 35.

(48) Table 4.2. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlations, and Reliability (N = 201) Mean 1.Gender 2.Education Level 3.Political Skill 4.Trait Anxiety 5.Job Performance. .27 2.33 5.07 2.60 2.41. S.D. .44 .80 .76 .49 1.02. 1 .21*** -.03 .05 .-.06. 2. -.20*** -.01 -.08. 3. (.94) -.36*** .20***. 4. 5. (.88) -.16**. (-). Note. Two-tailed test. The Cronbach's alpha estimates are in parentheses. **p< .05. ***p < .01.. Confirmatory Factor Analysis Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to examine the appropriateness of measurements in the current population by AMOS 18.0. Although the Chi-square (χ²) value with a p-value is a clear evidence of model fit, Chi-square (χ²) test is always affected by many factors, such as large numbers of observed variables. Thus, three of the goodness-of-fit indices including the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit index (CFI), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) were also examined to provide the evidence of model fit (Hair, Tatham, Anderson, & Black, 2010). In this study, the number of respondents was less than 250. The number of observed variables of the Trait Anxiety Inventory was 20, and the number of the Political Skill Inventory was 18. Therefore, a Chi-square (χ²) value with a p-value below .05 can present a good model fit. In addition, when the CFI is greater than .95 with the SRMR below .09 and the RMSEA below .08, the good model fit was presented (Hair, Tatham, Anderson, & Black, 2010). The results of the CFA are reported in Table 4.3. The fit indices of trait anxiety indicated that the Chi-square (χ²) test was significant (the Chi-square = 1035.93, df = 170, p < .001), but the Chi-square (χ²) value is frequently affected by the number of observed variables. However, three goodness-of-fit indices did not reach their recommend threshold levels (CFI = .53, RMSEA = .16, and SRMR = .15). In accordance with the results of trait anxiety, the fit indices 36.

(49) of political skill reported that the Chi-square (χ²) test was significant (the Chi-square = 471.53, df = 129, p < .001), but other indices did not reach their recommend threshold levels (CFI = .85, RMSEA = .12, and SRMR = .07). In conclusion, the results of the data analysis indicated that the appropriateness of the measurements can be improved. Table 4.3. Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (N = 201) χ2. df. RMSEA. CFI. SRMR. Trait Anxiety. 1035.93. 170. .16. .53. .15. Political Skill. 471.53. 129. .12. .85. .07. Note. RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation；CFI = Comparative Fit Index (CFI)；SRMR = Standardized Root Mean Square Residual. Regression Analysis Table 4.4 summarizes the results of regression analysis for Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2. Linear regression analysis was performed to test the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance by SPSS. Two steps were conducted. In the first step, gender and education level were entered. In the second step, trait anxiety was entered to test the effect of trait anxiety on job performance. Furthermore, the moderating effect of political skill was tested by the hierarchical linear regression analysis. In order to reduce the multicollinearity problem, before calculating an interaction term, trait anxiety and political skill were centered by subtracting the mean from the original ones (Aiken & West, 1991). Three steps were adopted to run the hierarchical linear regression analysis (Baron & Kenny, 1986). In the first step, gender and education level were entered. In the second step, trait anxiety and political skill were entered spontaneously to test the impact of the two variables on job performance. In the third step, the interaction term (trait anxiety x political skill) was entered to test the interaction effect on job performance. The beta 37.

(50) coefficient and the significance of the interaction item were examined to understand the moderating effect.. Linear Regression Analysis Hypothesis 1 indicated that an individual high in trait anxiety is positively associated with job performance. The result of linear regression analysis presented that trait anxiety was significantly and negatively associated with job performance (β = -.16, p < .05； Model 2). Therefore, Hypothesis 1 was not supported.. Hierarchical Regression Analysis Hypothesis 2 indicated that political skill positively moderates the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. The results of the hierarchical linear regression analysis presented that the interaction term was not significantly associated with job performance (β = .06, p > .05； Model 4), and trait anxiety was not significantly and positively related to job performance. Instead, political skill was significantly and positively associated with job performance (β = .16, p < .05； Model 4). Thus, Hypothesis 2 was not supported.. 38.

(51) Table 4.4. Results of Regression Analysis (N = 194) Variable Step 1: Controls Gender Educational Level. Model 1. Model 2. Model 3. Model 4. β. β. β. β. -.04 -.08. -.04 -.08. -.04 -.05. -.05 -.05. -.16**. -.11 .15*. -.12 .16**. Step 2: Main Effect Trait Anxiety Political Skill Step 3: Interaction Trait Anxiety x Political Skill. .06. 2. F. .01 -.00 .01 .90. .04 .02 .03 2.30*. .05 .03 .04 2.67**. .06 .03 .00 2.24*. △F. .90. 5.08**. 4.41**. .58. R Adj. R2 △R2. Note. Two-tailed test. *p< .10, **p < .05.. Table 4.5. Results of Hypotheses Testing Hypotheses. Result. H 1.. Trait anxiety is positively associated with job performance.. Not supported. H 2.. Political skill positively moderates the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance.. Not supported. 39.

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(53) CHAPTER V DISCUSSION This study focused on the context of the securities industry in Taiwan, and examined whether political skill played a moderating role in the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance in the socioanalytic perspective. The results showed that trait anxiety were negatively associated with job performance. Furthermore, this study did not find the moderating role of political skill in the relationship between trait anxiety and job performance. Instead, political skill was more important in the prediction of job performance.. Trait Anxiety and Job Performance Hypothesis 1 indicated that individuals high in trait anxiety are positively associated with job performance. However, the finding of this study was inconsistent with previous research (Mughal, Walsh, & Wilding, 1996). This study found that individuals high in trait anxiety were negatively associated with job performance. In other words, individuals high in trait anxiety had lower job performance than those low in trait anxiety. One of the possible explanations for this result is that according to the socioanalytic perspective on job performance, most of the jobs in the workplace require interactions. During interactions at work, the way in which individuals present themselves to others has strongly influence on job success. Although everyone has motivation to get along and to get ahead, levels of effort to get ahead and to get along are evaluated by others. Individuals who are perceived as positive and confident can have higher performance. In contrast, anxious individuals who seem not good at dealing with their emotion tend to have lower performance (Hogan & Shelton, 1998； Hogan & Holland, 2003). Therefore, although this study did not find the positively relationship between trait anxiety and job performance, the result partially confirmed the assumption of the socioanalytic perspective on job performance.. Political Skill as Moderator Hypothesis 2 presented that political skill served as a moderator on the relationship. 41.