線上信仰：留台外籍生如何透過網路滿足信仰需求 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文. Master’s Thesis. 線上信仰：留台外籍生如何透過網路滿足信仰需求 Faith Online: How Foreign Students in Taiwan Meet Their Spiritual Needs Through Online Means. Student: Jacqueline Ong 蔡秀美 Advisor: Prof. Vivian Huang 黃葳威. Thesis Committee:. Prof. Linda Fu 傅豐玲 Prof. Tai-En Yang 楊台恩. 中華民國 102 年 4 月 April 2013.

(2) Contents Acknowledgements Abstract Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Research Background .......................................................................................... 2 1.1.1 Foreign Students and Religion ..................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Religion and Media ...................................................................................... 3 1.2 Motivation and Research Questions .................................................................... 5 1.2.1 Motivation .................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Main Research Questions ............................................................................. 6 1.3 Significance and Research Concept ..................................................................... 8 1.3.1 Significance .................................................................................................. 8 1.3.2 Major Conceptual Definitions .................................................................... 10 Chapter 2: Literature Review ....................................................................................... 16 2.1 Foreign Students and Media .............................................................................. 17 2.2 Christian Belief and Church History.................................................................. 22 2.3 Church and New Media ..................................................................................... 26 2.3.1 Online Church History ............................................................................... 33 2.3.2 Functions of Online Religion ..................................................................... 34 Chapter 3: Methodology .............................................................................................. 43 3.1 Research Design................................................................................................. 43 3.2 Sampling and Respondent Selection .................................................................. 45 3.3 Participant Background ...................................................................................... 50 3.4 Data Collection Method ..................................................................................... 52 3.5 Data Analysis Method........................................................................................ 57 Chapter 4: Results and Analyses.................................................................................. 60 4.1 Religious Content Online Use ........................................................................... 60 4.2 Motivations for Online Religious Content Use ................................................. 62 4.3 Online Religious Practice .................................................................................. 64 4.3.1 Prayer.......................................................................................................... 64 4.3.2 Teaching ..................................................................................................... 66 4.3.3 Fellowship .................................................................................................. 72 4.4 Meanings and Significance of Religious Media Engagement ........................... 82 4.5 Online versus Offline ....................................................................................... 101 Chapter 5: Conclusion, Suggestion, and Limitation .................................................. 109 5.1 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 110 5.1.1 Religious Content Use and Practice ......................................................... 110.

(3) 5.1.2 Motivations, Meanings, and Significance ................................................ 113 5.1.3 Transforming Faith ................................................................................... 115 5.2 Suggestions and Recommendations ................................................................. 116 5.3 Limitations of Study ........................................................................................ 120 5.4 Implications for Future Research ..................................................................... 121 5.5 Epilogue ........................................................................................................... 122 References Appendix.

(4) Acknowledgements This researcher would like to thank the following people and institutions for their invaluable assistance throughout her graduate studies and up to the completion of this thesis: the Ministry of Education of the Taiwan Government and the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Manila for the scholarship grant; the community at Every Nation Taipei and Bible Study Fellowship Evening Women’s leaders’ group for their prayers and concern through the ups and downs of the student life in Taiwan; the professors, staff, and fellow students of the International Master’s in International Communication Studies program at the National Cheng Chi University College of Communication for their educational assistance, advice, and guidance through three years of graduate studies; the roommates and friends whose company, sometimes with free meals and drinks, serves as an encouragement to carry on and finish well; and most of all, her immediate family in the Philippines whose support and love encompass all achievements in life.. I lift up my eyes to the mountains From where does my help come from? My help comes from the Lord The maker of heaven and earth. (Psalm 121:1-2, The Holy Bible). Praise to our God! All honor, glory, and power be unto His name. Amen!.

(5) Abstract This research study explored the processes involved as foreigners meet their spiritual needs in a foreign country. Using qualitative research method, twelve foreign respondents studying in various universities in Taiwan were chosen from an online survey and interviewed about their attempt to cultivate their faith through online means in their host country of residence. Through the narratives of the respondents, the researcher uncovered and analyzed the underlying reasons for the use of online religious content, the media consumption of religious resources, the construction of a new religious communication, the meanings and significance placed in such online media engagement, and a comparison of offline and online religious practices in their home and host countries, respectively. Major themes emerged such as the shifting tide of spiritual authority, the credibility of online sources, the anonymity and distance of online means versus the accountability and vulnerability of offline interactions, the “sense-of” versus a real community, the user-control versus the passive mode of worship, and the moral obligation to remain in the faith in whatever means, whether online or offline, whether in the home country or the host country. Recommendations and suggestions for universities and churches were included, stressing the need to accommodate the spiritual needs of the foreign students as the internationalization of higher education brings with it the corresponding need for the internationalization of other societal institutions such as the church. This study also benefits the foreign students as they.

(6) learn from the narratives of their fellow foreigners who have gone ahead of them in adapting a very sacrosanct realm of their lives in a new environment to ensure that their faith remains alive wherever they are. 本研究探討外籍生在台灣是如何滿足他們的屬靈需求。使用定性研究方法，從線上問卷調查選出 12 位在台就讀的外籍生，並採訪他們試圖(嘗試)藉由線上方式培養他們信仰的企圖。通過受訪者的敘述，研究者發現(揭露)並使用線上宗教內容的根本原因進行分析，媒體消費的宗教資源，一個新的宗教交流的建立，放置在這樣的網絡媒體參與的含義和意義，離線和在線的宗教習俗，並與他們在母國和東道國(地主國)的比較。主要題材出現，如屬靈權柄的轉移浪潮，在線資源的信譽(可性度；公信力)，在線的匿名性和距離與在線與離線互動的問責性(權責性；可究責性)和脆弱性，「感覺」的與真正的社群，用戶端控制與崇拜的被動模式，和道義上的責任，無論是在線還是離線，無論是在母國或地主國以任何方法保持他們的信仰。同時列出大學和教會的建議和意見，強調外籍生精神需求的需要，以適應高等教育國際化帶來的壓力，它需要他們所身處的國際社群中其他機構能回應他們的需求，比如教會。這項研究也有利於外籍生，他們可以向這些已經親身經歷新環境適應過程學習，如此無論他們生活在那一個新環境，可以確保他們的信仰仍然活著。.

(7) Running Head: Faith Online. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction. The growing trend towards cross-cultural exchanges comes with it the internationalization of higher education. Universities in Taiwan have designed English-taught curriculum and have been actively recruiting foreign students to fill out apportioned slots in their programs. The 101 school year or academic year records of 2012-2013 list 25,452 international students taking degree programs (both undergraduate and graduate) and Mandarin classes (Education, 2012) This figure excludes those coming from China and Hong Kong for either degree programs or short-term courses, and international exchange students, which in total numbers up to 30,924. (Education, 2011). Undergraduate program students stay in Taiwan for an average of four years, while graduate program students stay for two to five years. The Ministry of Education, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and other civic organizations such as the International Cooperation and Development Fund offer scholarships which cover the students’ tuition and living expenses. Apart from that, the Ministry of Culture, along with the Government Information Office and Ministry of Tourism, has also launched programs and projects geared towards the ease and enjoyment of the foreign students’ stay here in Taiwan..

(8) Faith Online. 2. 1.1 Research Background 1.1.1 Foreign Students and Religion Foreign students encounter much cultural and academic related stress as they adjust to new ways of communicating and surviving in a foreign country. They are differentiated from other immigrants by the nature of their stay, which gets them a distinct status as temporary travelers who are specifically in another country for a predetermined period of time, and with a specific purpose. Joseph and Baker (2012), in their study of 216 international students from Taiwan in the United States found that the greatest challenge reported by students in their living abroad was in the academics. The academic pressures of these foreign students are compounded by the demands of being in transition from the cultural environment of their home country to their host country, and vice versa when they return home. Ying (2005) identified five major categories of change that foreign students experience, namely physical (climate, unfamiliar environment, safety), social (homesickness, difficulty making friends, loneliness), cultural (different values and practices, racial discrimination), biological (food and disease), and functional (language, finances, transportation). In another study on culture shock of overseas Caribbean students in the United States, faith and spiritual backgrounds were credited for shortened periods of culture shock (Joseph & Baker, 2012). Hsiao (2009) called this, the “processes of spirit” or an inclusion of religious activities and assistance in the service procedure for international higher education. When students fail to.

(9) Faith Online. 3. adapt to the new culture, they often experience stress that prevents them from achieving their academic goals (Y.-N. Lin, Hsu, & Lai, 2011). Thus, there is importance in ensuring a student’s well-being, for them to attain the purpose of their coming here in the first place. Interaction patterns of foreign students have been the focus of much research. Similarly, there has been extensive research into the learning styles, performance, adjustment patterns, proficiency, challenges, and expectations of foreign students. (Bochner, 1977; Brown, 2009; Cui, et.al., 2004; Dalisay, 2012; Farashaiyan and Hua, 2012; Firmin, et. al., 2006; Fritz, et. al., 2008; Hendrickson and Aune, 2011; Hsiao, 2009; Lee, 2004; Kashima and Loh, 2006; Lee, et. al., 2004; Lee and Tse, 1994; Lin, 1997; Lin, et. al., 2011; Pedersen, et. al., 2011; Tanaka, et. al., 1994; Toyokawa, 2002; Tsang, 2001; Williams and Johnson, 2011; Ying, 2005; Zhang and Goodson, 2011) Nevertheless, little has been documented about their faith and religion and the processes involved as they meet their spiritual needs in a foreign country. This constraint has raised interest on what is actually involved in the processes that these students undergo as they adapt a very sacrosanct or sacred realm of their lives into their host countries. 1.1.2 Religion and Media A common assumption in scholarships on religion and media is that there is always a perceived conflict between them. The essential issue faced is the dichotomy between the static nature of religion, on one side, and the ultra-dynamic nature of media on the other. Faith-based religion and logic plus rationality for media are doing a juggling act of some sort..

(10) Faith Online. 4. The religious group expresses defence of truth, fearing the ill effects of reliance on accustomed technology use and the power of unbridled technological advancements that opens to deceptive thinking caused by unlimited and uncensored content. On the other hand, the technology group posits nuances and constraints caused by traditional forms of religion. (Arnett, 2010; Campbell, 2007; H. A. Campbell, 2010; Estes, 2009) Fundamentally, these two concepts are seen at odds with each other, but are being challenged by a more convergent and technologized society. Although much literature is written about the axis of religion and media (Arthur, 2002; Baab, 2008; Bente, Rüggenberg, Krämer, & Eschenburg, 2008; Bobkowski & Pearce, 2011; H. A. Campbell, 2010; Clark, Hoover, & Rainie; Dixon, 1997; Downey, 2008; Estes, 2009; Helland, 2002; Hoover, 2003; Hutchings, 2007, 2010, 2011; Jacobs, 2007; Karaflogka, 2002; Kendall, 2007; Larsen, 2001; McKenna & West, 2007; Mullikin, 2006; Reed, 2007; van der Laan, 2009; Young, 2004), not much has been said about the audience-side of the coin. As such, this research would be looking into the more personal side of religion and media, specifically the individual’s use of media in his or her religious faith. The issue on hand now, is not whether technology has a rightful place in religion, or vice versa, but whether at the core of religion and media dialogue is a process of negotiation at the extent of religious appropriation in the context of media use. This process involves an.

(11) Faith Online. 5. evaluation of both the positive and negative aspects of new media technology before any conclusions on its effects on religion can be made (H. Campbell, 2010). This study focuses on religious appropriation in the context of media use. In particular, this research probes into the digital practice by online church-goers. Through an analysis of in-depth interviews, this research reveals clear themes and categories of practices. Using the method of online extraction suggested by Kendall (2007), this study uses the respondents’ experiences of their faith online, and their re-creation of the real religious world in a virtual hangout is extracted from their online, text-based communication tools. Along the same vein, a shift from bounded community to “networked individualism” is traced (Wellman et al., 2003), and a new model of looking at technologizing religion is also drafted in this study (Hutchings, 2011). 1.2 Motivation and Research Questions 1.2.1 Motivation This study originates from the challenges faced by this researcher as a foreign student in Taiwan. I (This researcher) have found that coping and adapting my faith to my host country is central to my adaptation to the institutional and socio-cultural environment and practices of Taiwan. My personal struggle of finding a church and a spiritual community here, the attempt to use computer-mediated communication through online means as a coping mode, and the consequent result of juggling different adaptation processes have motivated me.

(12) Faith Online. 6. to investigate this issue. As I share my experiences to others, I found that it was not just me who experience this phase of adaptation and coping, but also other foreign students who hold their spiritual values dearly. Johannesson (2010), permits, and even encourages the researcher to use personal rationale for studying a particular topic as a way to relate to previous research. This means previous research plus the researcher’s own rationale, becomes part of this historical conjuncture that makes up the analysis of this present research study. He also argues that since the researcher’s identity is related to the reason why the research is conducted, it should not be deemed a disclaimer, but a position relative and inherent to the story, which in this case is the research on hand. Research neutrality is not the aim as so in quantitative research, but an interpretation of discourses related to the topic on hand (Jóhannesson, 2010). This runs parallel to Arnett’s (2010) thinking that any scholarship in religious communication is obliged to “confess the religious traditions that shape the seeing and conceptualization of the temporal revelatory truth”. As such, this researcher makes a profession that she is a Christian, of Protestant evangelical background. 1.2.2 Main Research Questions In this study, religion as culture is approached as a process “produced through the social organization of material life, in time, and through human efforts” (Geertz, 1973). Religion is seen as a cultural practice through this study of communication mediated primarily by.

(13) Faith Online. 7. computer and mobile devices. This study looks into computer-mediated communication by examining how foreign students appropriate media for religious purposes and consequently, how online technologies are transforming faith (including relationships and communities) in the online world. This study on the social construction of a new religious experience does not ask whether the church online can replace the traditional physical walled churches. Doing so risks getting too simplistic an answer—one that is shallow and divisive—that would not necessarily contribute to either side. Instead, this study explores the possibility of the online world, also referred to as the “cyberspace” hosting a sacred space that was traditionally housed in temple structures and churches. The process of searching for the potentiality of a sacred niche in the realm of cyberspace would inevitably answer the question of replacability. As such, the main research questions that this research explores are, “How do foreign students in Taiwan use religious content online?” Through the narratives of the respondents, the researcher uncovered answers to, “What are the underlying reasons for the use of online religious content?” The researcher specifically explores the respondents’ media consumption of religious resources by asking, “How do they meet their spiritual needs through online means?” And in attempting to explain this new religious experience, there was a better understanding of the meanings and significance the users place in their media engagement, which answers, “What are the meanings and significance the users place in their media.

(14) Faith Online. 8. engagement?” Finally, as the respondents compared their offline religious practice in their home countries, and their online religious practices here in their host country, this research addresses the final research question on whether or not the online world via the available services in its virtual church content—can perform similar functions as a physical church. The following are the research questions in listed form: 1. How do foreign students in Taiwan use religious content online? 2. What are the underlying reasons for the use of online religious content? 3. How do they meet their spiritual needs through online means? 4. What are the meanings and significance the users place in their religious media engagement? 5. Can the online world via the available services in its virtual church content perform similar functions as a physical church? 1.3 Significance and Research Concept 1.3.1 Significance The history of the church goes a long way, and each religion has its own story to tell. Ever since the world began, religion also came about. And until the world ends, its history will not end. As such, writing about new media and old religion seems like a frustrating feat. This scholarly approach to religious communication is an “ironical conviction” which Arnett (2010) describes as “it seems as though it is simply going nowhere correctly”. And true to.

(15) Faith Online. 9. form, any talk on religion never has a single clear conclusion. However, he notes that research on religious communication can be taken as a “journey that feels like an excursion” where getting a final answer may not be the main point as much as the insights that are gathered along the way. This is true faith—as opposed to ideology—because it is “attentive to the ‘not yet’ or the ‘not yet understood’. Thus, this research holds such a view. It seeks to understand and contribute to the general body of knowledge, and more so to the faith of every reader (Arnett, 2010). This study on the interplay of media and religion is also an addition to the body of literature on religious engagement with media and technology. This researcher is interested in what happens when religious users encounter and engage with technology. Previous authors have done this research, but little literature can be found on direct audience responses, specifically with an additional element of technology use as an adaptation tool. One similar literature is a study on the religious communication of Chinese migrants in the United States (Cheong and Poon, 2009). Cheong (2009) examined the negotiation processes between transnationalism and internet use as it relates to the cultural shaping of new media, specifically within the realm of religion. Various views and utilization of the internet and other media were explored as migrants exchange “transnational religious relevant remittances” and construct “a new international religious architecture” in the appropriation of media (Cheong and Poon, 2009)..

(16) Faith Online. 10. The results of this study can benefit the international offices of various universities because an elaboration on certain crucial issues of foreign students would enable them in their policy-making and student counselling procedures. Similarly, this study also has value to the host churches as the internationalization of higher education also brings with it the corresponding need for internationalization of other societal institutions such as the church. And most of all, this study would benefit the foreign students themselves as they learn from the narratives of their fellow foreigners who have gone ahead of them. Following this section is part wherein definitions and concepts are stated to provide clarification to the whole study. The next chapter is a literature review regarding church, media, and foreign students, as well as the theoretical foundations of these concepts. In the methodology section, detailed information regarding the research design, sampling and respondent selection, participant background, and approach to data analysis were elaborated. The results were organized by the themes generated in this study, and the discussion section follows. In the concluding chapter, this researcher stated out the limits of this study and provided recommendations and implications for future research. 1.3.2 Major Conceptual Definitions Central to the discussion of this paper are key terms which are repeated themselves throughout this research. As such, laying out their definitions will put explanations in perspective..

(17) Faith Online. 11. Religion. Religion is a big word and trying to define it is like defining nature. To come up with an all-encompassing definition is close to impossible. Pals (2006, p. 206) in his reading of various theorists in approaching religion offers a working definition of, “consists of belief or behavior associated in some way with a supernatural realm of divine or spiritual beings.”. Clifford Geertz sees religion in the context of culture, in that it is a cultural system.. Religion is “a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.” (Geertz, 1973, 10) Fleshing out Geertz’s definition of religion reveals five basic features. First, the system of symbols can include anything that expresses an idea such as the crucifix, a scroll, a prayer, or an image of a saint. Second, the capacity of these symbols to produce feelings (moods) and goals (motivations) expressed through responses such as attachments or disattachments to certain things. For example, a Christian would develop a certain aversion to food sacrificed to temple idols as is common practice in Taiwanese folklore religion, because he has a certain disattachment to both the temple practice and the idols themselves—a motivation which runs contrary to his goals of living an idol-free life. On the other hand, when a Christian travels to the Holy Land in Jerusalem, he would develop in himself certain feelings (moods) of peace and a sense of privilege having trodden the path of his Savior Jesus Christ..

(18) Faith Online. 12. Thirdly, religion formulates concepts of a general order of existence because it provides explanations by providing a framework in interpreting the meaning of things around the person. This includes answers to what is truth and who is God that forms and supports man’s set of moral values and emotions. Fourthly, “clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality” means that the worldview (“conceptions of a general order of existence”) is fused with the “moods and motivations”, which religion facilitates. Religion validates one’s worldview through the moods and motivations. Rituals, by their nature, reinforce this “clothing of factuality”. In short, religion is a model of reality translated into a system of cultural practices which consists of actions, convictions, beliefs and dispositions validating the particular worldview. This definition is concerned more on the “moods and motivations” of the people than on the object of their faith, or the supernatural being. Religion is primarily the emotional and social responses people make to the believed supernatural beings. Using this definition starts off a discussion of media consumption as part of one’s religious life and practice. New Media. Campbell (Campbell, 2010) defines new media as that “generation of media which emerges on the contemporary landscape and offers new opportunities for social interaction, information sharing, and mediated communication.” Cyberspace. Cyberspace is an original term from William Gibson’s science-fiction novel Neuromancer. It means a “conceptual space where words, human relationships, data,.

(19) Faith Online. 13. wealth, and power are manifested by people using CMC (computer-mediated) technology.” (Rheingold, 2000) Virtual World. Estes (2009) defines the virtual world as a created space where people in the real world interact through a technological medium. It must have two basic elements: indwelt created space and interaction. The virtual world is different from the fictional world created in the mind of a reader of a text or image working around a mode of possibility instead of reality. Reading the works of J.R. Tolkien, J.K. Rowlings, C.S. Lewis, or a Marvel Comics would project events in one’s mind, constructing a fictional world. It is also different from the imaginary world which is a total disconnect from reality and can be explained colloquially as daydreams or wishful thinking. Though virtual worlds can be imaginary, it is inaccurate to equate the two because of the possibility of the virtual being based on reality. Online World. The online world is a more diversely usable term that encompasses the “net” or the “internet” which comprises the interconnected computer networks that use computer-mediated communication technology (Rheingold, 2000). This networked environment enables users to live out their faith in spaces such as cybertemples, online prayer chapels, and religious discussion forums (Campbell, 2010). Though there may be implicit differences in the definitions of the terms “cyberspace”, “net”, “internet”, “virtual world”, and “online world, this study would be using them as interchangeable since they have similar.

(20) Faith Online. 14. working definitions in the purpose of this research. Additionally, for the sake of consistency, this paper would be using the term “online world” to encompass other terms that refer to the world that is existent when one logs in through a technological device to a space and time that is not in the physical realm. Community. Campbell (2005) defines community as a network of social relationships, connected through a set of communal life practices which were formed through a shared history, maintained through a shared story, shaped by a similar language and understandings for the collective construction of meaning. Characteristics in a community include care for one another, sense of value, and investment in each other’s lives. What distinguishes religious community with any other is the shared faith based on a common worldview. Campbell (2005) lists the four major elements of community as (1) membership, (2) influence, (3) integration and fulfilment(reinforcement) of needs, and (4) shared emotional connection. Online Community. Online or “virtual communities are social aggregations” in the internet. These are computer-mediated social groups wherein the participant becomes the audience, the performer, the scriptwriter and “together with those in it, in an ongoing improvisation. It’s like a full-scale subculture wherein there is a creative element to be part of it. (Rheingold, 2000).

(21) Faith Online. 15. Online Religion. Religion-online refers to the provision of various kinds of religious information and services, such as introductions to religious groups, explanations of their doctrines, information about worship service times, and introductions to published materials. Online-religion, by contrast, refers to participation in religious practices, such as prayer or meditation, over the Internet..

(22) Faith Online. 16 Chapter 2: Literature Review. The rise of technology has ushered in transforming changes in communication. Interactions have gone beyond face-to-face meet-ups into virtual worlds. New methods of interaction create new opportunities and have expanded communication roles. In a globalized world of highly mobile people, traditional institutions are slowly replaced by online, more easily accessible and convenient ones. The online world has become such a place of convenience, challenging traditional institutions such as schools, the boardroom, libraries, and even, the church (Campbell, 2010; Dixon, 1997; Estes, 2009). Technology is domesticated when it is embedded into everyday lives to function. This means technologies are conditioned by users so that they can be fitted into their daily life routines. Here, the audience is an active participant in technology decision-making, rather than a passive respondent only. Technology is shaped by the culture in which it exists and by the users who use it. Choices about the meaning and practice of technology are made within the sphere of domestication or the transferring of symbolic-meaning. The domestication involves three dimensions: commodification, appropriation and conversion. In commodification, technologies compete in the public marketplace of values, images and functions. Media use enters the appropriation dimension wherein objects are received in the private cultural sphere.. Finally, the conversion means a public display of the private choice. where there is an emergence of identity related to the technology. This domestication is.

(23) Faith Online. 17. exemplified in certain communities wherein they negotiate their use of technology by shaping its use so that it is compatible with the values of their faith and belief (Silverstone, 1996). With the ever increasing internet adoption rates around the world (Larsen, 2000), the online world is an international platform for religious communication that takes on many roles. It is a new avenue for those displaced from their homelands to connect with the religious movement in their country of origin and vis-à-vis the local places of worship. It may also facilitate a “diasporic public sphere”, a “safe discursive space for identity construction”, a venue for debate for religious bloggers, and a potential religious capital that is circulated from host to home countries (Cheong and Poon, 2009). This research takes on the topic of religious communication, focusing mainly on the use of online sources by foreign Christian students. Thus, this study covers three main concepts: foreign students, religion, and the online world. In an attempt to further understand the workings of these three concepts, this review of related literature covers two threads of literature: one, on the interaction of foreign students with new media; and the other, in the area of church and new media. A section on the history of Christianity and the church serves as a helpful background to clarify the basic concepts of the Christian faith. 2.1 Foreign Students and Media Many studies show that adaptation to the host culture is challenging and stressful. This adaptive process that induces stress is called acculturative stress. When foreign students.

(24) Faith Online. 18. come to another country to study, they need not only adapt to the new culture but to the educational and social environment as well (Lee, 2004). “Language difficulties, financial problems, adjusting to a new educational system, homesickness, adjusting to social customs and norms, and for some students, racial discrimination” are some of the issues foreign students go through (Church, 1982, 544). Similarly, Mori (2000) elaborated on the five sources of stress encountered by foreign students as linguistic, academic, interpersonal, financial, and intrapersonal problems. Another scholarship adds psychosocial stressors due to unfamiliarity with new customs and social norms and changes in one’s support system, as caused by the process of acculturation and adjustment (Lin, 1997). When students fail to adapt to the new culture and environment, symptoms of loneliness, depression, and physical ailments threaten and prevent the students from attaining their educational goal. However, students who manage to adjust well experienced less of these acculturative stress (Kline and Liu, 2005; Lin and Lai, 2011). Similarly, Hwang found out that social support and a supportive campus environment will significantly impact on adjustment and learning performance of the foreign student, which consequently affects the student’s learning performance, and therefore achieving the learning goal (Hwang and Saing, 2011). More engagement, participation, and temporary integration into the host culture may.

(25) Faith Online. 19. contribute to less psychological and sociocultural difficulty while abroad (Pedersen et al., 2011). In her study of the mental health of Korean international students in America, Lee (2004) found out that social support moderated and buffered the effect of stress on mental health symptoms wherein students with high levels of social support were significantly less likely to report mental health symptoms with increasing levels of acculturative stress, compared to students reporting low levels of social support (Lee, 2004). The concept of “home” and various “spaces of belonging” is also at the core of a transnational research. Basically, home is defined as where there is family, stability, continuity, familiarity, and security. At the center of the dialogue on home is media consumption, wherein media acts as a linkage between what was left behind to what is now. Various scholars have written on the media engagements of immigrants or temporary passengers who sojourn to another country for specific purposes. Kline and Liu (2005) explored the various media use and relational communication practices of foreign students as it relates to acculturation, stress, and family cohesion. In his analysis of the media patterns of Chinese students in universities in the United States, he found out that family communication practices through media channels are related to students’ stress and acculturation levels. Students who experience more stress tend to communicate more with their family members, emphasizing the importance of social support as a buffer against stress (Kline and Liu, 2005)..

(26) Faith Online. 20. In another study on the media use of Chinese students in America, Yang (2004) found the different functions foreign students afford to television and internet. The study revealed that TV-watching is higher for US-based shows, however internet is used mostly for home-based sites. This differentiates an acculturation motive for TV-watching wherein the students try to increase competence of the new language with a strong tendency to adjust to the environment where they are in, whereas the use of internet is to find what’s going on in their home country, China (Cui et al., 2004). In another study, email and telephone were compared and were perceived to compete with each other on a variety of gratification opportunities, as they were both seen to be cheap, fast, efficient, direct, and convenient (Kline and Liu, 2005). Another way foreign students adapt to their new environment is by forming friendships. Bochner et al. (1977) developed a functional model to describe the friendship formation of international students. They classified international students’ friendships into three separate categories according to their functions: a co-national network whose function is to affirm and express the culture of origin; a network with host nationals, whose function is the instrumental facilitation of academic and professional aspirations; and a multi-national network whose main function is recreational. These networks all aim to enable the foreign student to adjust and lessen the acculturative stress (Bochner, 1977). Greater social ties of all.

(27) Faith Online. 21. three types enabled better adaptation and lesser stress in the adjustment process (Kashima and Loh, 2006; Hendrickson et al., 2011). Taking off from the suggestion of Hendrickson who did a study on the effects of varying friendship networks on international student satisfaction, contentment, home-sickness, and feelings of social connectedness, this present study sought to partly examine mediated friendships with individuals living in the host country with those living elsewhere (Hendrickson et al., 2011). Computer-mediated communication relates to offline face-to-face communication as it affects the adaptation process in the area of the person’s faith. In another study on culture shock of overseas Carribean students in the United States, faith and spiritual backgrounds were credited for shortened periods of culture shock (Joseph and Baker, 2012). Hsiao calls this the “processes of spirit”, or an inclusion of religious activities and assistance in the analysis of service procedure for the international marketing of higher education (Hsiao, 2009). Interaction patterns of foreign students have been the focus of much research. Similarly, there has been extensive research into the learning styles, performance, adjustment patterns, proficiency, challenges, and expectations of foreign students. Nevertheless, little has been documented about their faith and religion and the processes involved as they meet their spiritual needs in a foreign country. This constraint has raised interest on what is actually.

(28) Faith Online. 22. involved in the processes that these students undergo as they adapt a very sacrosanct realm of their lives into their host countries. Although the fact that the online world can facilitate the religious communication of geographically-dispersed persons is unquestionable, but this literature has paid scant attention to computer-mediated communication as it relates directly to the user. This research therefore seeks to integrate and expand both literatures on church and media and the concept of home of foreigners by examining the usage of being in the online world by religious persons away from their homes and assessing the role of the internet in religiously-related communication as it relates to enhance cross-border faith interactions among religious actors. 2.2 Christian Belief and Church History The foremost belief of Christianity is its belief in God. “He is the ultimate, changeless reality that lies behind and gives reality to the transient phenomena of the world of the senses.” (McManners, 2002, 554). Christians also believe in the incarnation of God through Jesus Christ, who came to earth as a human even as he is God. And therefore has an underlying notion of an embodiment of what can be seen from the unseen (Pawlowsky, 1994). The core beliefs of the present Christian church are listed on the Nicene Creed, written in 325AD. It is a creed drafted by the Council of Nicea, which is a group of bishops called by the first Christian Roman Emperor Constantine to form a consensus of Christian.

(29) Faith Online. 23. beliefs. Later on in history, this creed became a primary guidepost, possibly second only to the Holy Bible, on Christianity. The five markers of early Protestant theology includes: sola scriptura, the Bible is the only source of truth; fide, justification by faith alone; gratia, salvation as a gift of grace; solus Christus, direct access to God through Jesus Christ; and soli Deo Gloria, life lived for the glory of God (Pawlowsky, 1994). The above markers reflect the branch-out of Protestantism from Catholicism, because there is emphasis on individual responsibility of the believer over institutional authority. Christians also hold sacraments or symbolic acts that represent channels of divine love to man. These sacraments are baptism, the Lord’s Supper, confirmation (or the infilling of the Holy Spirit in the language of charismatic Protestant belief), marriage, anointing of the sick, and penance (Pawlowsky, 1994, 95). Baptism is the symbolic immersion or sprinkling of water to a person to represent his renewed life. The Lord’s Supper, also called Communion, is a partaking of bread and wine in obedience to Jesus’ command to follow this ritual as He did in remembrance of bread as a symbol of His body broken for men and the wine as a symbol of His blood shed for men’s sins. Penance is the confession of sin and prayer for forgiveness, taking into account that the person praying acknowledges that need for God to restore the broken man..

(30) Faith Online. 24. The term “worship” is often used in the Christian faith. It is an expression of one’s faith in God. Pawlowsky (1994) regards worship as taking place in a dialogical interplay between God and human beings. The five elements of worship, which are similar to the sacraments explained above, and are basic of all Christian worship include prayer, Bible reading, faith declaration, Lord’s Supper, and responsive praise and thanksgiving. Reading from the Old and New Testaments is a remembrance of the past fate of man and the works of God and a reflection of the need for man’s salvation today. Sermons by church authority are also based on the Bible, and are explanations and brought to present applications. The confession of faith is a communal declaration of a shared faith. In Christian context, the confession is found in the Nicean Creed which acknowledges the trinity of God (one God in the three persons of God the Father, God the Son Jesus, and God the Holy Spirit), the salvation offered by Jesus Christ in history and the present age. The Lord’s Supper is a re-enactment of Jesus’ last supper with his disciples when he metaphored his body as the bread and the wine His blood. Response through praise, thanksgiving and intercession completes the “dialogical course of worship.” Pawlowsky (1994) differentiates terminologies wherein Roman Catholics refer to the above set of elements as mass or eucharist, Protestants call it worship, and the Orthodox call it liturgy. Whereas, the above are the basic tenets of the Christian faith derived from church tradition, the Holy Bible in the Book of Acts Chapter 2 Verses 41-47 itself illustrated a.

(31) Faith Online. 25. complete picture of the early Christian church that is very similar to the elements of the Christian belief. “Then those who gladly received his word were baptized; and that day about three thousand souls were added to them. And they continued steadfastly in the apostles’ doctrine and fellowship, in the breaking of bread, and in prayers. Then fear came upon every soul, and many wonders and signs were done through the apostles. Now all who believed were together, and had all things in common, and sold their possessions and goods, and divided among all, as anyone had need. So continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house, they ate their food with gladness and simplicity of heart, praising God and having favor with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily those who were being saved.” (The Holy Bible New King James Version, 1982) From this passage, the early Christians practiced gathering together to hear the teachings (what could be termed as attending church in modern times); baptism; evangelism (spreading the “Word” to others so that more can believe and to add to their numbers); personal Bible study; prayer; miracles; sharing or giving of possessions (also called tithes and offerings); house to house visitations; praising God (which is also called praise and worship-; eating together); and fellowship..

(32) Faith Online. 26. 2.3 Church and New Media Whereas before, people dress up and go to church, nowadays, logging into church is not an alien weekly ritual. A phone poll by the Pew Internet Project showed that 25% of internet users in the United States have gone online to get religious or spiritual information, which means more than three million people a day (Larsen, 2001) The use of the internet to foster communication within the church community and around has been evident in recent years. This trend has prompted institutionalised religions, churches, temples and new religious movements to rush and put up their own webpages online (Karaflogka, 2002). Community building in the online world is concretized by the church cultivating faith communities—strengthening the personal faith and spiritual growth of the members, and also going beyond the walls of the church by evangelizing and performing missions work to those who are not yet Christians. One proof of this trend is the mushrooming of various church websites that not only act as a bulletin board of activities and announcements, but more importantly, as an interactive venue online—for accessing sermons, posting prayer requests, connecting with other members, and other available resources helpful to the faith—which are elements of the physical church (Dixon, 1997; Downey, 2008; England; Estes, 2009; Karaflogka, 2002)..

(33) Faith Online. 27. A survey on the online church life of the polled interviewees revealed that 83% who go online claimed that it helped their own church life (25% said it has helped a great deal). 81% also said the use of email by ministers, staffs, and congregation members has helped the spiritual life of the congregation to some extent (35% said it has helped a great deal). 91% said email has helped congregation members and members of the staff stay more in touch with each other (51% said it has helped a great deal), and 63% said email has helped the congregation connect at least a bit more to the surrounding community (17% say it has helped a lot). On the same end, 81% of church ministers have used the internet to get material for sermons, worship, education programs, and matters of doctrine (Larsen, 2000). A phone poll by the Pew Internet Project in Larsen (2000) showed that 21% (about 19 million to 20 million people) of Internet users have gone online to get religious and spiritual information. That means, on a typical day online, more than 2 million people are getting such material. That was data in 2000. After a year, the number rose to 25%, meaning more than 3 million people a day go online to seek spiritual resource. The use of the internet to foster communication within the church community and around has been evident in recent years. The internet’s role in community building is concretized by the church cultivating faith communities—strengthening the personal faith and spiritual growth of the members, and also going beyond the walls of the church by evangelizing and performing missions work to those who are not yet Christians..

(34) Faith Online. 28. A survey on the church life online revealed that • 83% say that use of the Internet has helped congregational life (25% say it has helped a great deal) • 81% say the use of email by ministers, staffs, and congregation members has helped the spiritual life of the congregation to some extent (35% say it has helped a great deal) • 91% say email has helped congregation members and members of the staff stay more in touch with each other (51% say it has helped a great deal) • 63% say email has helped the congregation connect at least a bit more to the surrounding community (17% say it has helped a lot) (Larsen, 2000) In the same survey, data revealed that more than half to 81% of church ministers have gone online to get material for sermons, worship, education programs, and matters of doctrine. The 471 respondents of the survey done by the Pew Internet and American Life Project in 2000 show that • 81% have gotten information for worship services. • 77% have sought information on the Bible, Torah, or other scriptures. • 72% have gotten devotional resources. • 72% have gathered information for education programs..

(35) Faith Online. 29. • 59% have hunted for information on matters of doctrine. • 57% have gotten information on other denominations and faiths. • 54% have sought information on matters of faith. (Larsen, 2000) Van der Laan (2009) explored how pastors and parishioners rely on technology, specifically the online world through the internet, in the practice of religion. He enumerates websites wherein church leaders on the pulpit can pull out a wide selection of choices for apt occasions that would fit the particular denomination’s doctrines. However, he thinks that these “pre-fab”, “ready-to-preach” sermon goods are not good at all and can be harmful to spiritual health, because they resemble “packaged, processed foods on the shelves of our supermarkets” instead of real, nourishing food. The transformation of faith into a marketable product makes its content generic, or having a lowest common denominator, in order to satisfy the public who has access to it. “My sense, and fear, is that religious life changes not for the better but for the worse, when the Internet becomes not only the default, but the first source to turn to for something as important to Christian religious life as the worship service and the sermon, typically the vehicle for what Christians consider the word of God.” (van der Laan, 2009). Though van der Laan (2009) thinks that technology by itself is value-neutral, the immense and default usage of the internet changes the landscape wherein the dominant forces.

(36) Faith Online. 30. of the technological society becomes the religion. He now sees technology as an enemy which should not master humans, and criticizes the church for harmonizing with the world instead of challenging it as what it has been called to do (van der Laan, 2009). His work can be critiqued on the basis that he appears to lack trust in the discernment of the pastors. In addition, the Holy Spirit can be present in all deliberate aspects of human religious interaction, be it direct or mediated through wires. The 2000 survey of 1,309 Christian congregational websites in the United States (out of the 12,000 originally invited to participate), reveals that church websites are mostly used as a one-way communication tool to post sermons or basic information about the church (Larson, 2000). These websites are for attracting visitors, recruiting new members, staying in touch with members who have left geographically, ministering to those who need resources such as Bible stories and explanations, improving communication with staff and members by hosting a venue for the church’s practical activities such as missions project, online fundraising. The survey notes that members who come to the church for the first time have most likely checked the website beforehand to confirm the beliefs and position of the church and the ministers. The most commonly used features on these Web sites are: • 83% encourage visitors to attend • 77% post mission statements, sermons, or other text concerning their faith..

(37) Faith Online. 31. • 76% have links to denomination and faith-related sites. • 60% have links to scripture studies or devotional material. • 56% post schedules, meeting minutes, and other internal communications. There are interactive features of two-way communication such as spiritual discussions, online prayer, spaces of prayer requests, Bible study, crisis counseling, an “ask the pastor” section, but they are considered secondary to the main feature which is organizational self-identification. Statistics reveal an ever increasing number of people with a reliance on online sources for something as sacrosanct as faith. Fukamizu (2007), in his study on Internet use among religious followers in Japan, found out that one characteristic of church websites is that it includes more than just a list of the religious doctrine, but personal narratives of faith confessions. These narratives as modernized expressions of faith support the doctrines which were the traditional expressions of the religion. Also, the online forum transforms a private faith or belief into a shared one, making the communication open to reactions of validity. This postmodern model of religion is characterized by people “referring to and regulating one another”, instead of having a fixed doctrine governing the people. What this does is that it shifts the convincing value from traditionally-held doctrines to credible personal narratives or tales of people. What was originally a top-down communication of church doctrines from church authorities or texts to the people becomes horizontal in nature.

(38) Faith Online. 32. as belief takes the form of two-way (more multi) interaction among the believers themselves as faith becomes a shared value. This “medium that so effectively propelled this horizontal interaction into a wider plane has been the Internet.” (Fukamizu, 2007). Although a focus on narratives is a convincing way to bring people to believe what we believe in, one that has left out doctrine in lieu of the more in-demand interactive narratives through online forum and discussion boards is in danger of losing control and direction. “Many online forums are filled with doubt and criticisms, and the absolute object of faith is lost.” The internet is an effective venue in welcoming people who are looking for religious support online, but “it also causes people to be critical, a trend antithetical to traditional faith.” (Fukamizu, 2007). The brand value of traditional religion is lost when too much online dialogue foster doubt instead of faith, and contradicting personal narratives push the seeker into further confusion. Shimazono in his work on religion in Japan mentioned how narratives are a modernized form of religious expression. These narratives are a step beyond doctrinal truths passed on through some authorized printed texts, but are stories of common people’s religious experiences. These are personalized units of analysis which portray modern religious life. Moreso, these narratives are used as a persuasion tool to convince the others to accept the religious beliefs fostered (Shimazono, 2004)..

(39) Faith Online. 33. Baab (2008) used rhetorical analysis in thoroughly examining six church websites. She notes that websites offer multiple forms of engagement, a self-presentation model instead of a passive persuasion to invite people. Organizational self-expression is the main reason for the websites and that they are used to persuade visitors to attend, to encourage the members to keep on attending, and to be involved. The websites become more like an advertisement that introduces the church’s organizational identity, evoking a certain societal pattern that is attractive to the group they are trying to reach. Based on the characteristics the websites evoked, she drafted the different genres evident in the two of each kinds of church—megachurch (home, family and connecting with the larger congregation), emergent (eco-friendly, artsy, virtual community) and liberal/mainline (inclusion, diversity and traditional community). The differing images and genres projected, however, all emphasize the church as a community (Baab, 2008). 2.3.1 Online Church History The 1990s saw the mushrooming of websites and portals that pooled together various religious resources online. Bible study tools, devotional, and inspirational articles fill the pages of Crosswalk and Gospel.com. In 2003, a virtual 3D church was formed as Second Life wherein using an avatar, the user can recreate a second life by importing religious practice online. It also allows users to innovatively envision a church that may not be possible in the offline world as sn the example of a Jewish rabbi building a sacred temple as replacement to.

(40) Faith Online. 34. a destroyed one. The internet “provides a powerful space to bring together the “now” and the “not yet” sides of religious escathology.” (Campbell, 2010, 25). In 2004, the Methodist Church of Britain put up the Church of Fools and Ship of Fools. Lasting for three months, the sites hosted weekly services attended by users who participate in the online singing, praying and interaction as avatars. Through interactions in that website where 41,000 visitors logged in the first 24 hours it was up, another site was formed, “St Pixels: Church of the Internet” in May 2006. This community site had blogs, chatrooms, and online worship (Campbell, 2010). A recent review of Crosswalk website revealed more than just textual content. The website has a byline of “intersection of faith and life”, with separate sections for singles, parenting, career, finances, marriage, music, movie, pastors, spiritual life. It has links to community pages such as Facebook and twitter, online bookstore, articles written by spiritual authority on topics that range from “How to pray effectively” to “Christian Manhood”, daily devotional, online radio, music that streams hymns to Christian rock, podcasts of sermons, Bible reading plan, newswire that updates the reader about other Christians in different parts of the world, video links, e-cards, and a job section (Crosswalk). 2.3.2 Functions of Online Religion Users go online for various reasons. One is to satisfy needs. In his interviews with virtual church users, Jacob enumerated “hiding place”, “sanctuary”, “a place where people.

(41) Faith Online. 35. can go and feel safe” as some of the responses users perceive. Simply, the virtual church becomes a place to visit a specific need (Jacobs, 2007). Campbell’s When Religion Meets Media (2010) lists five ways the internet is seen by religious groups: “spiritual network” for religious experiences, a “worship space”, a “missionary tool”, for “religious identity” by connecting with a global network of believers, and as a “functional technology” (Campbell, 2010). Estes (2009) provided a framework on virtual churches by expounding on the historical continuum of religion and relating it to present-day technology-led changes in traditional institutions. He addresses questions such as, “Is a virtual church a real, authentic, and valid expression of the church of Jesus Christ?” “How will virtual churches change the way we ‘do’ church?” “Are virtual sacraments and other faith practices possible or valid (or just inevitable)?” In his book, he also explored the issues of power decentralization as it relates to traditional forms of authority and the concept of “telepresence”. Authority and source of information does not rest on the leaders alone, as it was in the old times when only the priests can read the Bible. These days, everyone can log in online to look for their own resources. An important, yet often neglected, function of the church, is fellowship and community. The notion of community is central in the history and doctrines of religion. Community is achieved when fellow believers gather in unity for a purposeful goal of.

(42) Faith Online. 36. encouraging and building each other up. This, along with collective prayer and sacraments such as communion (which are also important element in traditional church practice), seems unfeasible to attain in a virtual church. Castells (2010) elaborated on the idea of the “Network Society”, which is a displacement of the original community. According to Castells, whereas before communities are “based on the sharing of values and social organization,” networks now are built by “the choices and strategies of social actors, be it individuals, families, or social groups” (Castells, 2010). Young (2004) found that practices and beliefs of internet Christianity and its offline version are closely connected. Connections formed through online communication technologies help enhance existing ministry. This means that there has to be an offline reality before online religion can have its maximum effect (Kendall, 2007). The online world opened doors of opportunities for almost everyone to put up a virtual ‘something’, creating a ‘cyberspace’ which literally means that these are nonexistent in the physical sense, yet present as an online activity. However, in Jacob’s Sacred Spaces (2007), the virtual church is seen as ‘supplementing’ a physical church, more than ‘replacing’ it. According to Hutchings (2010), studies show that online ministries primarily attract regular churchgoers who “left their local churches due to disability or disillusionment.” Campbell (2010) similarly mentions that members viewed their online activity as “a supplement to, not a substitute for, offline church involvement.” Here, online activity takes.

(43) Faith Online. 37. on a different function and actually complements local activity by strengthening commitments to local congregations and linking them with global Christian issues. Dixon also mentioned that “cyberchurch is not substitute for real-life membership.” (Dixon, 1997, 94). Ferre (2003) explained possible responses of religious groups to media technology: media as conduit, mode of knowing, and social institution. Media is seen as a neutral channel for delivering messages from the sender to the receiver. Media is a gift from God to do the work of the community. Religious users who hold this response embrace media as a communication tool for its innovative possibilities, without questioning whether or not it conflicts with their belief. This view holds that media technologies are mere modern extensions of traditional religious practices such as prayer, Bible text study, and sermons. This positive approach towards media fueled the rise of tele-evangelism in the decades past. Because media messages are closely knit to the medium itself, media becomes a mode of knowing. Technology is seen as a force that promotes a distinctive world view. Therefore, those who hold this view of media are suspicious of media’s power in cultivating values through the interaction that run counter to the faith. Here, media is rejected as a deceptive mode of knowing that shapes the culture. Ferre suggested here that media can be an index of social values wherein both the production system and the user reception are understood. Instead of simply viewing media as.

(44) Faith Online. 38. a conduit, media is seen as a creative venue to purposely shape content and form to be in line with one’s religious beliefs. In this approach, the role of users is very important wherein there is a burden on the user’s choice in shaping technology and not the other way around. This human-centered approach, instead of technology-centered approach, also puts on value-centeredness at the heart of technological engagements. Tasks, which in the case of religious communities are praying, Bible reading, teaching, etc. are applied through the application of technology (Ferre, 2003). One of the advantages of making religion online is the availability of its access to everyone. “It gives outsiders a chance to look in.” (Kendall, 2007, 94). Conversely, however, is that the ease in connection ushers in a probability of disconnecting further. Kendall in her study on instant messaging and the use of MySpace for teens notes that shared meaning is replaced by self-absorbed self-messaging wherein the gaps left by nonverbal cues are filled in with online guesses of what is hoped for rather than what actually exists. There is a shift to a system of self-messaging, quick encounters, and imagined responses (Kendall, 2007). The lack of emotional cues that can be gotten from nonverbal cues is also a challenge for online communication (Bente et al., 2008), but may serve as an advantage for those seeking help with sensitive problems. In a similar vein, community formed through technology can “replace true connection with superficial flybys.”(Kendall, 2007, 56) The fragmentation of faith due to an online.

(45) Faith Online. 39. access to faith is also an issue on hand. Situating God where and when it is convenient puts man’s image of God into a disproportionate perspective. “The Creator of the universe can easily be segmented away as part of a few contexts here and there; taken out when necessary, hidden away when prudent.” (55) Another issue raised is the degradation of accountability (Kendall, 2007). Not a few research studies looked on the “missionary tool” approach of looking at the internet. The internet is both a missionary field and a missionary tool for proselytizing (Campbell, 2010). It has been a convenient means for groups who wish to propagate their own agenda. Hutchings’ (2010), The Internet and the Church: An Introduction, brought up the topic of E-vangelism, emphasizing that churches should be founded where people gather, and lists strategies for web evangelism. Lifechurch.tv is listed as one example of an “evangelical megachurch” in the United States (Hutchings, 2010). A website called Church of Fools and Ship of Fools, are interestingly weaving in evangelism with creativity. Stated on its ‘about us’ section is “We're here for people who prefer their religion disorganized, says the Ship's editor and designer Simon Jenkins.” He was also quoted in Hutchings’ (2010) study as saying “we’d better go where the people are.” In relation to the evangelistic pursuit online, Hutchings tried to falsify the theory of technological determinism by presenting three theories focusing on user-control over what information users receive from the internet. Jenkin’s Church of Fools exemplifies this in its.

(46) Faith Online. 40. welcome page wherein upon clicking to enter the “church”, the user is advised to “choose a cartoon character, enter the church, walk around, sit in a pew, explore the sanctuary and crypt, key in some prayers, and even ring the church bells.” Dawson and Hennebry believed that though the internet poses possible strengths in evangelizing, “There is little reason to think that the Internet, in itself, ever will be a very effective means of recruitment…unless it is followed up by much more personal and complete forms of interaction.” Therefore, the internet, instead of an all fulfilling evangelistic role, plays a start-up means to a longer process of evangelizing, and with no pressure to commit until one is ready to do so. As for the question on computer-mediated communication of the religious message itself, the online church may pose possible limits. For one is the transformation of meanings when the medium changes. Marshall McLuhan in 1964 theorized that the medium used in delivering a certain message influences message perception. Bente (2008) did a study on avatar-mediated networking wherein he studied net-based communication and inputted the concept of social presence and interpersonal trust. Whereas his study compared face-to-face communication with text, audio, video an avatar-mediated, his data results on media effects on trust and social presence would prove relevant to this study on online church (Bente et al., 2008)..

(47) Faith Online. 41. Online religion, premised on the fact that ritual activity can be performed in non-traditional spaces, seems to be a positive option especially for those who are geographically-challenged to come to a physical church. This convenience option has moved onwards by making it possible to control certain happenings which are impossible in a traditional setup, such as pausing a sermon, leaving at one’s own pleasure, and multi-tasking (Jacobs, 2007). This is parallel to Manuel Castells’ term of “timeless time”, or a new concept of temporality (Castells, 2010). Prayer, worship, and encouraging each other—these are the main functions of the church as premised in Jacobs’ Sacred Spaces (2007). He explored a virtual church and temple put up as websites by two religious organizations, a Christian and a Hindu religious group. He hypothesized that one can have a ritual encounter in cyberspace. Looking further into asynchronous rituals, wherein online worshippers can perform traditional rituals at their own convenience without synchronizing with the whole church body, he concluded that the virtual church seems to be able to functionally provide an alternative for the traditional church. There’s the prayer room for prayer request, a worship section connected to a Christian radio station that would play pop songs with options to sing along with the lyrics, and a section that enables witnessing or sharing of faith through online postings (Jacobs, 2007). In sum, this chapter examined the interface of religion, new media, and the internationalization of students, as well as the cultural shaping of new media as manifested in.

(48) Faith Online. 42. the relationships in religious communication. In the following sections, this research sought to investigate how foreign students in Taiwan approach the Internet and negotiate their religious ties with implications for their transnational faith. How foreign students in Taiwan negotiate transnational religious practices, online and offline is the main concern of the following chapters..

(49) Faith Online. 43 Chapter 3: Methodology. 3.1 Research Design The method for this particular study is defined by the nature of the research and its objectives. Religion, by and of itself, is more than just an institution or a set of formal essentials, but a “complex, nuanced, sensitive, paradoxical, and multi-layered phenomenon” (Hoover, 2002). Thus, this scholarly quest for understanding the realm in the human life called religion employs a qualitative culturalist approach. This approach has the methodological sensibilities to explore a full account of interactions and relations of media and religion. Additionally, this approach goes beyond understanding the role of religion as simply in the social and cultural life, but goes further into how it is expressed, lived, practiced, and experienced (Geertz, 1973). This paradigm focuses on everyday lived experiences, on meanings which were “intended, attributed, made and exchanged in the context of media audience practice,” and “on reception, and the moments and contexts of meaning making.” (Hoover, 2002). A culturalist approach to religion rides along the shift during the late modernity from structures to individualism, wherein the underlying motivation for socio-cultural actions is the quest for the self. Greater weight has been placed on the individual to perfect and form an identity and consciousness which has to be “routinely created and sustained.” Using Giddens (1991) thought explains the constant seeking and.